The Origin of the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions

Author(s): Philip Yampolsky

Source: Osiris, Vol. 9 (1950), pp. 62-83
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society
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 The Origin
Lunar Mansions
of the Twenty-eight
This paper is an attempt to present two divergentopinions
concerningthe origin of the concept of the lunar mansions, as
held by two Japanese authoritiesin the field, Dr. IIJIMA, TADAO
and the late Dr. SHINJO, SHINZO (i). No attempthas been made
to comment on the validity of the varyingarguments; however,
differencesof opinion are indicated as far as possible.
Part I includes a few introductoryremarks;part II, translation;
and part III, a summary of the views held by other writerson
the subject.

Common to the early astronomicalconcepts of China, India,

and Arabia, was a divisionof the planetarypath into twenty-seven
or twenty-eightparts, each part being indicated by a star or
asterism. In China they are known as Hsiu, mansion; in Arabia
as mandzil(sing. manzil) al-kamar,mansionsof the moon; in India
they are called naksatra, asterism(2). Inasmuch as the moon
completesher sidereal revolutionsfromone star back to the same
star in between twenty-sevenand twenty-eight days, it is probable
that the initial purpose of this system was to indicate, perhaps
chieflyfor astrologicalreasons (3), the position of the moon on
any given day.

(i) For a summaryof the conflictingtheories on Chinese astronomyof Iijima

and Shinz6, see EBERHARD, W. Neuere chinesische u. japanische Arbeiten zur
altchinesischenAstronomie. Asia Major, v. 9 (1933), P. 597-6ii.
(2) Naksatra is used with three differentmeanings. Originally it referredto
stars in general. Later it was applied to the twenty-sevenequal divisions of
the ecliptic as found in India. It is also applied to the twenty-eightunequal
divisions of the ecliptic, the Hsiu and manzil MOLLER, M. Rig-Veda Sanhita.
London, W. H. Allen, v. 4, p. xlvii.
(3) COCHING CHU (The origin of the Twenty-eight mansions in Astronomy,
Popular Astronomy,v. 55 (1947), p. 68) states that the systemof lunar mansions
was devised for the purpose of regulating an agricultural calendar. CHU, in
his article,supports the theoryof a Chinese origin for the mansions.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 63
It is probable that constellated groups were chosen to mark
the divisions because of the relativeease with which they might
be recognized. Stars along the ecliptic could not very well be
chosen to mark the moon's course, since, although her orbit is
inclinedto the eclipticat an angle of a littlemorethan fivedegrees,
her brilliance would serve to obliteratethose stars near to which
she passed (4). Thus, the constellationsor asterismschosen to
representeach mansion follow no pattern and frequentlydiffer
in each of the three systems.
Listed below are the lunar mansions with the stars with which
they are identified. It should be noted that the identificationis
often very vague and various writers differin listing the stars
ascribed to each mansion (5).
i. Chio, horn. Phe Indian name is chitri, bright; the Arabic,
assimdkis of doubtfulmeaning. All three systemsare in agree-
ment here, identifyingthis mansion with a Virginis (Spica).
2. K'ang, neck. The Hindu name,svdti, is of uncertainmeaning.
The Arabs call thismansional-ghafr,covering. The Hsiu includes
L, K, A, [ Virginis; the naksatra is composed of the single star
a Bootis (Arcturus)which is far to the northof the ecliptic. The
manzil is made up of a, K, A Virginis.
3. Ti, of doubtful meaning here. The Indians refer to this
station as vis'akhd,branched; the Arabs, as az-zubdnay, the two
claws (of the Scorpion). The Hsiu comprises a, 13, t, y Librae;
the naksatra includes the same stars; and the manzil is limited
to a, ,8 Librae.
4. Fang, room. The Hindu name, anurddhd means " pro-
pitious "; the Arabic name, al-iklil is translated as " crown.")
Assigned to the Hsiu are A, 8, -n, p Scorpii. The Hindus and
the Arabs include the same stars, but omit p.
5. Hsin, heart. The Hindu,jyesthd,is translatedas " the eldest";
the Arabic, al-qalb, is similar in meaning to the Chinese. The
Chinese and Indians place a, a, -r Scorpii in this mansion, while
the Arabs include only a Scorpii (Antares).
(4) WHITNEY, W. D., Orientaland LinguisticStudies,ser. 2, New York, Scribners,
I874, P. 349.
(5) I have followedhere forthe most part the identification
by GINZEL (Handbuch
der mathematischen und technischenChronologie,Band I, Leipzig, 1906, p. 62-72).
The translationof the Arabic and Indian names for the mansions follow largely
those given by WHITNEY.

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64 PH. YAMPOLSKY

6. Wei, tail. The Sanskrit name is mala, root; the Arabic,

ash-shaulah,means " sting." The Chinese stationincludes all the
starsin the tail of the Scorpion. The Indian mansion may either
include all, or merelyA and v. The Arabs assign only A and v
Scorpii to this manzil.
7. Chi, sieve. The Indian name is parvdsaddhd, the " former
unconquered"(6); the Arabic name is an-na'ajim,pasturingcattle.
y, 8, E Sagittariiand fiTelescopii make up the Hsiu, while the
Hindus include either all four or merely8 and E Sagittarii. The
Arabs count y, 8, E, -q,0, a,
ar,a Sagittariiin this mansion.
8. Tou, measure for grain. The Hindu name is uttarasahda,
the " latterunconquered." The Arabs call this mansional-baldah,
town. The Chinese and Indian systemsagree here, except that
the Hsiu adds A and [kto 0, ar,a, y Sagittarii. The Arabs designate
this mansion by the space vacant of stars above the head of
Sagittarius,bounded by 7rSagittariiand other faint stars.
9. Niu, ox. The Indian name is abhijit(7), victorious. The
Arabic name is sa'd adh-dhibih,good luck star of the sacrificer.
The Hsiu is composed of a, f Capricorni as is the manzil. The
Indians include a, E, e Lyrae at 600 northlatitude.
IO. Nfi, woman. The Indians call this asterismeithers'ravana,
ear, or sirond,lame. The Arabic name is s'ad bula' which is
translatedas " good luck star of a devourer." The Hsiu is com-
posed of E, At,v Aquarii; the naksatra includes a, a, y Aquilae.
The Arabs include, as do the Chinese E, , v Aquarii.
ii. Hsfi, void. The Indian name is s'ravistha,most famous.
The Arabic mansion is called sa'd as-su'fid,the good luck star
of good luck stars. The Hsiu and manzil are the same, being
made up of fi,e Aquarii (8). The Hindus compose this mansion
of a, f, 8, y Delphini.
I 2. Wei, dangerous. The Indian name, s'atabhisaj,is defined

(6) The Hindus combine this and the next asterismto formone constellation.
Piirva means " the former,"uttara, " the latter." They are, however, counted
as separate stations. WHITNEY, op. cit., p. 353.
(7) There has been much controversyconcerning this asterism. When the
Indian systemwas representedby the twenty-sevenequal divisions of the ecliptic,
Abhijit was excluded fromthe naksatra system. Cf. MOLLER, op. cit., p. lix-lxi.
(8) GINZEL lists a Equulai in place of e Aquarii for this Hsiu. GINZEL, op.
cit., Band I, p. 72.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 65
as " hundred physicians"; the Arabic name, sa'd al ahbija, is
rendered as " good luck star of tents." The Hsiu contains,a
Aquarii and 0, e Pegasi. The Indians count A Aquarii and some
hundredadjacent stars. The manzil containsa, oy, j, - Aquarii.
I3. Shih, house. The Indian name is purva-bhddrapadds,
formerauspicious feet. The Arabic name is al-farghal-awwal,
forespoutof a waterjar. All three systemsidentifythis mansion
with a, fiPegasi.
14. Pi, wall. The Indian name is uttara-bhidrapadds,latter
auspicious feet. The Arabic name is al-farghal-tdni,hind spout
of a water jar. Again, all three systems coincide, identifying
y Pegasi and a Andromedae with this mansion.
I5. K'uei, stridinglegs. The Indian name is revati, wealthy;
the Arabic, batn al-huit,means " the stomach of a fish." The
Hsiu is made up of at least sixteenstars,frombPiscium to y Andro-
medae. The Indians assignthirty-two starsofwhichthe southern-
most is 4 Piscium. The Arabs associate P Andromedae and a
considerable number of other stars with this station.
i6. Lou, train of a garment. The Hindu name is dsvini,.
equestrian; the Arabic is ash-sharatdni,the two tokens. , and
y Arietisare commonto all stations,and the Chinese add a Arietis.
I7. Wei, belly. The Indian name is bharani,bearer; the Arabic
is al-butain, little belly. All systems assign a, b, c Muscae (35,
39, and 41 Arietis) to this group.
I8. Mao, of doubtful meaning here. The Hindu name is
krttika,interlaced;theArabic is at-turaijd(9), littlethick-setgroup.
All systems agree in identifyingthis lunar mansion with the
Pleiades (-qTauri, etc.).
i9. Pi, hand-net. The Indian is rohin4,ruddy; the Arabic,
al-dabardn, means follower. This mansion too, is the same
throughout. It includes a, 0, y, 8, E Tauri (Alderbaran and
Hyades).
20. Tzu', beak. The Indian name is mrgasiras,stag's head; the

(9) In old Arabic poetrythis manzilwas referredto as al-najm,forehead. Owing

to the importance of this constellation in Arabia, it is possible that the moon
stations once began here. HOMMEL, F., Ueber den Ursprung und das Alter
der Arabischen Sternnamen u. Mondstation, Z. d. Deutsche Morgenlandische
Gesell., v. 45 (i89i), p. 6oi.

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66 PH. YAMPOLSKY

Arabic, al-haq'ah, horse-mark. It is marked in all three systems

by A,91, 02 Orionis.
2I. Ts'an, of uncertain meaning here. The Sanskrit is drdrd,
moist; the Arabic is al-han'ah, pile. The Hsiu is composed of
a, f, y, 8, E, e, 1q, K Orionis. The naksatra consists solely of a
Orionis; and the manzil is identifiedwith-q,,p,v, y, t Geminorum.
22. Ching,well. The Indian name is punarvasa, the good again
(dual); the Arabic name is adh-dhird'u,the paw. The Chinese
include ,p, v, y, I, A, C, e Geminorum in this Hsiu. The Indian
and Arabic systemsare limitedto a, fiGeminorum.
23. Kuei, spirit. The Indian name is pusya, flower;the Arabic
is an-natrah,nose-gap. The Hsiu is composed of y, 8, 0, -qCancri,
the naksatra of y, 8, 0 Cancri, and the manzil of y, 8, e Cancri.
24. Liu, willow. The Hindu name is dilesa, embracer; the
Arabicis at-tarf," look." The Chinesecount7j,a, 8, E, p, C, a,
O Hydrae; the Indians, , a, 8, E, p, 4 Hydrae. The Arabs include
6 Cancri and A Leonis, to the northand on the other side of the
ecliptic.
25. Hsing, star. The Indian name is maghd, generous; the
Arabic is al-jabhah,forehead. The Hsiu includes a and t Hydrae.
The Indianscounta, ), y,~, p, E Leonis. The Arabicdesignation
is a Leonis (Regulus) and the three stars above it.
26. Chang, drawn bow. The Indian name, parva-philguni is
of doubtfulmeaning. The Arabic name is az-zubrah,mane. The
Chinese include K, A, P) 0, v, v Hydrae. The Indians and Arabs
are in agreement,designating8 and 0 Leonis.
27. I, wing. The Sanskritname, uttara-phdlguni is of unknown
meaning. The Arabic name is as-sarfah, turn. The Hsiu is
marked by a Crateris; the naksatra, by fiand 93 Leonis; and
the manzil by fiLeonis.
28. Che'n,crosspiece of a chariot. The Indian name is hasta,
hand; the Arabic is called al-'awwd, barkingdog. The Chinese
designatey, E, 8, fi,qrCorvi; the Indians include 8, y, E, a, 9 Corvi;
and the Arabs markthis stationby fi,71,y, 8, e Virginis(io).

(xo) It should be noted that during the T'ang period, and again later when
Occidental astronomicalknowledgewas introduced,the entireHsiu systemunder-
went revision.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 67

DISPOSITION OF THE LUNAR MANSIONS

HSfU NAK$ATRA MANZIL

i. Chio 12. chitra S 14. as-simak

0
2. K'ang E I3. svati U i5. al-ghafr
A T
3. Ti S I4. visakhM H i6. az-zubanay
T
4. Fang I5. anuradha I7. al-iklil

5. Hsin i6. jyestha i8. al-qalb

W
6. Wei I7. mula E I9. ash-shaulah
S
7. Chi i8. purvasadhas T 20. an-na'ajim

8. Tou I9. uttardAadhas 21. al-baldah

9. Niu N 20. abhijit 22. sa'd adh-dhabih .

0
I 0. Ni R 2 1. sravaina 23. sa'd bula'
T
i I. Hsii H 22. iravistha 24. sa'd as-su'fid

12. Wei 23. satabhipaj N 25. sa'd al-ahbija

0
13. Shih 24. purva-bhadrapadas R 26. al-farghal-awwal
T
14. Pi 25. uttara-bhadrapadas H 27. al-farghal-tani

I5. K'uei 26. revatl 28. batn al-hiut

i6. Lou W 27. agvini i. ash-sharatani

E
I7. Wei S 28. bharani 2. al-butain
T
i8. Mao i. krttika 3. at-turaija

19. Pi 2. rohini 4. al-dabaran

E
20. Tzil 3. mrgagiras A 5. al-haq'ah
S
2I. Ts'an 4. ardra T 6. al-han'ah

22. Ching 5. punarvasu 7. adh-dhira'u

23. Kuei S 6. pusya 8. an-natrah

0
24. Liu U 7. Alea 9. at-tarf
T
25. Hsing H 8. magha S io. al-jabhah
0
26. Chang 9. pfirva-phalguni U ii. az-zubrah
T
27. I io. uttara-ph~1guni H 12. as-.arfah
28. Chen i i. hasta I3. al-'awwa

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68 PH. YAMPOLSKY

The problem of the origin and distributionof these lunar

mansionshas been the subject of much controversysince the early
part of the i9th century. Various theories have been advanced
and various claims made, but no one has as yet been able to prove
conclusivelywherethe systemof the lunarzodiac originated. The
primary difficultymet with has been the inability to establish
a chronologyacceptable to all authoritiesin the field. Inasmuch
as almost all sources of informationare literary,disagreement
among writersas to the dating of a source produces a disparity
in the resultsfound. Unless a definitechronologyforall sources,
Chinese, Indian, and Arabic can be established, no satisfactory
answer to the problem of the origin and spread of this system
can be found.
Three theories exist in regard to the point of origin of the
lunar mansions:
i. The system was founded in China, and spread from there
throughCentral Asia to India and the Middle East.
2. The lunar mansions had theirinceptionin India fromwhere
they spread to China and to the Middle East.
3. The systemwas establishedin Babylon, fromwhereit spread
to Arabia, India, and China.
Each of these theorieshas or has had its supporter. However,
even among those who agree upon a specificpoint of origin,there
is very often disagreementin regardto chronologyand the com-
position of the various mansions.
Best knownamong those who supportedthe theoryof a Chinese
origin were BIOT, WHITNEY, SAUSSURE, and more lately SHINJ6.
MAX MULLER was the chief defenderof the theoryof an Indian
origin. Arguments in favor of a Babylonian origin have been
advanced by WEBER, HOMMEL, IIJIMA, and HASHIMOTO.

II

TRANSLATIONS

The followingtranslationis an excerptfromDr. IIJIMA, TADAO'S

conclusions in regard to the origin and spread of the system of
lunar mansions. It is contained in his Shina rekiho kigen-ko,
Tokyo, Oka shoin, 1930, PP. 595-599.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 69
Dr. IIJIMA is a supporterof the theoryof a Babylonian origin.
He, however, differsfrom others who trace the lunar zodiac to
Babylon, in that he ascribes a comparativelyrecent date to its
establishmentthere.
" The establishmentof the system of the twenty-eightlunar
mansionswas at the time that a Arietiswas at the vernal equinox;
in other words, it was established about 400 B.C. and made its
way to China around 300 B.C. (ii). It was established in China
at the same time that the cycle of Jupitercame into use. It
has also been shown that it was connected with the calendar of
Callippus (i2). That the Indian naksatracame fromBabylon at
the same timemayalso be assumed. As the resultoflaterresearch,
it has been established that the Indian naksatra were also based
on the position of a Arietis at the vernal equinox, and that the
cycle of Jupiterwas established there in 294 B. C. (I3). It is

(Ii) It is at this point that Dr. IIJIMA'Sfindingsin regardto a Babylonian origin

for the lunar zodiac differfrom those of others who support this theory. It
is his contentionthat no definitesystemcould have been established in Babylon
until C. 393 B.C. when measurementswere taken with a Arietis at the vernal
equinox. He disregards the findings of SAYCE (The Babylonian astronomy,
MonthlyNoticesof theRoyal Astron.Soc., v. 39 (i879), P. 455-459) who determined
that the Babylonian calendar was established C. 2000 B.C. when Capella was
at the equinox. IIJIMA'S justificationappears to be thatno mentionof this system
is to be found in Babylonian tablets. Cf. IIJIMA, Shina rekihOkigen-k6,Tokyo,
Oka shoin, 1930, p. 8-io. HASHIMOTO (Shina kodai rekih6-shikenkyu,Tokyo,
T6y6 bunko, 1943, P. 123-154) favors southwestAsia as the point of origin for
the system of lunar mansions. He, however, maintains that the system here
was of great antiquityand that it was introducedfromsouthwestAsia into India
in the form of the twenty-sevenmansions. Later the system made its way to
China after having undergone a change to a system of twenty-eightmansions.
In support of this, HASHIMOTO reasons that Hindu literatureproves the existence
of the twenty-sevenequal divisions of the ecliptic in India prior to the existence
of a system composed of twenty-eightmansions; whereas in China no literary
referenceto twenty-sevenmansions is to be found.
(I2) CALLIPPUS(C. 370-300 B.C.) established a calendar based on the 76 year
cycle. Dr. IIJIMAbelieves that knowledge of this calendar was broughtto China
and serves as the basis-forastronomicaldata to be found in Huai-nan tzu, Shih
chi, and Ch'ien Han Shu. Consequently, he places the dates forthe astronomical
sectionsof these worksin the earlythirdcenturyB.C. IIJIMA, T. Shina kodai-shi
to temmon-gaku, Tokyo, K6sei-sha, 1939, P. 330-331.
(I3) MASPERO takes exception to this date, favoring375 B.C. as the time for
its introductioninto China. MASPERO, H., La Chine Antique,Paris, 1927, p. 6i6.
CHATLEY assertsthat the cycle of Jupiterhad been in use several centuriesbefore
the Han. CHATLEY,H., The True Era of the Chinese Sixty Year Cycle, T'oung
Pao, v. 34 (1938-1939), P. 139.

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70 PH. YAMPOLSKY

believed that the twenty-eight Hsiu and the cycle of Jupiterwere

established in China on a similarbasis. One must then conclude
that the lunar mansions, as used in India and China, were
established at the same time, inasmuch as the same systemsexist
in both countries. The fact that theybear so greata resemblance
to each other can hardly be considered coincidental. Moreover,
measurementswere firstmade in Babylon at the timethata Arietis
was at the vernal equinox. The twenty-eight mansions in Arabia
are also associated with this star's position at the vernal equinox.
Therefore,one may conclude that these systemsare interrelated.
Moreover, in historical times, there was a constant influx of
Western ideas into Chinese civilization,and Indian culture was
similarlysubjectto Westerninfluence. To say thatthisspecialized
concept developed in legendarytimes in both countries,and that
within a hundred years, systems of lunar mansions which bear
strikingresemblancesto each other,were discoveredindependently
in each country,is basiclyabsurd. This is the positiveirrevocable
proof to which MAX MULLER had reference(14).
That the Chinese Hsiu were not introduced from India may
be seen by examiningthe intercoursebetweeneast and west around
the year 300 B.C. At this time ALEXANDER had completed his
conquests, Greeks had enteredPersia, and on the one hand applied
pressure against India, and on the other, sought anxiously for
knowledgeof China. In addition,priorto the timeof ALEXANDER,
the King of Persia wielded great power and occupied an area
extending from the Belaturgh Mountains to the Indus River.
Inasmuch as western culture probably moved into China in a
great ethnic flood, there is no reason to believe that individual
Greeks in India, before and afterthe time of ALEXANDER, served
as a means of transmittingculture between the two countries.
Close to the borders of both India and China were Bactria,
Gdndhdra, and Panjdb, and it was through these countries that
cultural elements passed. These lands were contiguous to areas
controlledby Persia, and afterthe conquest of ALEXANDER, a large
number of Greeks entered these areas. Thus, it is clear that

(I4) In his preface to Rig-veda Sanihita,MOLLER states that he cannot abandon

his views in regard to an Indian origin for the naksatra unless undeniable proof
to the contraryis furnishedhim. MOLLER, op. cit., p. XXXV.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 71

these countriesservedas the base forthe spread of commerce

and culture. Accordingto HERODOTUS, a Greek,ARISTEAS (Ii),
made a trip fromBactriato westernChina in the seventhor
eighth centuryB.C., and NEARCHUS, an admiral under ALEXANDER
in the invasionof India, saw Chinesesilk at the headwatersof
the Indus (i6). Later,whenBuddhismmade its way to China,
it passedchiefly thisarea. Around302 B.C. KingCHAN-
through
DRAGUPTA of India made peace with King SELEUCUS of Syria, and
by virtueof this,occupiedthe area of Panjdb and Gdndhdrain
theIndus basin,as wellas theareato thesouthoftheHindilkfish
Mountains. As a result,the spread of Greek culturewas en-
couragedstill more. Therefore,a culturewhich had assumed
Indian characteristics
did not as yethavethe opportunity to pass
throughhere and reach China. Consideringthis, one can say
that the twenty-eight lunar mansionsand the cycle of Jupiter
did not pass throughIndia to China. Moreover,in India there
was a systemof twenty-seven naksatrasimilarto the twenty-
eightHsiu, but separatedfromeach otherby an equal number
of degrees(I7). In Chinatheextentof one Hsiu was determined
by the specificpositionof one star(i8). In India the cycle of
Jupiterwas associatedwiththesystemwherebytwomonthswere
intercalatedeveryfiveyears. In China, it was associatedwith
the systemused by CALLIPPUS, wherebysevenmonthswereinter-

(I5) Reference is to the Arimaspea of Aristeas of Proconnesus, a lost work

which was partially summarized by HERODOTUS, and is believed to date from
the 6th or 7th centuryB.C. HUDSON, G. F., Europe and China, London, Edward
Arnold, 1931, P. 27-30.
(i6) HUDSON regards the account of Nearchus to be entirelyuntrustworthy.
Cf. HUDSON, op. cit., p. 6o fn.
(17) 150 12'. MOLLER, op. cit., p. xxvii.
(i8) This star is what BIOT and SAUSSURE refer to as " etoile determinatrice."
It is the specific star in a Hsiu which was chosen to serve as the point of
measurement from one Hsiu to another. BiOT maintains that the e'toile deter-
minatriceis itselfthe Hsiu. WHITNEY and MOLLER agree that the use ofyogatara,
junction stars,was not introducedinto the Indian systemuntilthe 6th centuryA.D.
In the Hsiu the determining stars are irregularlyspaced, varying in distance
from each other from about 20 to about 330. MASPERO (L'Astronomie Chinoise
avant les Han, T'oung Pao, v. 26 (1929), p. 282-283) has tabulated the various
versions of the distances between each Hsiu as given in various sources. BIOT,
Journal des Savants, i840, p. 272-279; SAUSSURE, L. DE, Les Origines de l'Astro-
nomie Chinoise, T'oung Pao, v. TO (1909); WHITNEY, Op. cit., p. 373; MOLLER,
op. cit., p. xlvii.

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72 PH. YAMPOLSKY

calated over a period of nineteenyears. When the Chinese and

Indian (astronomical) systems are compared (the assertion that
they are essentiallydissimilar)appears to hold still more scientific
validity. In China the yearlycycle of Jupiterwas indicated by
the shadow of Jupiter(i9) which was presumed to progress at
the same rate of speed in a directionopposite to that of Jupiter.
That this system does not exist in India is more internalproof
to demonstratethat the lunar mansions did not originatein India.
However, in the eighthyear of ASOKA's reign(c. 262 B.C.), after
he had completed the subjugation of the countryof Kalinga to
the south, he made plans to intrude peacefully into the Greek
sphere of influenceto the west forthe-purposeof propagandizing
Buddhism. In the thirteenth year of his reignhe appointedofficials
to propagandize Buddhism and sent them to various parts of his
empire. At this time a pillar propagandizingBuddhism was set
up at Gandhdra. Thereforeit seems probable that emissariesof
the king crossed the mountainsto the northand reached Khotan.
However, in the inscriptionsat Khotan the name of China is
not mentioned, although a list of foreign countries is given.
Moreover, the authenticityof the inscribed pillar at Khotan is
yet to be established. If by some chance the emissariesconveyed
a knowledge of Indian calendar making to western China, from
where it spread to China proper, it is unmentionedin Chinese
historical records. From whateverviewpoint it is examined, it
must be considered(true) that the knowledgeof calendar making
and astronomyin China had no connection with that of India,
and thatsuch knowledgeprobablyreachedChina by way of Bactria.
Therefore,the knowledgeof the twenty-eight lunar mansions and
the cycle of Jupiterin China and India came most likely from
Babylon. WEBER (20) agreeson thispoint and thereseems scarcely
any tenable argumentagainst it."

(x9) Anotherastronomicaldivisionin use in China was the systemof the shih-erh

tz'u, the twelve halts. It is based on the fact that Jupiter takes twelve years
to make the rounds of the heavens, each yearmarking1/12th of the round. Thus,
this planet rises and sets one month later each year. Inasmuch as the apparent
motion of Jupiteris counter-clockwise,a shadow of Jupiterwas imagined,which
moved clockwise in step with Jupiter,and thus projected itselfinto the division
directly behind the one in which the planet was located. YETTs, W. P., The
Cull ChineseBronzes, London, 1939, P. 137.
(20) WEBER, Die Vedische Nachrichtenvon den Naxatra, Philologischeu. Histo-

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 73
Dr. SHINJO,SHINZO (died 1938) was one ofthe leadingexponents
of the school which maintained that the lunar mansions were
Chinese in origin. A large part of his argumentconcerns and
is based on the chronologywhich he adopts forthe various sources
which deal with astronomyand astrology. He defendsthe theory
set forthby BIOT and adopted and enlarged upon by WHITNEY
and SAUSSURE, that the Yao-tien is of great antiquity(2I), placing
it in the 24th centurybeforeour era.
However, he believes thatthe Hsiu systemwas not actuallyesta-
blishedin itspresentformuntilthe Chou dynasty,or about I ioo B.C.
The followingtranslationis extractedfrom a chapter entitled,
Nijuhachi-shukuno denrai (The transmissionof the twenty-eight
lunar mansions) in Tdyo temmon-gaku-shi kenkyu', Tokyo, Kobun-
do, I928, Pp. 2I5-224.
" The followingIndian works deal with the twenty-eightnak-
satra: i. Mo-te'ngch'iehching(22); 2. She'-t'ou-chient'ai-tzu erh-
shih-pahsiu ching(23); 3. Ta-fang-ttingta-chi ching(24); 4. Hsiu-
yao ching(25); 5. Pahchasiddhantika(26) by VARAHAMIHIRA. In

rischeAbhandlungender KdniglichenAkademie der Wissenschaftzu Berlin, i86o,

P. 283-332. WEBER, however, maintains that the naksatra in India are of great
antiquity,whereas the Chinese Hsiu are of a comparativelyrecent date.
(2i) The dating of this section of the Shu Ching is much disputed. HASHIMOTO
makes an elaborate analysis of the stars mentioned and concludes that it should
be dated at c. 620 B.C. HASHIMOTO, op. Cit., p. 287-292.
(22) Skt. sarduilakarndvadana. Translated in two chuan by L{Y YEN (fl. 220-235)
and CHIH CH'IEN (fl. 220-253) in the year 220. It deals with the enlightenment
of a caxidala girl and with the message she taught. It is divided into seven parts,
of which the one dealing with the lunar mansions is the fifth. ONO, G., Bussho
kaisetsudai-jiten,Tokyo, Daito shuppan-sha, 1933-1936, V. 10, P. 279; LEvI, S.
and TAKAKUSU, J., HOb~girin,Tokyo, 1929-1931, fasc. annexe, p. I40; 148.
(23) Skt. sardfilakarndvadcna. Translated in one chian by FA Hu, skt. dharma-
raksa (fl. 266-313). This satra is a later translationof the Mo-ting ch'ieh ching
and stressesANANDA'S meetingwith the caxidala girl. ONO, op. cit., v. 4, P. 270;
HMb~girin,fasc. annexe, p. 140.
(24) Skt. maha-vaipulya maha-sarnnipatasutra. Translated in sixty chuan by
T'an wu ch'ang (385-433/36). The last thirtychuan were added later by various
translators. It deals in detail with a large number of technicalBuddhist subjects.
ONO, Op. cit., v. 7, p. 477; HMb6girin, fasc. annexe, p. 134.
(25) Full title is Wen-shu-shih-li p'u-sa chi chu-hsienso-shuochi-hsiungshih-jih
shan-o hsiu-yaoching. Translated in two chuan by Pu-k'ung, skt. Amoghavaira
(705-774). An esotericsutra dealing with the astrologicalimport of the twenty-
eight mansions and other divisions of the celestial sphere. ONO, op. cit., v. II,
P. 3I; HMbogirin, fasc. annexe, p. I34.
(26) VARAHA MIHIRA was an Indian astronomer who flourished in the fifth

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74 PH. YAMPOLSKY

addition, WEBER has made a detailed study of the naksatra.

The Mo-te'ngch'ieh ching and the She-t'ou-chient'ai-tzu erh-
shih-pa hsiu chingwere originallythe same sfitra,but they were
translated separately and at differentperiods in China. The
formerwas translated under the Wu dynasty,the latter under
the Western Chin. The original Sanskrittexts are dated some-
where in the second centuryA.D. The dating of the Ta-fang-
te'ngta-chichingis unsure, and its only value to the presentstudy
is that it furnishesa list of the twenty-eight
lunar mansions. The
Hsiu-yao ching was translated during the T'ang dynasty, the
original having been completedsometimein the seventhor eighth
century. However, elements of westernorigin are frequentlyto
be found in it, and it cannot be called a purely Indian work.
VARAHA'S (book) is a collection of five differentastronomical
works which date to the fifthcenturyA.D. It is clear that a
large number of the elements included are of westernorigin, but
the book is basicly Indian. One must take note of the fact that
the naksatra at this time were twenty-sevenin number, and
representedequal divisions of the ecliptic. WEBER'S work is a
detailed study, largely devoted to a refutationof BIOT'S theory
of a Chinese origin for the lunar mansions. WEBER places much
emphasis on the fact that the naksatra systemstartedwith Mao,
his concept being that the Indian system was begun when this
asterismwas at the vernal equinox. This would make the Indian
naksatra iooo years older than the Chinese Hsiu.
In the Mo-tengch'iehchingthereare numeroussections devoted
to astronomy;therefore,a study of this work in detail is of great
importance. At present, I shall limit myself to a presentation
of the salient points of interest;however,it should be noted, that
in a large numberof instances,evidence of the intrusionof western
influenceis to be found. The arrangementof the seven luminaries
as sun, moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter,Saturn, and Venus is an
example of this (27). It is disputed whetherthe intercalationof

century A.D. His book is a collection of five astronomicalworks representing

differentschools, with a commentaryon the validityof the various systems. For
an English translationwith a detailed introduction,see THIBAUT, G., The Paicha-
siddhantikaof Vardha Mihira, Benares, I889.
(27) The early Chinese arrangementof the sun, moon, and the planets was
according to theirassociation with the five elements,and thus with the direction

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 75
seven months over a period of nineteen years is of western or
of Chinese origin. The intercalationof two monthsin fiveyears,
the concept of the vernal equinox, the measurementof the length
of the shadow at noon, and the twenty-eightmansions are in
common with China. Especially interestingis the settingup of
a twelve-inchgnomon to record the length of the sun's shadow
at noon as an aid to determiningthe seasons. From the length
of the shadow, the latitude of the point of observation can be
calculated. This problemof shadow lengthreallydeservesa fuller
discussion elsewhere. However, the average,using a twelve inch
gnomon, would indicate a latitude of 430. Inasmuch as the
calculations are drawn fromapproximaterecordingsof the length
of the shadow, one cannot look for exact results. However, one
can accept the factthat the standardwas twelve inches. Latitude

Twelve inch gnomon Shadow Length Calculated Latitude

Second ten days 6th month 5 inches 430

7th D 8 46
8th I3 47
9th I5 39
i oth i8 36
i ith 21 37
I 2th A i8 36
I st )) I5 40
)) 2nd I3 47
3rd A 10 5I
4th D 7 50
5th 4 42

AVERAGE 430

430, is not in India, but ratherin the ancientYueh Chih country,

at Samarkand in Sogdiana. Judgingfromthis fact, one part of
the Mo-te'ngch'ien chingwas originallynot Indian, but was based
upon knowledge gained by observationsmade in some country
near 430 latitude. From the recordingsof the lunar mansions

with which these elements were associated. They are, listed in order; Sun,
Moon, Jupiter,Mars, Saturn, Venus, and Mercury. MASPERO, L'Astronomie
Chinoise avant les Han, T'oung Pao, V. 26 (I929), p. 297-298.

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76 PH. YAMPOLSKY

as given in this sitra, one may conclude a correspondencebetween

the Chinese and Indian systems.
Special attentionshould be paid to the Indian naksatrain regard
to the followingpoints:
a) The inclusion of a Bootis or Arcturus(Ta chio).
b) The inclusion of a Lyrae (Chih nii), fi,y Aquilae (Ch'ien
niu), and a, f, 8, y Delphini (Hu kua).
c) a Lyrae is placed firstand fi,y Aquilae second. In China
theirpositions are reversed.
d) In the satra, the number of the naksatra is given as both
twenty-sevenand twenty-eight. When the number is twenty-
seven, a Lyrae is omitted.
e) The Babylonian " star of stars," Capella, which served as
the startingpoint for astronomicalobservationsin Babylon, does
not appear in the Hindu system.
f) The meaningsof the names of the lunar mansionsbear little
relationshipwhen the systemsare compared.
These points have tremendous significancein a discussion of
the naksatra,and are reallythe essentialpart of this discussion.
a Bootis, a Lyrae, fi,y Aquilae, and a, f, 8, y Delphini are
at a comparativelygreat distance fromthe equator; thereforewhy
should theybe included amongthe twenty-eight mansions? This,
in so faras China is concerned,may be explained historically(28).
The inversion of the positions of a Lyrae and f, y Aquilae
was the natural result of the precession of the equinoxes and
indicates that theirpositionswere originallyreversed. Inasmuch
as the distance between these stars is comparativelysmall, it was
not necessary (in India) to assign a separate position to each,
especially since they were at a considerable distance from the
ecliptic. This accounts for their number being twenty-seven
ratherthan twenty-eight (29).

(28) It is Dr. SHINJ6'S opinion that these stars, being particularlystriking,

were at an early date incorporatedinto popular legend and literaturein China.
This, coupled with their distance from the ecliptic, made for their exclusion
fromthe Hsiu system. SHINJ6, S., T6y6 temmon-gaku-shi kenkyfi,Tokyo, Kobun-
d6, I928, p. 207.
(29) MOLLER maintains that twenty-sevenwas the original number in India.
SHINj6 believes, apparently,that the lunar mansions, once they came to India,
were arbitrarilycounted as either twenty-sevenor twenty-eight. MULLER, op.
cit., P. Ii-lii.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 77
The factthattheIndiansystemdoes notincludeCapella which
is at a considerabledistancefromthe equator,is a strongpoint
in denyingthe theoryof a Babylonianorigin. Again,a-strong
pointin favorof thetheoryof a Chineseoriginis thattheIndian
name for a Bootis, Svdti is a corruptionof She t'i, the other
Chinesenamefora Bootis(Ta chio)(30).
WEBER laysgreatemphasison thepositionof Mao at thevernal
equinox as the startingpoint for the Indian naksatrasystem.
However,thisis a confusionof the twenty-eight lunarmansions
withthe twelvezodiac signs. There is no reasonto believethat
the twelvesignsof the zodiac,whichstartat the vernalequinox
in the westernconcept,were adopted as such in India. The
passage in Yao-tien," The day is at its shortest,and the star
is Mao; thus you may exactlydeterminemid-winter " (3I) in-
dicates that Mao was the centralstar at the wintersolstice.
However,beginningabout the timethatthe wintersolsticewas
used to indicatethe startof a year in China, whichwas from
about the middle of the Ch'un Ch'iu period,the twenty-eight
lunarmansionsweretransmitted fromChinato India.
Anotherpointof interest is thatthe distribution of thenaksatra
in India differs fromtheirdispositionin China,Mao to Liu are
in the east; Hsingto Ti are in the south;Fang to Nii are in the
west;and Hsfito Weiare in thenorth(32). This differs in China,
wheretheplacingofthetwenty-eight Hsiuamongthefourquarters
datesfromthe middleof the Ch'un Ch'iu period.
... Thereis no doubtas totheantiquity ofBabylonian astronomy,
but it is merelyan unprovedassumptionthatthe lunarmansions
had theiroriginthere. Tablets whichliststarshavebeenfound;
however,in none of themis therementionof a divisionof the
eclipticintotwenty-seven or twenty-eight parts...
Conclusions:
i. One can findevidencethatthe twenty-eight
Hsiu existedin
China in the Chou dynasty.

(30) PELLIOT disagrees with SHINJ6'S conclusions on this point. PELLIOT, P.,
T'oung Pao, V. 29 (1932), P. 209.
(3 i) LEGGE, The Chinese Classics, Bk. 3, Pt. I, P. 2I.
(32) The Chinese arrangementis: east, Chio to Chi; north, Tou to Pi; west,
K'uei to She'n; south, Ching to Chen.

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78 PH. YAMPOLSKY

2. There is no proof of the existence of the lunar mansions

in Babylon.
3. The twelvezodiac signs and the twenty-eightlunar mansions
were establishedfor entirelydifferentreasons.
4. The Indian naksatraoriginallycorrespondedwiththe Chinese
Hsiu.
5. The point of origin must have been in an area where Ursa
Major servedas the startingpointforastronomicalobservation(33).
6. Before its establishmentin India, this system must have
passed throughan area at latitude 430.
7. The distributionof the lunar mansions in the four quarters
differsin India and China.
Thus, the twenty-eightHsiu were established in the Chou
dynastyor somewhatbefore. They leftChina around the middle
of the Ch'un Ch'iu period, passed through Central Asia, and
moved then to India, fromwhere they spread to Arabia."

III

BIOT'S (34) theoryholds that the Hsiu were established at the

time of Yao Ti, whom he places at 2357 B.C. He states that
originallythe Hsiu had no connection with the revolutionof the
moon, but were used for the purpose of markingthe passage
at the meridian of certain prominentstars or groups of stars.
He believes that at the time of their establishment,they were
only twenty-fourin number, and were not increased to twenty-
eight until the Chou dynasty. He supports his theories by
claiminga great antiquityforthe Yao-tien. It is also his conten-

(33) SHINJO has arrivedat the conclusion that Chio was selected as the starting
point for the Hsiu because it was in a direct line with the pole star at the time
that this system was established (c. Iioo B.C.). He reasons that the Chinese
at this time were unaware of the movement of the pole star and regarded it
as fixed,and hence found this a convenient place fromwhich to start. Having
established the Chou dynasty period as the time for the organisation of this
system, and admittingno evidence that a similar system existed elsewhere at
an earlier date, he has determinedthat the systemof lunar mansions developed
graduallyin China where it was organized into its present formof twenty-eight
divisions during the Chou period, and from where it spread to other regions.
SHINJ6, op. cit., p. 208-209.
(34) BIOT, op. Cit., p. 27-47; 75-93; 142-152; 227-255; 264-279.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 79
tion that the Hsiu were adopted by the Indians, and that the
twenty-seven naksatrarepresenta distortionof the originalChinese
concept.
SAUSSURE (35) follows the chronologyadopted by BIOT in that
he places the origin of the Hsiu systemin the 24th centuryB.C.
He, however,differsfromBIOT, in that he believes that,fromits
inception,the Hsiu systemwas based upon the revolutionof the
moon. SAUSSURE concedes that the naksatra are also of great
antiquity and comes to the conclusion that both systems are of
great age and possess a common origin, which, he determines,
is in China.
WHITNEY (36), too, supports the theory of a Chinese origin.
He arrives at his conclusions by attributinga greater antiquity
to Chinese literaturethan to the Indian. As did BIOT, he con-
cludes that the Hsiu were Chinese in origin and were adopted
in India at an unknown date. WHITNEY does, however, admit
to the possibilitythat the lunar zodiac had its origin elsewhere,
perhaps in Central Asia.
MULLER (37) favorsIndia as the place of origin for the system
of lunar mansions. Despite the admitted lack of a chronology
forancientVedic literature,he believes that the naksatrarepresent
an Indian institutiondating to the remote past. He states the
naksatra were originallythe twenty-sevenequal divisions of the
ecliptic, and that the introductionof the twenty-eightdivisions
was not untilthe sixthcenturyA.D. He recognizesno relationship
between the twenty-sevennaksatraand the twenty-eight Hsiu until
this time.
WEBER (38) denies the antiquity of all Chinese literature,and
places it at no earlierthan 250 B.C. He believes that the Indians
had a system of lunar mansions from early times and that the
Chinese and Arabs copied a late phase of it. He holds that the
place of origin was in Babylon, from where it spread to India,
and that its introductioninto China and Arabia was not until a
fairlyrecentdate.

(35) SAUSSURE, op. cit., p. I22-i82.

(36) WHITNEY, op. Cit., p. 340-421.
(37) MOLLER, op. cit., p. v-Lxxxvii.
(38) WEBER, op. Cit., p. 283-332.

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8o PH. YAMPOLSKY

HOMMEL(39) has made an elaborate philological study of the

names of stars as given in Arabic and Hebrew literatureas well
as of Babylonian month and star names. He has arrived at the
followingconclusions: i. The names of the stars mentionedin
ancient Arabic literatureare true Arabic and bear no traces of
Greek influence;2. The old Arabian astronomyis related to the
Chaldean; 3. The lunar mansions in Arabia can be traced to a
Babylonian origin. He believes that the manzil were originally
twenty-four in number,and that this concept existed in Babylon,
and in China and India as well.

KEY TO CHINESE CHARACTERS

Busshokaisetsudai-jiten1*SP#=Ri;*' 0h
Chang W
Chen -
Chi 3
Ch'ien Han Shu '"'tI
Ch'ien niu *4:
Chih Ch'ien :
Chih n! A*
ChingA
Chio ft
Fa Hu hilj
Fang E-
Hashimoto,Masukichi tj
Hsin )IL,
Hsing X
Hsiu C
Hsiu-yao ching VIWW
Hsi )!j
Hu kua B&
Huai Nan Tzui Midf
I 11
Iijima, Tadao 1
K'ang AL

(39) HOMMEL, Op. cit., p. 592-6io.

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 THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-EIGHT LUNAR MANSIONS 8i

Kuei A
K'uei 4E
Liu j1
Lout
Lu Yen W&
Mao A
Mo-teng ch'iehchingJ*,VfW
Nijuihachi-shuku no denrai-lit A4U 4#*
Niu +
Ni(
Pi (x4thmansion) e
Pi (Igthmansion)
Pu K'ung T4;F
She t'i 00
She-t'ou-chient'ai-tzii
erh-shih-pahsiuching*9 ZtAo
Shih t
Shihchik "2
Shih-erhtz'u +?
Shinakodairekiho-shi AttitYffij
kenkyui
Shinakodai-shi to temmon-gakulXt kif X
J-t*
Shinarekiho kigen-ko t5Vfiff
MAMM
Shinjo,Shinzowtfiol
Shu ching#AM
Ta chio*fl1
Ta-fang-tengta-chiching*t4*kZ
T'an Wu Ch'an t
Ti A
Tou w
Toyotemmon-gaku-shi kenkyuAUTX t* 0fr
n
Ts'an

X%
Wei(6thmansion)
Wei (I 2th mansion))
Wei (I 7th mansion) W
Wen-shu-shih-lip'u-sa chi chu-hsienso-shuo chi-hsiungshih-jih
shan-ohsiu-yaoching3Z: f ii1A 2afiNM ] fl
0E of
Yao-tien

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82 PH. YAMPOLSKY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Worksin Japanese

I. HASHIMOTO, M. Shina kodai rekih6-shikenkyu. Tokyo, Toyo

bunko, I943.
2. IIJIMA,T. Shina kodai-shito temmon-gaku.Tokyo, Kosei-sha, I939.
3. - Shina rekihdkigen-k6. Tokyo, Oka shoin, I930.
4. ONO, G. Bussho kaisetsu dai-jiten. Tokyo, Daito shuppan-sha,
I933-36. I2V.
5. SHINJ6, S. T6y6 temmon-gaku-shi
kenkyu. Kyoto, Kobun-do, I930.

Worksin European languages

i. BIOT (untitledarticles). Journaldes Savants, I840, P. 27-47; 75-93;

I42-I52; 227-255; 264-279.
2. CHATLEY, H. The True Era of the Chinese Sixty Year Cycle..
T'oung Pao, v. 34 (I938-39), P. I38-I45.
3. CHU, C. The Origin of the Twenty-eightMansions in Astronomy.
Popular Astronomy, v. 55 (947), p. 62-77.
4. EBERHARD, W. Neuere chinesische und japanische Arbeiten zur
altchinesischenAstronomie. Asia Major, v. 9 (1933), P. 597-6II.
5. GINZEL, F. Handbuch der Mathematischenund technischenChrono-
logie. Leipzig, I906. 3 V.
6. HOBOGIRIN. Compiled by Takakusu, J.and Levi, S. Tokyo, I929-
I93I. 4 V.
7. HOMMEL, F. Ueber den Ursprung und das Alter der Arabischen
Sternnamen u. Mondstation. Zeitschriftd. Deutschen Morgen-
landischeGesellschaft,
v. 45 (I89I), P. 592-6I9.
8. HUDSON, G. F. Europe and China. London, Edward Arnold, I931.
9. J. The Chinese Classics. Bk. 3, Pt. I. Hongkong, I865.
LEGGE,
10. MASPERO, H. L'Astronomie Chinoise avant les Han. T'oung Pao,
V. 26 (I929), P. 267-356.
II. La Chine Antique. Paris, de Boccard, I927.
I2. MOLLER, M. Rig-veda Sanhita. London, W. H. Allen, I862.
13. PELLIOT, P. T'oung Pao, v. 29 (1932), P. 209.

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I4. SAUSSURE, L. DE. Origines de l'Astronomie Chinoise. T'oung Pao,
V. 10 (I909), P. I22-i82.
I5. SAYCE. The Babylonian Astronomy. Monthly notices of the Roy.
Astron.Soc., v. 39 (I879), P. 45I-459-
i6. THIBAUT, G. The Panchasiddhdntikdof Vardha Mihira. Benares,
I889.
I7. WEBER, A. Die Vedische Nachrichten von den Naxatra. Phil. u.
Hist. Ab. d. KdniglichenAkad. d. Wissenschaft z. Berlin. i86o,
p. 283-332.
i8. WHITNEY, W. The Lunar Zodiac. Oriental and LinguisticStudies.
Ser. 2. New York, Scribners,I874, P. 340-42I.
I9. YETTS, W. The Cull ChineseBronzes. London, 1939.

PHILIP YAMPOLSKY.

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