AD’, EF Textbooks in English Language as Jurgen Esser and Linguistics (TELL) Ezited by Magnus Huber and Joybrato Mukherjee Introduction to English Text-linguistics AE Miss21bca~/Inaigo ZO1S Volume 2 g a ——K. 24st $ UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILE | » ‘FACILTAD OE FLOSORA Y FUMAMIDADES | 8 ECA EUCEO PERERA SALAS 3 PETER LANG © PETER LANG. Frankfurt am ln: ene: New York Oxford Wen q erate Vag der Wesco & ml‘ibiogrphic Information published by the Deutsche ‘ational ‘Tho Detach Natonabisotak ts ths pubeaon nthe Deutzone Natonalbogati deals tiborapic datas fvalaio th eat at

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Printedin Germany 12345 7 wnnepoterag.de or Anne ged 4), Laura (3) and Mathias (2), "vom Iwate to see more often ven they developed so marvellously "while | was writing this bok,Preface “This book sims at covering those areas of textlinguistics dat lave enjoyed ‘widespread stenton in English linguistics, a id down fr example in the two ‘asic monographs by HaliayHlasan (1976), Cohesion in Brisk, and by ‘Beaugrnde/Drsser (981), roduc to Ter Linguitir, Besides these 0 lnpaches more recent ones have entered the stage, Notably, thre ere corpus Hnguitie stes in lexical puters and clsiicaions of toes, and pjeolingiste and’ cognitive” sadles in ext consti and. decoder ‘renfatin. One speial feature ofthis book is that tot only covers mod independent clements and sutures but also modiam-dependet writen and spoken presentation, Tam graeftl for many discussions with my dear Younger colleagues Rolf ‘yer, Sebastian Pt and Shamila Vaz while wrote te manuseipt nally, | sso wat fo thank Foybrato Maktere for hie invitaton fo wre ths vote in the TELL Serie Bom, Jorgen Esser Sly 2008‘Table of Contents “Typographical Conventions 1 The Scope of Textiaguistics LI Defining et: the terms text and discourse 112. Studying tex the heterogeneity of approoches 13 Textalty 4 Bseenls of extingulstcs 15; Quentions and exereises 16: Further eading 2 Formal Texture I: Mediam independent Elements and Structures 2a 212 Order of late elements: signalling infomation Sow 2.1.21 Objective and subjestive order 2.1.22 Linear thematic progression Realiaion of ite clement referencing nd extabishing cobesion by reiing bok and forward 2.1331 Pronouns 2132 Deerminees 21133 Comparison 2.1.3.4 Subatitation 2.135 Blips 2.13.6 Lexialcobesion 2.13.7 Ploereltore 2.13.8 Time relator and ease marking 2.13.9 Referng forward ‘Connecting clauses in clause complexes and beyond 2.14.1 Syntactic coordination 2.142 Syntace subordination 2.143 Textual linkage of elas complexes 22. Compuslingvitic approaches tothe study of words a txts 221 222 Lexical patterns Collocation and naturalness Pr 10 2 a a a 2% ry 2» 2 2“ae of Cots 23. Comuerlingusti approsches tothe clasiatin of texts 23.1 Geores,repisers and tex-bypes 23:11 Genes 23.12 Registers 23.13 Textiypes 232. Spee 24 Question nd exercises 25 Farerreading Yormal Texture Ht Medim-ependent Presentation 21 Writen presentation 3.11 Ortography and Punctuation 3.12. Seriptunit 313 Layout 34 Clssifstion of texte 412. Spoken peteatation 3.21. Phonological wod-forms intone wits 322 Tone unite and tone unit sequences 323 Talkusit 33. Questions and excises 54 Puree reading ‘Semantic Texture: Peyholingisti and Cogalive Aspects of Text Constitution SL Lene priming 482. Scenes and frames semantic 463. Coherence 444 Rhetorical structures 445. Macrstectures and sperstuetures 446 Thema progression and hypertheres 47 Questions and exercise 48 Further eading Decoderovientation 51 Textual hetorc 52 Procesibilty 53 Optimising tats 106 ur 120 ns 18 na a1 181 Bs 10 16 158 158 12 13 16s 16s 13 176 ‘leo oes SA Quentions and exrcises 58. Fuher reading 6 Textual Iatentions 6. Deep structure genres 62. Discourse types 63. Quesions and exercises 6 Furtber reading List of References Index 180 181 13, 18 9s a7 207‘Typographical Conventions pabec ABC se abo! {abe} Writen word-orn(s) “Medium independent word-fora() Lexeme Nocles of atone ‘Spoken word-form() with sing tone at tone unit boundary Spoken wordform() wit fling tone at tone uit boundary Spoken word-ona() presented in phonological sneription Spoken wordform() presented in phonetic tansrpton “Tema, notions onoepts, meanings Quottion Object guage unspecified as to medium (asully understood es sen ned ets in writen presen, ies of Highlighted linguistic elements in examples {Usita capital letters) Theoretical models and methods derived ‘hereof, names of corpora In quotations, spelling variants and graphic tyes for emphasis are kept in their viginal form, even i they differ fom the conventions used inthis book. With reference to sexually unspeifed encoders and decoders the generic hes ued1 The Scope of Texi-linguisties 1.1 Defining "tex dhe terms text and discourse In aur every language, atx ie something tht we can see oF ouch: a book foray oer ploce of writing. A text is a wten document or par off This it feflected in the following. definitions of txt fom the. Cobuld Engh ‘iclonay(Sinclae 1998), "any wotenmateal (Jetiaion 2) andthe Oxford Englah Dictionary Burchfield 1989), “he wording of anything writen or printed (definition Is). We shoud Sit ate tat these definitions ofthe word Feat not only refer t words but also, and specifically, to thir mater bodiment, Lethe wriden words as we perelve them in thelr physical fon paper. We can sy hat this notion of tex is Bound to is mediu-dependen. Bu this othe whole sory. We ean also wie th word ex to ef t the words used In 9 speech, ‘broadens of sound recording iF they are converted fom tel exgnal tera tenbodiment of sound waves into a diffrent plysieal medi, namely paper. “This uigeof tenis elctd in definion 3 ofthe Cobuild English Dictionary tds ihateatve example ftom the Cobullddatabat, The Bark of English 23The text of speech, broadcast, o cording isthe writen version Of te A spolerman said a tx! of Dr Rancie'® spocch had been ‘reulated toa ofthe bishops. 1 the quoted example tex is aguin something that canbe son, touched and ten cbeulsied, Le. someting material But this time tx i lao man! as omedhng Independent ofthe modium. In our example th text hae been ‘eafened fom its embodiment in the original medium, sound waves, to Seng Bets) ent Cmplaton Reston igure 1.1: Sapersreture of anaratve For other linguists the notion of text as ‘parole’ ot ‘perfomans'can be ended to compsse something large, something tat cannot be surveyed faightorwadly Ike « Iter or a Book, namely a corpus. This is one ofthe Asfinons af 4x! given by Bussmann (1996): "tho tol of al inguisie ‘igression in the sence of a earpus” This ue is nicely exemplied inthe following quotaton fom aclasic bok oa corpus Linguistics, Sinclair (1991: 1) “Large quantities of Ya text are processed directly in ofder to present the researcher with objetve evidence” Text understood as ‘corpus refers 10 a ‘lleion of tents which have as thir Het embodiment the writen or he Spoken mim. Therefore «ditinton is made between writen and spoken ‘compere The diferent'meanings of the lngusic notion of text that we have and the coresponding spakea werd-fomns /elp lps help spo Note that defo the pervasive sures of homophony and bomography Jn pesetday English, there isnot livays a one-to-one relation betwoen the ‘wen and the spoken forms of alexeme, or ou purpose it is inelevan, fr example, wheter the lexeme YOUR is ‘witen wit of witout a capital Teter at te begining, namely or ‘Sour and whether the spoken wordfonns [jor Gu] are wed. Features ‘sth se copitaliantion in weing ora Brisho an American acceat in speech are ielevant fom the pont of view ofthe absosct modium-independent language ‘yetem. All of the four medium-bound wowd-forms we instantiations of & ‘nein-independent ord-form tat may be symbolized yours ‘The ponetican Abererombie (1967 1) has described the relation between the tfeent mediums andthe language system as follows: We have recognized, i effet, thatthe place of spoken English and the piece of writen English ‘ae the same longuage embodied in diferent medium, one medium consisting of shapes, the otber of|» coupe 1s « commonplace that we can transfer mestages fom ane malum 1 te ‘thee, We em rte down what we bear and we san pronounce wat we read; {he mertage wil be the same, This relation beeen speech, wring and the language stam fas been described with the notion of modium-rnsterabity ‘by Lyons (972: 65), who explains his import desiga feature as flows: People ean leas, aly easly and successily forthe mot pat, to ‘rane from one medium to the oe, bldg iarant much of he ‘eral pat of language. “The rerition “much ofthe verbal pat of language” refers exactly 10 the rmesege tht can be transfered fom ote medium tothe oer in terms of words nd svete, the "wording” ia the sense of Haliday/Hasan (1976: 5) {voted above, This le what linguists are‘nonmally intrested in when they ‘ica leicology, syatax abd texting. Medium-bound infomation such fe an American accent o «capital Iter (for example, atthe bepnning of & {cense) is ielevant usi¢e phonology and gaphology because it canot be ‘tusferred fom one medium to the other. When fs] and (i) ae wansfered ‘om spoech fo writing, the nformation of Bish or an American sceat gts Tost. Likewise the spelling diferences between and have no ‘guivalent is promunintion: we cannot hee the capital lever. Thus wt can be trnsfered fom one medium to the other te medium-independen wordforms ‘nd the rotres to which they belong, in ther words, the Wording, Inthe medlu-ladependent approach otextnguistcs tat is developed this chaper, we il eoncetate on those Iingustc elements and rectres that tre subject to medium-tansferbiity, which mens that such elements and ustre can be transfered from speech to wetng and rom wating to speech ‘thou lose of information, Therefore medium-bound expression systems such 4 intoation an layout will not be considered Ree Bat wil be deat with in sper 3 211 Order and realization of elements 211. General framework (Our descriptive mode! raws on fndamentl ideas iret formulated by Halliday (1961) in a tempt o develop a mstatheory for structural linguists. In what follows I donot want o explain is theory in dal but focus oa we apes hat, sal enjoy general acceptance. The two metatheoretial aspects ar Yank and “inant. (Halliday Coes nous the pow fashionable tem nstatation’ but titer speaks of "exponen, which it be understood ab "example, p27.) “The notion of rank’ refers to the generally acknowledged ides that we can anda csinguish descriptive ents of diferent size CE section I above) Engi diinguish levels of constituency, whereby smaller unis combine to fm larger site and larger units cont of smaller units. Ths highest rn sical description i occupied by te unit clause complex’ andthe lowest Fink by the unit merpheme’ In butween there sr ‘lase, phrase and word, Note thatthe concept ‘lause comple’ reflects our rection to medium- Independent unis. In this I follow Halliday (1985: 193), who say." sentence isa consituent of wing, while the clause complex is » content of {pammar The ranks and uns of grammar ar Ise a Figure 2.1 Pa ate Tighest ‘dase comple clue hase eed lowest merpheme Figure 2.1: Rants and units of grammar Claus complexes consist of eases, clauses consis of phnse, phases consist fof words, words consist of morphemes. Revers, momheres ptt into ‘words, ord patter into phrases, phrases pattern ino clases, clauses pater into cause complexes. (Note tht inthe extreme care a clause complex may ‘coi of ust ne else, one phase and one wordy as inthe drive Gof) "The second metatheoretcal aspect that describes our general famework ie “station I velats the units of grammar to the linguistic data exponen’ In Falidays fame werk) at various levels of abstraction Celiacy In Halley's ffamework). This canbe exemplified wit the second orhopraphic sentence of ‘example (0), This "ween sentence’ coresponds a the mediumndependent level tothe “ase comple’ under (I), where the symbols > < indie the ‘mediam-independent tats (1) >but when she got there the cupboard was bare ands he poor dog a UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILE ACUTAD DE SOR Y RUMADES ‘BBLIOTECA EUGEID PEREIRA SALAS26 taper? With reference o (1) we cn say that th clase comple is instantiated by thee hase: Q)« dependent clause (but when se gor there, which spat of (i); Independent clause (the cupboard was bare, and Gi) further, coordinated Independent clause (ond 10 the poor dog ha none). The combination of the thre clauses is an fstance of a lause complex. The diferent ranks and their Jnsunistions can be summarized as ia Figure 22. (For our pupose the ‘connector and the morphological eel can be ignored, eg, the information thst ‘he wordform ad has ‘past meaning) ait Tosti by clause | dependent | independent cause | independent dase compex| dase aus | _(SVAR sve 300 nee |W [ve [nar] we [ve [agp] we Ww wort [Pron | Adv [Oee] | v | Ag [De] Ag w] v [Pron se nt [se | gt there] te | apa was arte poor og ae are Figure 22: Unite and her instantiations [AX the rnk of the claus, we ean dseibe the clase elements of the thee ‘lnuses. Following Quirk tal (1988: 49), we distinguish five element of ‘las stature: bjt (S), verb (V) objet (0), complement (C) and adverbial {Cause (i) i an inetance ofthe clze pater SV, which freon a ‘verb in i else (i instanates the pater (AJSVC ad else i) has ths pater SV, Distegarng the connectors ui, whan, and and 20, the lase slements ae istantated at the pase lve as follows: [SVA:] NPVVPAdYP, [SVC] NPAVPrAGp, [SVO"] NPIVPHNP. The pases have te following Inetanitios by word clases: [NP] Pron, [VP] V, (Adv) Ady [NP] Dee, {VP} V, (AGP Adj [NPS] DetsAgj, [VPs] V, [NP] Pron. Fal, tte rank ofthe word we have the following instanton in ters of word-foms: {Pron she, [V3] got, (Adv there; Det] the, [N2] eupboard, 'V:] was, [AG] ‘are; [Det the, [Adi por, [3] do, LV} had [Pron none Example (1) istanates grammatically units at diferent ranks, namely lnuse complex, clause, rae, word class and word. This means that We eam ve for(I)smctrl desertion of varying abstraction or generalization ama Tere ” “The instantiations ofthe saute in Figure 2.2 ar state ints of clase clemeats std their faneons as subject (8), verbal element (V), adjunct (A), Simlemen (C) and object (0), ef. Quik et (1985). The istatition ofthe {Shue pater in terme of the realized phrases i, however, not the only spe of GMandation of ceuse peters. A dierent pe is piven if we consder ‘Rc that ae in systematic carespondence with the clase pater that {Gc reginded as si and are therefor sed inthe abstract description of cause ‘Spo Exanpes of suc correspondences ae modiieaions of word ode and of ‘Resingconstuctios. If we take the clauso pattem $VO, this pattern can be instant for cxample athe level of Word forms a ik tha. For purposes of emphasis the ‘ne clause pattem SVO can aio be instantiated bythe Word-forms that ke {fond object) or thar’ wha ike (lef construction. This means that thee is ‘aration ofthe patter SVO not only in tems ofthe consttaive phrases, but tio in fem of comesponding stuctes which instantiate the same patter 830, Such caresponding stares se elle 'allosenences' by Dane (1968: 23). ‘ane introduce the notion ofthe alo-rentence'to refer othe fat that the syntactestuctare ofa sting of word-forms ean be described at different eels ‘of absrction. Just the concept of the phoneme Mis more abstact and Femoved fiom the physical data than the allophones (0 (clear) and [0] (dak ‘Tytothe clause pater SVO/ is more abszact than instanatons [SO] and [OSV et Figue 23. [Gauss pater Alsentence Norte Figure 23: Instantation of louse patton and allo-entence ‘The relation of instantion (X > Y, tbe read instants Y) plays an important role in recent cognitive Inguits, which also describes concrete ‘onfome a various layer of ebseaction (ef, for example, Langacke 1988). Te should also be noted that he contents ofa clause pater Le. the meaning in tems ofa statement or a proposition, dees mat change asa rue ini llon fentenoen (One exception are quate whose scope of meaning dopends on erin 2a \ esEy tapes? | pon Tees = ‘heir relative postions i the clause, cf fw people now many languages v ‘ay ngueges aren bf peopl) | tangle pa ens “ic cincip fh loser, ag oth eid ice in ‘sandr of pope wth ce ~ |e pas aon alia 56D, Wit eprd exponents einai be whee ‘con erry nb’ of ene Since sequesi variable and my or nt be an exnet of Screw nd dle’ in segue bet diflece i te sin ca ae Strocture, or difference in sruetire without difference in sequence. she seta edt in (ii: 255) ‘you eal elation = Froning “Difference in sequence without difference in structure describes exactly the == ‘Tam ite lle i ha sd tai ave ie ue eng ero fice ms exec raaio=lweion inte stent he we pen SO" In tn yey of gemerane cy oma ashore ‘anftrnaooa gunners sion wa led ctrl yaegy. Tae 5 a | Sve lan sucha! bomonyay or aig Tn dered wf he lr cams eat cnc ‘Sh "ites in stutae witnu ference eqns” Hays ne {uotton above An example tht Haliday gives she following: [yw need masta good rast ~ Pasa det conicon tatoo reed meta good et (2) ean came fom the sas board me em her hin ay at suprised me~ | Etaposton | Hers, the prepositional phrase from the gar board ca te given two analyses tsps hear hin a at | ‘wt o diferent meanings ican poste the noun pss th man a 2 ees ee | | 5 clase pater o can bean aut nan SVA ptera “n | Te was menioned above that clad allosentences express the sane tbh plo itch proposition ina difrent word order or na foesing contusion. In Figure 2.4 ey pronounced eveyone of te accsed |Posgonemen there ia representatve, although not exhaustive lit of eonsirstons by which = pais of sllwentences sre systematically related. The modified examples are Bey pronounced uly eveyone of te taken rom Quek etal (1985 58-89, 1377-1402) } cued Plenty of people are geting Essteral te promston there ar plenty of people gating pronatn Figure 24: Sytematic correspondences Between lltentencst 2112.1 Objective and subjective order The choice of allo-sentnce depends on the verbal context of the clause, i. ts conten aul the preceding clause, The velton ofan allo-sentence tots cor Ace» coe | tet hasbeen desi invvious tre mews and tintin. | ‘Widowson (19725) fr copes of roporiondeveupmests | Sento re contest spropite wc ty xs ropoton inch a ney at io he ropeional evelopment of the isos art whois [-} Ocenlly mening we ean #9 tht poste ae rans in ach yt nat iknow, gen, lnc fis inthe ance, and what onown or now, Snes neon For Widdowson (bi) the exchange (3) is od, because B's answer doesnot str with what mataly known or pven, Je, eommon ground. (8) 4: What dite rain do? 1B: Thecops were deszayed bythe rin, nthe eter hand, 1 lteratve sneer to A gestion in (4) are felicitous (What happened tothe cops? | ‘B. The crops were desuoyed bythe ra, ‘Thay were destroyed by the ain Deatroyed by the rn, Here we have cohesive, Le. coreferentia, links between the topic af rope | {common ground) in A's question and B's anrwers Ar D's sore show the en topic canbe taken up, for example by repeating the noun phrase right t ‘the beginning (a case of lexical cohesion), by refering to it witha pronoun (2 ‘ase of reference) oe by simply leaving it out ace of ellipsis) B's answers in (@) can be viewed a llo-sentenes which instantiate the elas pattem SVO, hich quite general, could also be instantiated by the active allo-sentence The rain destroyed the crop. And we should not thatthe vavints They were detryed by the ran and Destroyed by the rain ae possible nsantitons of ‘The erope wore dextroyed by the rain that coud be regarded a allo-tentences of sallosentees. ‘Widdowson (1978: 26) expresly relates the notion of cobesion, which will ‘be dealt with in dot in section 21.3, to propositional development ema Texte a ‘The potion of cohesion, then, refers to the way sentences and pats of fentenees combine so as to exsure tha thee is proposiionl development. Her is an authentic example of lito propositional development, ia which fhe author Peter Cary in his novel Jack Meggs (1997: 72) ses fronted object (tin) in an allosentonce that enables an information flow fom Known to ateworty: (5) MeConstable, the footman. Hi you had sworn to murder in his bed ‘The propositional development hed already been a topic in the Prague School andi theor) of Functional Seuence Perspective (FSP). Hate the Senaio notions of given’ and ‘new ae couched inthe tras of hem’ and tem’. Mathesius, the leading figure of the Prague School, recognizes two nds of arangemen: the objective ever, conesponding othe concerns of ‘Widdowson, andthe subjective order, which gins a special tats. Here is what ‘Mathesius (1975 [1961 156) hast say ‘Te usual postion of the theme ofan uterance she begining of ho sentence, whereas the theme occupies ate position ie. we proceed fom wha ie already known to what i being made known, We have calle this order objective since i pays epadt the here. The fevered order, in which th theme af he uterae comes fst end the theme follows is #ubj eet ve In normal speech hin order oosurs ‘only in emotionally coloured wterances in which the speaker pays no ‘regard oth here, starting with whats mostimporant fo hinsel. ‘The subjective order can be nicely demonstrated in comy joke taken fom Levis (1977: 36) (6) Dinar, waiter here's a flyin ny soup Water: then pesos you's preferred wine sit Inthe complaint ofthe diner the heme ofthe eran, «fly, comes fis and is flowed by the Theme in my soup. The emotive onder ives the trace an sporopiat emotional colour As an alteatve the diner could also have chosen Ihe objective order at n (7), which has aes dam fet. (Diner: waiter in my soup there ia Dy | 5 f \rr 2 caper? ‘Note hat we ae ot considering the medium-bound effets of intonation which ould ender (7) dramatic afer al 211.22 Linear thematie progression Propesinal development in tems of theme’ and heme! was descibed by Danel (1970, 1974) as hematis progression. Daoed was not only concerned i the elation between fo adjcent clases a8 was Widdowson, but aber ‘i te tet stucturingpoteatl ofthe themati elements: ‘Toe TP [thematic progression] might be described in terms of FSP [Functional Sentence. Pespesive), fe. each uteance will be represented as a nexus of FR [themesheme) and as we must assume tia each T [theme] (as an already know, old piece of information) as tobe chosen (tied) fom the subject miter sendy presented inthe given scours (tx) from the common stock of knowledge fhe parcpans ofthe dscoure (tena readers ofthe te), our tsk ist ind ou this corel or situational coanetion for each T {theme This connection wil be indesed ere by means ofa vera tow { (vile the borizmtalarow + indestes the T-R [heme- ‘heme seeat in an erance. Thus the TD [hema progetsion) tlght be defined asthe contenu of pariular Ts [hemes] and {hr conection with text, is supa ad situation. (Dan 1970 a) ‘Ther ae busily tee types of thamaie progreston: two operat atte level of overt wor-forms (i, lexically and grammatically) and one atthe level of fenmnict. In other word, the Set two Ges dal withthe themes of clause emplees (sometimes called sentence teres) and the thd with ext theme’ the later wl dent within section 4 of cptr 4 om seman ote. ‘The fist ype of overt tematic progression ithe simple linea progesin’ canbe gaphiealy symbolized a in Figure 25 (stands for theme abd R stands fr Whee) and exemplified asin (8), which tken fom Dane (1974: 118, Nook t oom Tete 5 (@) Te first ofthe antbiosce was dicoveredby Sir Alexander Flemming in 1928 He was busy atthe tne investigating cata species of germ ‘whi i espoasible for boils and other troubles, 1, the fet ofthe anibioics, is elated to Ry, Si Alexander Flemming. The refereat of Ris taken up withthe pronoun he ia the net clase complex a Te {Tyisslated to Re, acrtan spect of germ, which n tum is taken pas Ty 1 the elaivepronotin which, which Is intr felted 0 Ry responsible for bos ‘ond other roubles. ‘The stylistic device of simple linear progression doesnot dseibe whole texts but ater porlons of tem It an be found in simple natives and fy tls, example (2), which is reptted hte e (9), (9) Once upon tae thre was king He hada dah, She was very prety. ‘The second type of overt thematic progression is ‘rogreston with continuous them. I can be symbolized grphialy asin Figure 26 and ‘exemplified asin example (10), again taken fom DaneS (1974: 118-119) hook t hook t how ‘gure 2.6: Progression with a continous theme (10) The Rousseau expecially fel an inner kinship with Prometheus end ‘other Titans. He is fascinated by any form of asrgeny.. He must how sn clementary energy in his explosion again the enabled order and at fe sme time a boundless sympathy forthe vetins oft. Purr te ‘Rousset is ever eady to dover Det of in ajone wh i under the eprobaton of society ‘The continuous theme here "the Rousseau" which taken up several ties, bythe pronoun he and the reps dhe Rossseaus. Exanpl (10) shows that there ita connection beeen the clase themes and the theine of paragaph (or even a larger portion of a tet). Therefore, the Roxasees can also be regarded local ext theme which Is very expressedx” case? ‘We have ssen in tis section tat information How can be stilid fom ‘ius perspectives which all relate othe same cohesive devices (pronouns and Jes linkage) propositional development of tere andrheme from one clase to the nex, clausedatemal arangeent of theme and them, end theme progression over several clauses nthe following section 2.1.3 a frtber aspect ‘wil be diseased, namely the refering funtion of grammatical and lxial ements 2113 Realization of clause elements refere by refering back and forward ‘We have nod in section 1.1 tht Hallidy/Hasn (1976: 2) regard text as 2 semantic uni "unit not of form but of meaning” Surely, forthe linguist a text ‘onrits of & sequence of word-erms. But the wor-foms are structurally felted only elas completes and not beyond. The pia shat ex isnot 2 {grammatical unt the stem of ranks (CE Figure 2.1 in sexton 21 above) Inthe words of Hallday/Hasan (976: 27): "There are no sutra units papergame<) (Co-ntension is defined by Hallidy/asen (1983: 74) as follows: "Here the relish [1 [J hat both {meesbers] refer to something within the same [ener ld of meaning.” The example of anfonomy (43) and metonyny (4) ‘an be regarded aa instances of co-estesion. Departing and srving in (3) a2 ‘ages of journey, and in (4) Ford us President ofthe United Sts resides a the White Hwee 211.47 Place rlators The creation of «textual world depends ersilly on spatial and temporal ovieaton. Therefore the expressions that refer to places mentioned ina text, sore special atenton Place relator are a mixed etegoy. is there tthe ‘wo demonstrative advecbs hore and thre that can refer to plco mentioned before inte text. Here are two corpus examples, (48) fom te BNC, (9) fom Sines (1990: 388)“ oper? (48) The esative rout adopted by the government with espect ote comical and asessment procedures Tor schols in Englund and Wales, ‘ora wth the situation found in Seeland, Here the restructuring ofthe ‘calm and asersment practice hasbeen grad nrodueed (BNC cNs13-18) (49) 1 decided to ty Newmael, [soon found ob thers. Besides the gamma tems here and thor, thee ar also lescal way 0 sblish spatial corefeence. This is highly dependent on the station ofthe ‘xtra world described andthe crete text world Therefore the place retry often have fetes ofthe rected code in tha the noun pass are not made fal explicit but rely on our eon snd statins knowedge ‘Some of he information that i not expliatd an be recovered in tems of ssrutral ellipsis. But there is also a stutioal ellis, whic ison the borer to tematic implication, This can be demonstrated with short txt fom Quik tal (1985: 1448). (50) On Tuesday evening, Iwas atthe fon door aking to a calle. Suddenly ‘we herds erash and two crs collided just opps, We hurted acoso fe we could help. One driver assembling i besding pote, ‘hd my vitor helped him avert the pavement. Then long came soe peopl sang up te tet I dashed back jn and phoned for help, When | ‘went ou agin the othe driver was tying to move his car down the road a ‘The fll understanding ofthe place slators canbe made explicit a fll: (51) atthe rot door fot the speakers hose) Jnstopposte [to where the speaker and tbe vstor were standing] ‘eros [the intervening pace (of fotpath and stres), ‘out ofthe driver's er ‘over [the pace between the ar and the kerb] slong (estes) Up the stet towards the speaker /up the il] bck i he speakers howe) out (ofthe howe) down the road (aey from the speaker / down the il] Into the side fof stret Here are to ore examples fam Quik etl (1985: 1449) tha how how place relator rely on ellipse: oma Texte © (62) He examined the cr- Th tnt [ofthe ea] was slighty damaged (63) The building was heavily gorded by police. The windows at thetnp fof the ‘lldlag] were covered With boards ‘Examples (52) and (53) als show tht nominal place estore ca be viewed cases of mefonyn, since spatial orientation relates to pars of lage ets, famely car and ulin. 21.38 Time relators and tense marking ‘The eabesive relations in & txt alo depend on the ine references that sre tne, as Quik a a (1985: 1481-1452) expla Since time pases. iespesive of lostion (which need not change), temporal cues to peiods and to references baler, afer, within, and tring these periods ae moe inerently extent than locational ‘itr (.] Once time reference hasbeen exblished, certain temporal fijcives and adverbs may order subsequent information in relation to the tne reference, ‘Te cokasie temporal relation that i established with adjectives and adver cm be demonstrated inthe following examples fom Quit eal. (bid) (4) He handed ina goo essy. His previous essys were all por. (85 shal explain to you what happened, But fit must give you acup oft. (66) Te deat ofthe President was reported this afemoon on Calo rao. A simullangous snouncement was broadeat fom Baghdad, (51) Sever ofthe conspirators hve been areted butter leader is as yet unkaowa. Meanie the police are conning thee investigation iat the polialsynpathies ofthe group. (68) Ifthe at 10 pa. And bo wa almortalep, But some ae hour he ‘st have ita eign ($9) Themanagr went to aboard meatng this moming, He Was then de to ‘atcha tain to London.z t “ hap Examples (54) ad (5) give ime erence provost & given time, (86) and (67) simultaneous with » given time aad (38) and ($8) subsequent toa given “Another important fstor forthe cohesion ofa ext and an understanding of te time references in text world fe ente marking. Qu etl (1985: 1458) span ‘But, sa further indication ofthe importance of tine in language, all finite slurs (and many nonfiite one) eer disese indication of tense and aspect. Although the contrasts involved ae severely United ‘in comparison wit advil dsnctions, hey cont to the tx ‘cahesion and progression, and of course they cannot be absent ‘The importance of tense making can be demonstrated with the fllowing sleratives given by Quit eta ibid) (60) She tld me all bout the operation om her hip (2) Tescemed to have Been cess. (It seemed 10 he) (©) Tecemstohave been a success, (It seems ome.) Example (60) nicely shows the difference between reported time in () and reporting tine (0). ‘The change between thee can lso be observed in the flowing ext fom Quite el (id): (61) Asa child, ILIVED in Singapore fg very bot ther, you know, nd fever OWNED an overcoat. I niember being pursed a pete Books| ‘howing European children wrapped up in ea cose and serves. biel THOUGHT itll as exotica children bre hink bout ‘comes clothing Figue 29 shows how the differen ene markings relate to the reporting time (an, Le the tne ofthe text poduction, and tothe reported tie in the fet rode past (THEN), oma Texel ° THe om Ihe e ommed Sow hough remember beleve ‘hk Figure 29: Reported and reporting time example (61) 2139 Referring forward Altbough grammatical and lexical cohesive devices ee mainly sed ‘naphorially to refer back, there is also eataphoric, 2. frtardpoiatng fefereace in tes. Fst, we must distinguish between cusphorie erence ‘vitin te clase complex on thé one hand, and beyond claute complex Sounderieson the othe. The fist station is given in complex noun phrases sith a defining relative clause, when te definite ance oft noun oa pronoun lat forward othe defining relative clause sin examples (5) and (53) fom allidyasan (1976: 72, 5). (62) the people who predicted a dey summer (63) He who hesitates slot. ‘Ten ther tthe case Gf‘ dslocatlon. This occur ifthe fit, pronominal realization of «noun phrase i repeated in its more explicit frm asin example (64) trom HalidayMsan (bid: 56), which combines exophoric refrence (ference tothe situation) with eatphore reference, (64) Theyre good ites peaches From the pont of view of tex-lingusticscataphorle erence arose clause complex boundaries is moro inportat. Ths Is acleved by the demonstrative Jroncuns this and these, which point to noun phrases or propesions inthe Fallowing clause complexes in examples (68) ftom HaldayHasan (1976: 17) nd (65) fom Sncla(1990: 395). (65) This i how to getthe best results, You lt he bese yin the sn til ll ihe moisture has gooe out of them. Then you gather them up and cp them ery finea cuper2 (66) Thane were the facts: ona warm Februayafemoon, Gregory Clark and [Pond were criting down Washington Boulevard ina Mustang ‘aayiaean (1976: 56 lo give an example ofthe cataphore use of that incohesive (61) You woud never have believed it They've accepted he whole scheme. Snel (1990; 395) mentions less items refering eataphorclly tides, tents or pists of wrtng that ll next ia a text, for example (68) {dry the fllng conclusions that natural childbirth and roming in shoald be avalable forall who want them, ‘emus be pone out that eataphorcrefeence is oflen not wed to etblish an ‘vet referent relation fn text wold (Le coreference) but rater to inform, the reader of what comes next 2244 Connecting clauses in clause complexes and beyond “The ideas het ave pt nto wording are expressed ia clases. There are several vray ow the clauses of txt can be symtacialy o textually slated, Relating ‘ines syntactically means that the cnure form aaytaci unit ealed ‘clause ormpea One way of relating clauses in a clause complex is by 'eytactic ‘ourdinaton. This makes ure of soordito Ike and abd uz, which signa ‘hata clase beginning wih thve clement ie part of bigger strseture, namely the clause complex. This willbe dacussed in section 2.1.4.1. ‘Another way of relating causes In « clause complex is by ‘tac subordiion. This menos tht dependent, is. subordinate, clauses. ae retry past of a supredigte, independent clause, whichis sometimes filled. marix clause. The stuctal dependency is mainly sgmalled by ‘bordiatore’ ike and becouse andlor pontine ve phrase. This willbe dseseed in sation 2.142. Since the clause complex isthe largest static uit, textual eelatins ‘beyond lause complex boundaries can only be established stantially, eter ‘overtly ty inking words lik the eonjet horefore ox ipl by coherence inking words wil be discussed in seton 21.43 and coherence setion 43. smal Tete a 2.4 Syntactic coordination static coordination i formally signalled by what re called eoorinators or ‘wottnsting conjunctions. Clear ass of coordinators ere and and or- Quik et ‘2 (i9es: 927) repad and andor acetal coordinators ef. Figure 210 below. ‘Thay ae atone end of cordnston-subordnation gradient with ‘conjunc a tren “The central coordinators and and or can ink more han two causes and when they do, al butte nal Inszce ofthe inking items canbe ome, ‘hample (69) fom Quik ta. (1985: 925). (69) Th battery may be disconnected, fr] he connetion may be loos, othe lb may Be fly. ‘This property doesnot hold forthe (es central) coordinator but nar for the onjunets et and therefore (ef. below). “The eaocdinstors sid, or and but (ike some ofthe conjunet and al f tho subordnstors) ate restted tthe intl posits in a classe. Thus ben they Coordinate rbordiaate clauses they stand in font of the suborinor, ef ‘rape (70) fom Quik et al (1985: 92). (90) L wonder whether you should go and see her or ht tober x ita better to wile Conjunto ot poses he propery flaking subordinate clases (Cand yc] tee) end ore diferent ine enpect fom soon. Aaoter ‘Gicece etn coodnaters cn ao ink costes os clausn og nos phos, wich only 2 subclas of eons, eg. ye can do (eg fm Tete had Te conan theses belongs fo ieent soba as he oper tn itis not reid to eal poston of te ine, of. exaple [Gi}Gom Quine ee (1985: 685). (71) Because Jennifer fer thie well in advance she ther necessary me o ake preventive action. ad the Atte ther end ofthe gratin thee are sbordinators tke fBecaue and alhough:Svordinatore ace dings from coordinators and the cojunct Set by the propery tha they ean lnk only clauses but not clause constuens, (ee betow, Figure 210 summasizes important istinesons of Qui subordination gradient. tal’ coordination:TeeBeIa RE Fane | 2 coupe Galen Eanples calcein dor (escent) eortar | but onus yet ‘rior. sora i becuse, atough Figure 2.10‘To coordination subordination gradient ‘Te flowing examples from Quitk etal. (1985: 921) show that equivalent erate relations berween clauses in s cine complex can be achieved by. ‘ing coordintor (72), a coalunct (73) or 2 suborinatar (74); the idea of ‘Seapolnimea i expres inal tree examples. (12) He wid hat, bt efile (13) He wid hard, yet be fled. (04) Heed hard, inough be ld Besed on corpus observations, Sinclar (1990: 374) notes that if clauses having the Same subject are coordinated th subject isnot usualy repeated if the connector is and, or or then, ef examples (75) to (7), bt thai is usa to ‘peat the sujet ifthe connector is ut, 2 oF yt. (78 0 (80), (75) He took her hands fom he ey and he ed her towards she house (76) Its ong time since youve bought them a dink or [eu elated, (77) Wen he recogrized Monts she wet ple, he sel used. (78) Ley ad se ithe way baat (19) Ua 90 ct 20 Lined one forse oumes (60) He ote fig, 36 somehon he meas wth i dint ene, If two ssions are performed by the same thing, person of group, the £60 ‘ess can be coordinate, In some eases ii ifcat to distinguish between he rom Tee 2 cooriation of wo causes (vith subj els) an two verbs (Salar 1990:370 (a1 Wetuth sage an fel nad (92 shot a hoot atten. Cher cositvents that can be corned sxe noun phrase, ative hve eva praes nd preposton atthe fillwing corps eps Som ‘ta 990:378381) bow (65) Telok an shit were ily sige (@4) Me Scots hous was lrg andimasing (65) Quick hut ile hey dared out oft eal (06) Wesesthem on hei ay tan fam choo ‘Such cae of coordination ae, howeve,cobetve only within» cau nd ‘ctr of immediate at Tinga eres. Detld scout desertion of ordinnr and conjunc can be fon in sandardfeferece grammars © Quite eal (985: 634547, 950951) or Sil (990:373385) 211.42 Syotactc subordination Syntactic aubornaion a the level ofthe claus complex our if clasts ae sk by features of structural dependency which relate ther ooter clauses Inaclause complex. Stuctrl dependeny is signaled by subordastors (og. ‘Seceuse),sbjet- operator inversion asin (87) othe absence of ante Verb as in (6) ct Quo a (1985: 1006). (67) Had been more fortrgh, I would have seqied more suppor. (68) Denving any interest in polis, she lad that he wished to continue in foresie medicine ‘Scbordinators in a wider sense comprise 'ubordnating conjunction Ike” nd Beceun,welemeats ike how, what and why, and tha sed ax lave noun o intoducing a nominal clase. ‘A subordinate clause may fineton either asa clause elemento within a ‘danse element As clese element tay function as subject (89), objet (9,# pera complement (01), of adverbial 62) na superordinate clause. The examples (88) {0 (05) re fra Qui tal (1985: 1087) (89) That we eed lazer computers become obvious (00) He doesn know whathe tessnia i. (91) One likely result ofthe postponemeatis hat she ost of consisting she college lL. ery much habe. (62) When yo them, give them my best wishes, ‘Within a cause clement, a subordinate clause functions as a postmodern 8 oun plugs, ie relative clause, (93), preposidonal complement (94) or jecival complementation (5) (93) (Few ofthe iunirans retina] the customs hat they hd rove ih ‘them (04) (it depens) on what we desi. (5) (Weare happy tose. “Thee ae three major fnctional clases of robordinte clauses hat pend on the fnstion they AUB ap clause elements or within a else element: ‘nominal clause’ 'averbial cause and eave clauses. "Nonna clauses refer to events, fits, dates, and ideas rater than to perepble objects as do noun phrases (Qui eal ibid). They function as {uber objet or complement ina superordinate clause Here are some fuer ‘compu examples of nominal clauses fom Sincll(1990 314,339, 369) (06) He promised o give me the money object cause] (07 Our hop sa hisses. wil ooperate. complement claus] (99 What ssid wae perfectly tre. fovjet claus] (09) They di not ike whathe wrote (objet cause] Adverbil clauses fneton ae adverbial in 2 siperordnate clause. They ae anid sororing to the semaatcs thatthe suborénators expres. Quik et {U9E5: 1077-1118) pve very detaed classification, wile the on By Sint (1990: 34) is mote cursory. His lasifeaton is given in Fgue 211 blow. {The following usttive examples ae seo fom Sel (1990: 344362). ora Terie s 100) Her ater died when he was. youn. (101) Government cannot operate effectively yaless its fos. fom such (102) They had to take some ois land inorder o extend the churchyard. [Tipe Fadel cause] Usa sorting conjunctions [Example oy hen bls, fer, she, hl until (100) eondioral danse | uss (o8) use dause | inorrin sothat (002) reason dase becuse, sce a5 (103) rent che sou (oH) encase duce | atouph tough ile (05) ce cee hers aber (108) [dase ofmarner | le he way (on Figwre21I:Dypes of adverbial clawses and their usual subordnating conjunctions (103) ads now that he had boon marie ins she seldom talked seat ral (104) My sitease had become damaged onthe joumey home, sata th i wen not stay closed. (105) tue to ead ot altoush L dont get much tine or books (106) He said he was bapey mre he was (007) twas never allowed to do thins the way Late to do ther Asa summary ofthe min possibilities to connect clauses and clause complexes ‘helt in Figure 2.12 below aay be help“ carne? {iwi be ated that both coordination and subordination operate tte rank levels of clause and classe constiuent Furthermore syntciecoordiaton by jun, especialy yes smilar to subordination ice both a suborinator and {Jet ahow the feature of being immabile~ restricted to the il positon of = ‘use and tht they cannot fink subordinate cuss, sretures hat ae als0 invodoed by subordinators (cf, section 2.141 above) The medal position of| ‘conjunc onthe coordination bondi gradient wored by the fat ht ‘conjunc canbe viewed as inking both, unt atthe lve of te claus and units ine level ofthe clause complex Siac ubodation hea due lament renin! dase subject use thject dase Complement dase dtl de clue tina date coset alae dee Prepstonlcomlenent faecal complementation Syiact coottin fuses ‘by cooriator by conn cf dee contents by oot by count “Teal age fdas compres by enn igure 2.12:How to connect lowes ond clause complener From the point of view of etingsists, as oppoted ost, the eabesive relations a te evel ofthe clase comples, which const the textual linkage ‘oF elure complexe, are of apecil interest Its here that canjunets ply an ingot oleae acabesve dove, To these we wil tm ext | | ; an Tete ” 2.4.43 Textual linkage of clause complexes “Th chesve devices that we hve disused so arin this subchapter 2.1 (Order {nd realization of elements) were manly concerned with cohesive devices ha fete corefeeace and serve to establish textual Weld. Now that we ae ‘Talng with conuncs, the perspective changes fom the texiul word tha it Sescribed inthe text othe tewt-prodocer. Quik et al (1985: 652) desorib he funtion of conjunc as fllows ‘We relate conjuncs to the speaker's comment i one quite sect respect his asseesment of how he views the connection betveen two linguistic units. The units concerned may Be wey large or very tal ret CConjunetsav adverbias that ar gramaatiall itn fm adjunct by the fotowing features: ‘The adverbial (Le. conjunet} cannot be the focus ofa clef sentence; ‘anno be the bai of contrat in alternative introgsion or negation; anno be focused by subjuncts. (iid 631) With reference to example (108) these features are demonstrated by Quitket a, (1985: 631) in examples (108) to (111): (408) She may be unable to tend the meeting. ou should nonablae end her the agends (108). nonetheless tht you should end be the agenda cada nantlesk or therfore? (U1) "You should ony nets send her the aged ‘Quitket al. show tht the sate rol of expressing arelition between to ‘nits ean be filed by an ajunet ora conjunet. This sdemonsuated withthe folowing examples (10). *Should you send her the: (112) Itwas snowing, nad jn site ofthis Mona wet eyeing {adjunet) (113). and. in ite of this that Mona went cyl (114 Tt was sowing, nd nonethlees Mona went ying. (115) +. andi was nantes that Mona went eyeling [conan]* caper (Qin ta (1985: 633) summarize the situation displayed in these examples a5 follows Conjunts ths both nda the relation and are demonstrably outside the syueclly integrated clase structure which admits adjuncts. (Quit ota. Gd: 634) see conjuncts "inthe wider context of inter-sentence felitons and discourse tructue". As wat stated above, conjunc express bow the texepreducer views the text-semantie connection between ingen (Quite a (1985: 63-640) distinguish diferent onjunctive voles, which are sunintied in Figure 2.13 Conenatie ae Enagles ising ist second, eat corespondingy, Monte sinc merece nadton suamatve stage, hrefre appostve rae tats reste acon as ares intent tenis, rat ase conta [reformat ater ately replace onthe other ad itt yeaa comely coeasve everest a! ‘rnin | acme incerta, by te way tempol meatie eventaly igure 2.14: Roles ofconjnete 1 sy be noted thatthe spcil category of 'onjunet isnot recognized in Snel (1990) grammar, or in HaldayHases (1976) Work. The ltr oaly de 0 "ontnuntiver which are vaguely comparable to conuncs (ed 76), Forel Tevet » 212 Corplingwistic approaches to the study of words in texts tn sion 21 we concentrated on bilateral, usually point-to-point ations of Fngustic unt. The two elated unis were () word-forns of specified tical or lesen clases that occa in one clause or clause complex ahd fh refer to (oer, usually preceding clauses in text. The relation that are ‘hs established ffl the funcon of creating eahesvecoreference and temporal for spatial erietation na text, and of indicating hw the tex-producer views the enteton erween ingustic unis. Th hs section 2.2 we arena 0 mach concemed wit the cohesive potential ot indvidal classes of wordfoms, Le. with te paradigmate (ubsturona) {spect of eabeson, but eather wih the syatagmas (combiatral)relaions of ‘ments ina text. AB we have son above, the paradigmatic aspect of cohesion fencers the choice, i. the realization, of indvidval clase constituents in & fonerete textual eaviroament. For example, given the fist sentence in (116), poss choles to refer toa ing would bea pronoun, a repetition, a synonym fealyperonym. (16) Once upon a tne there was aking. Hefhe Kngthe monarehhe alr bad ‘daughter ence we ar concered with he paradigmatic choices ofa text-eoduce that he ‘as in is heed a associative posits and chat will give paradizmatc slo The paradiginate choices are defined a ingviti etegories ike pronown, Synonym, hyperonym, adverbial ad conjunc. These paradigmatic choles may ‘erepreseied at in Figure 2.14 paradigatc hice of pote tm ‘}_ legates nt | | eee Figure 2.14:Paradigmatte chotce ina symagmatic chainE 5 “The syntagmate spc on he Sher han, doesnot foews on he ‘potential, but rater on the acl string of word-foems in a text. Thi is where {he corpslingustic approach becomes relevant. Prom a syatagnatic point of ‘view ve aro longer dealing ith posites in the ead ofa tex-poduce ‘he mode of lings, bt rather with matually occurring sequences of lee ‘complexes intext andthe coreerental relations ofconereteword-forms in 8 text (ef Flawe2 19), Co igure 218Syntogmetie relation ofeonrete te ‘The text isis taken fom a source called ‘orp. This it unually a ealeton of texs that have been produced in ral fe communication and tn ode 0 emonsuate« Tnguise point, os we have seen in the potential sequence is (116) The sree of (116), of outs, nota corpus but intuition, The wording (oF (116) is what is respect termed an'amhait example” Coors can be explored in two ways: (on a smal sale by textal nays and (i) on a large scale by ‘iequney-based_cbservatios' in a Somputeized corps. Textual analysis seks to show lexical paters in given ‘ext by relating items inthe sytagmatic, ctl chan of werd-foms. Teta ‘habs it at nied to bt poatto-pin relations but rahe intrested in ‘uooverng the network of mullateral poixtopoint relations in areal text (. Figure 218) Thi apprsch wil be dressed in seton 2.2.1, Figure 216 Nenork of wordforms ina tet (nthe eer hand he feguensy-based compuinguitic study of word in testis ot Interested inthe syiapmatc relations of conrete items In one ‘Specie text, but rather inthe ikelinood that given werd-formco-ocus wih ‘Sether word-frm in a larger collection of ets, Le. ina computerized corpus, ‘his approach is the subject of sexion 222. 224 Lexa paterns Levi pate as networks ae deserted, for example, by Hallidey isan (G95: Gh 5) and by Hoey (1991) Halliéay/tasan (1985: 70) of for ‘femonstaion a short text, which seems tbe the transcript of an orally rodbed ebildens story (11) ence upon time there was ite gi and she went out fr a walk and thes lvely ite eddy boa ad 0 abo took ithome and when he ‘thom she wasted it “The nework of lexical pater inthe five clause compleues canbe represented sin Figue 217, o t she went > wa iB aed t he got home seit Figure 217:Lescal pattern of example (117) Ie will be noted tha the relations in this Title text are of diverse types: (2 ferefrence between nouns (girl, tedybear) and pronouns (oe, i i)a oper covefrence by repetition (home) (i) coreference by synonym (walk gor ‘ovement Hoey (991) purus tis approsch fnther and analyses more challenging texts He shows tha in pincple ll the cohesive means tat we have dacused In setion 2.13 above (ronouns determiners, comparison, ubsition ellipsis, lexieal coberion, place relatos, tne relstors and camphor reference) can partake fn such a network. Hoey (1991 38) analyses the following piece of popular factual reporting (118) 1A drug known to produce violet reactions in humans has bon sed for sedating grizaly bears Uswe arto in Montana, USA, according 1 teportin The New York Tne. 2 After op bear, known to be a peaceable Sima killed nd ate a camper naa unprovoked stack, cents {icoveredithad bean tranguilid 11 tine with phencjeliin,o'engel ‘dnt, which eau hallucinations and somatines gives th ser an of destructive power. 3 Many wild bears have become "guage junkie feeding from dumps around human developmen. 4To {void potential dangerous clashes betven them and humans, sieatiss ‘eying to rehabilitstethe animals by drogging them a releasing them in uninhabited areas. 8 Although some biologists deny thatthe mind therng drug was responsible for uncharacteristic behaviour of is partalr bean research as bee done into the efecto giving ‘rial bears or other animals repeated doses of pheneyclidine. ‘Te lencl pattem in thi text canbe vinuliod by sown before. In order notte make the petre too confusing Hoey shows seotenes by sentence how the lexical element in a current sentence relate tothe following sentences Figure 2218 show how leial element of tenance | relate to flowing elements in ‘he text by what Hoey eal "epetiion Link’. The lexical puters that ve sentence {asa starting pol are again of dverse types. Besides the repetition of lexemes there is hyponomy between Baar and nina synonymy between produce, cawe and responsible for, morphological relation between wed end ‘ter and oreferencebetvoen Dear ad hem ena Tete 1am prc vier aon ams hs ene oT repoin he Uncuadsite bekaigar of thoeflocs of gg gral bears er ether annals repeated doses of pence ptr bear retearch as Been done ‘Figure 218:Lexel pattern n example (118) [iv evident that he recuring lexical tems els somthing about he ope ofthis arte. This an be easily demonsvated with the help of «wordlist of the {est whsh ranks the tokens of th tet in a equency Norah (ef Figure 2.19), ‘Th function words in Figure 2.19 are aligned tothe Ie te content words the right. The ranking shows tht the highest ranking content words fell us fometing about the contents of thie ale: tht it deals with bear, dug, mans snd scents, \ Ns4 taper? | peat eeet « iook [Worden repetition refet he ope ofa wii ad hat gene Hi ik tht in Figure = fp are wofl Sica dea at nde wad is, which i a i of the 1 |e 5 Sortfoms of toxin the eer ofthe ist oesurene Sine (1980: 30) 2 |e 5 sere a allows 3 |e 5 Eich sccestve wordfor is compared with ech revious on. it ina new wordfomm i i povided withthe counter sett Ty the aula is ord has occrred Belo, i deleted fom the fox and 1s 5 [aw ‘ dd the counter atthe plas of fit oseurence ofthe wor-frm. le 4 ‘suc alist ean show oi changes o tpi dgresions, Snel (199: 13-140) ‘Senplifs in order word lst based onthe following tx xample (19) 7 tews| 3 3 [beer 3 (019) (1) Tera my kn of ity nd communication i oly on \2 them, although often doe not ook mic ike ae (2) The saves 16 3 [eee 3 fala ein ook very nate lee, ed someone sting wth is ly 10 [an z ‘jer at istening ta anesor ough earpbones may seem fly ia Sate (3) But ina bars we ea stage of ammuicten where te ‘s im saiatl 2 sii sated in tine (Ie consider the whole reese aie a fe = [Bobviows enough. 3} The nervous ai of asthor is peda, and 8 the sent ede in his armchaakingeotiuou, sand prec a 8 og) 2 ‘je movements (6) Ad ike the rai tenes brains gh ave f mc 2 iti aking anything i {7} There re many Lind of commision, toad banan 5 in| 2 mmminfeaton tough language only eral obec, bough it is vary import. [f} Atoms to se out he spect caactrises of ~ 16_|tes 2 ‘nun gun ive become gute sophisiae. 0] But search 7 Tal 2 workers have now erated mow aspect of human vert eommniaon Inanimas and machines. (10 aap mankind oly emaning bots 8 toom| 2 thn we hugh fst [11] ince a net nd active rc z Kind of asi A ‘phenyal 2 ‘An cxcept rom th fit oder word ist of his tet given in Figure 2.20, Note a 3 fen he fst tent wordtokens inthis ist here he) eomespend roughly to fhe fit sexence in example (119). The list wuncted: it args he z tines] 2 stographic sentences [3] (5) (edited bythe brake ine in Figure 220) snd [8] 0 [II] The wort forms mated by broken detain ae te pount Figure 219.ord frequency above In example (18) fd sje tha recur nthe ext, Le. hve counter larger han 1 The st ® ‘renin eed ‘hows that he epsted lexical ems activi, commanction a brary oct ity eatin the tet ant, fer abou to tis of tho ex, te excel Since (990 30) dries a metod by which i poste wo get ues |e aman nd language enter he ext ab ow ens Wi pein esis. bout the opis text and changes of tps inate Its obvious tha excl Ama Teste o Siler observations can be made in almost ny tox. A very clear example canbe sen inthe Bish National Corpus (BNC) document ABC from he book is Tir Life a Survive, Sines there ae not many alternative ay 1 ‘Re to dolphins, the wordforns dolphin and dojphns ca be found in slost ‘ery sentence ofthe tex However, there sa dgreston in sentness 746 1 $e (eleady prepared in 744-74), which make up two paragraphs eal about Jorpoises,contitng altogether of 85 words (920) [Except from BNC document ABC, 744-756] Between 1977 and 1981, {the season fr hunting alls porpoise Increased from 4 mnths to 10 ‘month, end in 1987 the numberof boats hunting the doihins and [porpte inthe area incensed from 200 to 350. By 1988, ithe slnost ‘oubledagsin to 600, nd ont based on Ivate took over 90 pe cent of| ‘the total reported Japanese dolphin and porpoise catch, [746] Karu’ fers proved to be well ounded, and be deopped bombshell atthe 1989 meting ofthe WC' Selenite Commits, when be revened to the Small Cetacesns Subcommite the staggering incense {nthe aumbe of Dll’ poroie killed in the harpoon fishery based on vate Prefctre. In 1988 cccrding to Kasuya, ove 39,000 Dalls omoit were Kile inthe harpoon fishery, no including porpoises hat Wort | Comer | Wontar | Gomer ie 2 (aa + ce 2 | + 7 fas. 3 c 2 Yow + co |e £ cunt 5 [omer + a 1 [se 2 ey 3 [esto + oe Io £ tia 2 |i + fen fae . or 1 le oi et 1 [ie : at 2 [oie © co 1 [ar £ me [aie + Be [oe . ele + [at * o faa + a0 2 [we : ae 1 3 7 2 [inane z cr 1 fasten + = 1 Yipee + igure 2.20 fave aid or reed strong argument mow often than the other combinations. ‘Therefore we aze more familar wih this combination, Inthe words of Hoey (2006: 6), we can refer to strong argument as a nonal collocation’ and t ‘abut arpument aaa na collocation. This concep itntion plays a roe in the explanation ofthe somewhat dase cnccps of naturales" and ‘shineeFg. [__Setofeoloates | Wortorm 35 | stony at | good 2 | power xgument 20 | omining + [rast ‘Rgare2.22Somelefthadcolloctes of >argument< in the BNC “The notion of fatness introduced by Sinclar (1984. He suggests thatthe syicte variable well-frmedil-fomed should be supplemented by the variable naturanon natural He dasrbes the ater s "ie concep of well- famedaesof sentences in et! (p.213). We should noe that he does ot speak ‘tin a tex" bat "intext. A we have seen in eatin I above, the sense of ‘his gone se ofthe werd fx is that of a corpus. Cavte/Malmjoer 2002: 550) we: In tet linguistic, then the inks between clauses are observed seoes featence boundaries, and these links can be teen to form larger falters of txt organization. In addition, however, reference to the fext srounding given sentence may be sen to cast light onthe naturalnee ofthe sentence in question (.] Some ofthe detrminan’s forthe falslment ofthe criteria of naturalness ace situs in the sorotnding discourse, while these for well ormedness are all within the entence elt “That i, texte (cingular of a8 conus are not stoied fer thei ex-uilding {ears but rater as the content fr naturally ocerrng and not eoneneted) "There ae several ctor tha ont to naturalness, for example the we ‘of pronouns and dele expressions. But pethaps the most impor fico Collocation Therefore Sinclair (1984 208) wes: “The textual evidence for ‘aturlnas is probablistic wo begin wih". And we should ad that probably in terms of corpus stasis bas expectation as its psyeolinguisc correlate onthe art ofthe linguage user, c-section 4.1 below. “The following example fom Sinclair (1984: 203) is ofen quoted to demonstrate how normal eollcstion inence ou expectations orm Teste a (120) Prince Charles is now a sb ‘the odanes of (12) i explained by’ Sinelal (1984: 20725 flows: Note tat a supporter sich ae good modifing husband would Tramediaely improve te naturalness ofthe sentence. [-] Thee is 2 conflict between the mutual expevations ofthe equative suc the indelae arte, snd the woréhurBond. Words devoting occupations (egeuil) would not cause this cof. In an aricle on "Clumsy English’ Hoey (2006) shows tht unusust colloeatons may contribute Yo the clumsiness of texts waten By non-native ‘Sfodents of English, Here ian example rom the ects he examines (p49) ov (022) but ifthe weer wants o convince the ead ‘thas to have enough information. ‘The problematic strings are comince she reador about something and have ‘nowgh information nthe corpora that Hoey consulted he found 28 instances ‘tthe ating convince [comebods] of [something] and only 9 of convince {fomebods] about (something). He concludes: "So the most natural expression would appear o be convince the reader of someting” (p. 49-0). The second ‘rpresson is problematic fra east hres reacons. Fis ii astocatd wih tenia like in don have enaugh Iyormation. Secondly, have ‘nformotion it ‘aed towards occuring with apostediieatn, for example hae formation thous The thir reason is explained as flows: hing in an ad, Finally, these ea implicit receiver ofthe information inthe example before us (enough information for the reader; have information is ot however atvoclated wid oceves, have being nore state verb Ina sample of 200 istances of have. yormaton there is an implied interaction in only 20% of cas, On the her hand provide ‘nformation, heh occas with rome expression of resiver ofthe smesage 59% ofthe time ina sample of 200 instances. (Hoey 2006: 50) ‘sas point in our scusson of naturalness I want o report ona sty of tollactions in which Hoey (2008: 33-35) dassibes the callocaes ofthe #60 Tmephologically related word-forms consequence and conseguencee. 1 ill fencentte onthe lefchandcollocates tht are adjectives and pve the main rele in Figures 2.23 and 2.242 coer Frey | Setebcaoctes | Wortorm @ a a a ” THY ia igure 2.25:Adjectvalefrhand collcates of consequence “The probity ranks of the lefthandcoloates ofthe word-forms consequence nd comequences show quite diferent sets of collocates. In fat theyonl hare the items seriou, posible and pola. This shows thatthe collocatiog meshing i ot necessarily amater ofthe lxeme o mena but ofthe indivi tnoréorme. (Some linguist use lemma’ and exer’ synonymovsly, others Imake 2 diference: Wile ‘ereme’ unites wortforms of the same lesa tmemning, emma’ does aot acccesarly so. Therefore BANK, ‘money Inston’ and BANK, ‘itd aren of river canbe regarded as v0 lexemes but only one lemma) Hoey (2005: 35) summarizes thse findings a fllows: ‘The collocation! behaviours of grammatically different instances of a lems may ovedap very ite; we might therefore expect fo ste the same lack of oveap in semmti associton, Foal Tete a ‘Setoleoeates | _Workorm |ansequenees SWRRVESSessyws ge yer Figwe 224-Adjctval left-hand collcates of eansequences< After desing with corpusinguisc approaches to the sty of words in indvides exe and ia text callecion, we now tum to eopielinguee proaches to he classification of texts 2.3 Corpustingulstle approaches to the eassfieaton of texts ‘The copussinguisic approaches to the classification of texts mut be sania the context of ether eppoashos. Therefore iti walt conser the compu linguist approaches in an overall aework. What follows i fir ofall at claseaton of text, Le. of textype, but an overview ofthe most inpotant ‘seria for tet clasifcation, This overview ie given in Figure 225,™ compe Testenoa Terie Fesipon Fidel dose eed “seme me Sete Poms ‘Specie oie Ot cen tel ten ‘iboaed ae) ” oscanncect Inge me “ier Stott igure 2.25 Criteria for text elassfeation “The int dstintion tht must be mad is that between tex-eteral and text internal approaches, Text-xtemal approsches are based en distinctions that are fot itnscaly linguistic in ature but which ean be made, for example, by Iiymen or Ubrarane, Thee datineions wil be adresse later in tis chapter sider aif pe (son 23.11). “Textinternal approaches canbe either medium-indpendent or medium- dependent This isa dstinton thats already efleced inte overall stuctire tthe preset book, The medium-independet leicogrammatiealstncture of texte ca be studied in tenn of seman approsches and of frmal approsches, ‘Among te semantic approaches two research Tins will be given special ‘consideration in ltr chapters ofthis bok, namely the study of sperstractres Inchaper nd the study of ntetions in chapter 6 ‘Among the tedimindependent formal approaches to text classification two researc tends canbe ditngushed. On the one hang, there isthe ty of ‘bic and esesve elements, This revearh ine was addressed above in chap de orm Tete 1 2.13 when we dicaised the dsinetion between ‘estcted! and ‘elaborated {oe On the other hand, thre are studies in the co-occurrence of li ‘Seats which ae studied with corps-inguiste methods, These research lines St be decssed inthe present chapter unde the topics of register and Yee ‘gpa (eE-seatons 23.1.2 and 23.13), esl, there are textntemal medium-dependeat approaches where the we, graph presettion or the spoken, oral presentation constitute decisive [Eto rte lsigament ofa textype, eg. a deat notice ora pop song. We trl del with hese factors ofextyplogy in chapter 3 21 Genres registrs and text-types BML Genres ‘ike many notions in linguistics, the concepts ‘genre ite and Yettype ae ‘ound to specific theodes and must be explained with mere basic concept. Flowing Enkvist (1973 et), we classed such tems as "notatonl teas" (eh section 1.1 above). Ia the framework developed here, the meanings of \Seove register and tex-ype” ae interlated and, as we wil se, thre i 2 ogres of sophistication fom gers to reister to text-type, This oto deny fiat othr definitions ofthese concepts do exist In fact several authors have Changed thei terminology and definions over the yeas. Those diferences, ever ae not relevant othe purpose at hand "We understand gone’ a «txteteral notion I is weed to clas texts tun according to the ert ‘ediun, ‘partipation and eld of discourse (Gk Figure 2.25 sbove). The exiterion'odlun’ fetes tothe orgin ofa tex, ‘aly whee originated in spech rin wing. The eterian partlptin’ refers to the dstincdon between monologue and dilogue (or pelyogue, ie. “Gacouse between more than wo individuals). Te criterion Belé of scores as todo with the subject mater or topi of «text We can regard thee three ‘teria as baie guidlines fr th ellection of tents in earpera, with possible fier, more delicate distinctions. "The basi ditions made in one ofthe oldest compra, the Survey of eglsh Usage, are ar shown in Figure 226 (ef. Quil/Svarvik 1999 and GreenbaumSvarvik 1990). The distinction between ‘orig in Wrlag’ and ‘rigin in spec ie made secording othe erierion tedium, andthe dstintion teen monologue’ and ‘algue according tothe eitcon ‘pateipaton "Nonprined material consis of personal jouaals corespondence, examination ‘enya, nites of meetings and handwrten notices. The material for spoken fetivery comprises talks, news broadcasts, store, rite speches and pays,=) 3 8 2 i vt ht and and the spoken forms {j= and Gor] are al instantiations of the mediam-independentsord-form Sours, which we usally render just in italics Jou) to mark i as object, lange in this chapter we shall reduce our evel of abstraction and also eal withthe reeitm-bound propeies of texts, for example graphic ayout and intonation. ‘Very oe the medlum-bound properties of texs ae nt cansdered an in ack, snes of the esearch in text-lingustics is happy to ignore these aspects. But ina ‘nee comprehensive approach to fext-linguscs, mediumedependetpresenar tion must have it place, as for example in the fist chapter of Haliday’s (1985) Theoducton to Functional Grammar. Also, in the wake of an increased trent of the medi of more resntalonal poses with computes, ‘leevoni hypertexts and the Internet, questions of medium-bound presentation fave boca an issue in text-linguistcs. The medium-dependent nits hat wll, be discus are show in Figure 3.1, whichis inspised by sila comparzen In Halliday et (1964 $1). ‘The ‘orthographic word-orn’ isan uninterrpted sequence of characters, ‘which i Bounded on either side by spaces. "Punctnton wns! we those writes ‘rsches of text that are separated by punctuation marks ike comma, semicolon for dat; Halliday (1985: 3), for example, speaka of the "comma unit and the ‘Clon unit. The onhograpictentence’ is’ soguenceof word-frms ha begs writen word-forn with an ial capital eter at he beginning ofa text, ‘rater ial punetation mark) and nds with Saal panctuation mas lke a fil stp ora question mark. Te orthographic paragraph compuises a sequence ‘fins that ar tet off by additonal spacing or indenting. The page’ isthe rial ineiumdependentconsaive unit of writen text tthe units ‘Which the major layout Features become relevant 2. \ \eenmeracier