INTRODUCTION

A heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer thermal energy (enthalpy)

between two or more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or between solid particulates
and a fluid, at different temperatures and in thermal contact. [3].The goal of enhancing heat
transfer while minimizing pressure drops and reducingthe size and volume of energy
conversion/thermal management systems has beenthe subject of intensive research for more
than four decades. But growing energydemands, the need for increased energy efficiency and
materials savings, spacelimitations for device packaging, and increased functionality and
ease of unithandling have created revolutionary challenges for the development of
highperformance, next-generation heat and mass exchangers. Current heat exchanger designs
rely heavily on fin-and- tube or plate heat exchanger designs, often constructed using copper
and aluminum. The strive for heat exchangers that are more compact and highly efficient has
led to the development of microchannel heat exchangers.
The innovative microchannel heat and mass exchangers appear to be the mostpromising
way to meet these challenges in thermal management. When properlydesigned and
utilized, microchannels can distribute the flow precisely among thechannels, reduce
flow travel length, and establish laminar flow in the channelswhile achieving high heat
transfer coefficients, high surface area-to-volume ratios,and reduced overall pressure
drops. These are among the major advantages ofmicrochannels for use in a diverse
range of industries
.

Recent developments in material sciences, in particular advances in ceramics and ceramic

matrix composites open opportunities for new heat exchanger designs. Ceramic materials
offer potentially significant advantages compared to metal alternatives. A major advantage is
the capability to operate at very high temperature. Ceramics are also much more tolerant to
harsh chemical environments than metals. Because the oxide ceramics can tolerate strongly
oxidizing environments, it may be possible to remove certain fouling deposits by
intermittently introducing oxygen to burn deposits [2]. The performance of counterflow heat
exchangers can be improved with low thermal conductivitymaterials that impede axial wall
conduction. For ceramic microchannel heat exchangers thelow value of conductivity has
negligible effect on its performance [1].

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Only a few researches focus specifically on ceramic microchannel heat exchangers.

Takeuchi et al. [1] developed and applied three dimensional models to assist the design of a
silicon-carbide (SiC) heat exchanger for application to VHTR nuclear reactors. Schulte-
Fischedick et al. [1] designed and tested SiC plate-and-fin heat exchangers for applications
in biomass conversion. Their designwas also supported by detailed three-dimensional
modeling of fluid flow and conjugate heat transfer. Alm et al.[1] designed and fabricated
small alumina microchannel counter- flow heat exchangers, and evaluated performance at
low temperature using water as the working fluid. Especially in small high-performance
counter-flow heat exchangers, it is well known that longitudinal conduction within the solid
materials can play an important role in performance.
Although the general formulation of longitudinal conduction isavailable in textbooks,
more comprehensive analyses can beachieved via three-dimensional simulation of the
fluid flow andconjugate heat transfer. Although correlations for fully developed, steady-
state, laminarflow, heat-transfer coefficients are readily available, details of theflow and
heat transfer within microchannels depend upon channeland manifold geometry.
Brandner et al.[1] exploredopportunities for enhancing heat transfer within channels by
usingsmall obstructions that alter the flow patterns. Ciofalo [1] explored theeffects of
spatial variations in the local heat-transfer coefficient onthe longitudinal conduction. In
the study conducted by A.Sommers et al [1] assessment of potential benefts of ceramic
materials (both monolithic and composite) for usein heat exchangers, and the and
feasibility for application in heat transfer systems was done. A detailed comparative
study of application of metals and ceramics was done and besides the concept of
application of ceramic matrix composites in heat exchangers was also discussed. A
detailed experimental study and performance assessment of a counter flow ceramic
microchannel heat exchanger was conducted by R.J Kee et al.[4]. This study highlights
the performance of microchannel heat exchangers besides emphasizing the advantages
of ceramics over metals. The textbook Fundamentals Of Heat Exchanger Design by R.K
Shah [3] gives the basic definition, functioning of a typical microchannel heat
exchangers. Next Generation Microchannel Heat Exchangers by Ohadi et al [2] clearly
describes the advantages, applicatins and working of various microchannel heat
exchangers.Heat Transfer And Fluid Flow In Minichannel AndMicrochannles written
bySatish G Kandlikar et al [5] gives the detailed study and analysis of various flow
regimes that can happen in a microchannel heat exchangers
.

CERAMICS AND CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES

Solis materials used in heat exchangers can be divided into four categories-
polymers, metals, ceramics and carbonaceous materials. Doubtlessly the most widely
adopted material is metal due to its high thermal conductivity. Instead of depending upon
monolithic materials composite materials can also be employed. Composite materials offer
engineers an ability to create a limitless number of new material systems having unique
properties that cannot be obtained using a single monolithic material. This approach to
construction holds tremendous promise for future heat exchanger designs rather than
selecting a single material, multiple materials may be selected and then tailored to meet the
specific requirements of the application. Composite materials are constructed of two or more
materials, commonly referred to as constituents, and have characteristics derived from the
individual constituents. The constituent that is continuous and which is often, but not
always, present in the greater quantity in the composite istermed the matrix. The second
constituent is referred to as the reinforcing phase, or reinforcement, as it enhances or
reinforces the properties of the matrix.
2.1 CERAMICS

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) definesa ceramic material
as "an article [whose] body is produced fromessentially inorganic, non- metallic substances
and either is formedfrom a molten mass which solidifies on cooling, or is formed
andsimultaneously or subsequently matured by the action of the heat. "Most ceramic
materials are hard, porous and brittle so the use ofceramics in application often requires
methods for mitigating theproblems associated with these characteristics. Ceramic
materialsare usually ionic or covalently bonded and may be

crystalline oramorphous in structure. Because of this type of electronic bonding,ceramics tend

to fracture before undergoing plastic deformationoften resulting in fairly low tensile strength
and generally poormaterial toughness. Moreover, because these materials tend to beporous, the
microscopic pores can act as stress concentratorsfurther decreasing the toughness and strength
of ceramics. Thesefactors can combine, leading to a catastrophic failure of the materialinstead
of the normally more gentle modes of failure associatedwith metals.

2.2 ADVANTAGES OF CERAMICS

The two main advantages for using ceramic materials in heat exchanger construction
over more traditional metallic materials are their temperature resistance and corrosion
resistance. First, ceramic materials can withstand operating temperatures (i.e.1400 0C) that far
exceed those of conventional metallic alloys. For example, the bulk material temperature of a
heat exchanger made of carbon steel should not exceed 4250C. Similarly, the bulk material
temperature of a heat exchanger manufactured from stainless steel typically should not exceed
6500C. As a result, the heat exchanger must be protected in some applications. Thermal
protection can be accomplished by means of an environmental barrier coating that overlays the
metal which has the effect ofadding a thermal resistance to the transfer of heat thereby reducing
the overall performance of the unit. In other cases, the unit is operated in the parallel flow mode
rather than the counterflow mode to maintain a lower overall material temperature. This mode
of operation has the effect of increasing the lifetime of the heat exchanger at the expense of
lowering the overall thermal efficiencyof the unit. Another commonly employed technique is
air dilution, where ambient air is added to the hot upstream exhaust gases upstream of the heat
exchanger. This technique also has the effect of lowering the overall efficiency of the heat
exchanger.

The second major advantage of ceramic-based heat exchangers is their resistance to

corrosion and chemical erosion. Corrosion which occurs under normal conditions is
exacerbated by elevated operating temperatures. Moreover, corrosion can occur in many
different forms in an exhaust gas stream. For example, an exhaust stream rich in oxygen can
actually attack a metallic surface. In this case, the diffusion of oxygen into the material
causes scaling.Although this scaling initially forms a protective layer, the intermittentuse of
the heat exchanger and the resulting thermal cycling can cause the scale to flake off,
exposing the underlying material to further attack. Other possible gaseous constituents
include sulfurand carbon which can also diffuse into the grain boundaries. Themigration of
sulfur into the grain boundaries forms eutectics thatmelt at temperatures significantly lower
than the material meltingtemperature. The diffusion of carbon into the metallic surfaceresults
in the formation of carbides which can cause residualstresses and embrittlement to occur.
2.3 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCs)

Although the impetus behind the use of ceramics in the manufacturing and design of
heat exchangers arises from their excellent corrosive properties, their ability to withstand
extremely high operating temperatures, and the economics of their use in heat recovery
systems, radiant heating applications, and microreactors, major obstacles facing the
incorporation and use ofceramics in these systems remain. These obstacles include ceramic
metallicmechanical sealing, manufacturing costs and methods, and their brittleness in
tension. Therefore, to help meet the specific requirements of the application, ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs) were developed to overcome the intrinsic brittleness and lack of
reliability of monolithic ceramics.

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) combine reinforcing ceramic phases within a

ceramic matrix to create materials with improved properties. The desirable
characteristics of CMCs include high-temperature stability, high thermal shock
resistance, high hardness, high corrosion resistance, non-magnetic and nonconductive
properties, and greater versatility in providing unique engineering solutions. The most
commonly used CMCs are nonoxide CMCs-namely carbon/carbon (C/C),
carbon/silicon carbide (C/SiC), and silicon carbide/silicon carbide (SiC/SiC). For their
merits, ceramics and CMCs are promising thermo structural materials for heat
exchangers (i.e. liquid liquid, liquid gas, gas gas, etc.) used in severe environments such
as rocket and jet engines, gas turbines for power plants, heat shields for space vehicles,
fusion reactor walls, aircraft brakes, heat treatmentfurnaces, etc. In the following
sections, the properties of the most promising ceramic and CMC materials will be
presented along with identified industrial applications and recently improved
manufacturing methods
.
MICRO HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are classified the basis of various parameters such as flow
arrangement, compactness, construction etc. Based upon the degree of compactness it is
broadly classified into compact and non-compact heat exchangers. but a more accurate
classification differentiates compact heat exchangers as compact, meso and micro heat
exchangers based upon the their surface area density or hydraulic diameter [3]. The surface
area density factor, is defined as A gas-to-fluid exchanger is referred to as a compact heat
exchanger if it incorporates a heat transfer surface having a surface area density greater than
about 700 or a hydraulic diameter, Dh 6mm for operating in a gas stream and 400 for
operating in a liquid or phase-change stream. A laminar flow heat exchanger (also referred to as
a meso heat exchanger) has a surface area density greater than about 3000 or 100 m D h 1
mm. The term micro heat exchanger is used if the surface area density is greater than about
15,000 (or 1 m Dh 100 m) [3].

A similar classification proposed by Mehendale et al.[4] classifies flow passages in

the dimension ranging from 1 to 100 as mmicrochannels, 100 to 1 mm as meso-channels, 1
to 6 mm as compact passages and above 5mm as conventional passages [4].
Compared to shell-and-tube exchangers, compact heat exchangers are characterized by a
large heat transfer surface area per unit volume of the exchanger, resulting in reduced
space, weight, support structure and footprint, energy requirements and cost, as well as
improved process design and plant layout and processing conditions, together with low
fluid inventory. Of these micro heat exchangers are the most compact. Besides they
weigh less and provide more effective heat transfer. Microchannel is a suitable
technique that can be employed to fabricate micro heat exchanger
s
MICROCHANNEL HEAT EXCHANGERS

A typical ceramiccounter-flow microchannel heat-exchanger is shown in Fig 1. The design

has an overall footprint of 50 mm by 100 mm. Each flow layer contains 10 microchannels
that are approximately 550 microns high and 2.8mmwide. The channel floors that separate
the hot and cold streams are approximately 600 microns thick. The axial gaps in channel ribs
serve three purposes. The first is to enable pressure equalization between channels. The axial
pressure drop is approximately inversely proportional to the cube of the channel height,
which means that small fabrication variations have a large impact upon flow distribution
between channels. Thus, the gaps tend to improve flow distribution. The gaps serve a
secondary purpose by tending to reduce potentially deleterious longitude al wall conduction.
Conduction along the channel floors and ribs (i.e., parallel to the flow direction) is known to
degrade counter-flowperformance toward the lower performance of coflow heat

exchangers, especially for high-effectiveness

designs

Fig 4.1. Ceramic microchannel heat exchangerFig 4.2.Exploded view showing internal [1] channel structure [1]
 A third beneficial effect of the rib gaps is to cause local entry-length boundary-layer
behavior as the flow enters the microchannel sections, which serves to increase local heat-
transfer coefficients.As illustrated in Fig. 4.2 the hot and cold fluids enter through central
holes from the bottom and exit via outboard holes at the top. Each of the internal layers is
identical, but with alternating layers rotated 180 0 relative to the underlying layer. The feed
and exhaust manifolds at the ends of the layers are designed such that there is exact
alignment upon layer rotation. Using identical layers reduces the manufacturing cost. One of
flow directions can be reversed (i.e., inlet flow through the outboard holes), producing a
coflow configuration. The heat exchangers to date have been fabricated with four flow layers
(two hot and two cold), but are designed to accommodate more flow layers. The relatively
large diameters of the central inlets and the outboard exhausts enable the use of many heat-
exchanger layers. The large diameters also enable the staging of several heat exchangers
without significant pressure drops in the connecting tubing.

In order to understand the response and evaluate the performance of a ceramic

microchannel heat exchanger experimental analysis and simulation was carried out. R.J
Kee et al.[4] The results of experimental testing and simulations of the same are
discussed in the following sections
.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION

The results of three-dimensional simulationsobtained by R.J Kee et al. [4]that predict

both fluid and solid-body temperatures are illustrated in Fig. 5.1 and 5.2. Thesesimulations
are used to guide tradeoffs between heat transferperformance and requirements of the
fabrication process. In additionto fluid flow, the models predict the solid material thermal
fields.Local thermal gradients cause local strain through thermal expansion,which in turn can
lead to failure of the ceramics. The currentdesign is in its fifth generation, with each
generation

Fig 5.1 Vertical cut through a three-dimensional simulation, showing gas and solid
temperature fields. [1]

improvingperformance and manufacturability. The design is based uponsimulation using

three-dimensional computational fluid

dynamics(CFD), including the conjugate heat transfer between fluids and solidmaterials. The
CFD models are implemented in FLUENT. Temperature-dependent properties are used for
air and for alumina.The results in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2 are for balanced air flow (i.e., thesame
mass-flowrates through both the hot and cold inlets). The hotair enters at 500 0C and the cold
flow enters at 30 0C. The simulationsare based upon assuming that all external surfaces
areperfectly insulated. The results in Fig. 5.1 are for flow rates of1.58 x10 -3 kg s-1 (80
standard liters per minute of air, slm) andFig. 5.2 is for flow rates of 4.93 x 10 -4 kg s- 1 (25
slm). Both airstreams enter from below, flow in opposite directions through
themicrochannels, and then exhaust through tubes at the top. Fig. 5.1shows predicted

temperature fields on a vertical cut near theheat-exchanger centerline, in the middle of the first
flow channelaway from the heat-exchanger centerline. Fig. 5.2shows

temperaturefields at the mid-planes of a hot and a cold layer.The design process is assisted
greatly by three-

dimensionalsimulations that are used to predict quantitatively the influence ofmanifold and
channel geometry on heat exchanger performance.
For example, there are practical tradeoffs between increased heat transfer performance and
increased pressure drop. Manufacturing processes also introduce practical tradeoffs that must be
considered.

It is evident from both Figs. 5.1 and 5.2 that the axial temperaturevariations are
essentially one-dimensional (i.e., varying primarily inthe axial direction with little
variation across the short dimension).This is a desired result, leading to similar heat
transfer performancewithin all channels. Fig. 5.2 shows that the floor layer (i.e.,
between hotand cold flows) is nearly uniform in the vertical direction and essentiallyat
the average temperature between the local mean temperaturesof the hot and cold air.
Again, this is a desired result, indicatingrelatively little heat-transfer resistance through
the layer floors
.

ANALYSIS

Even with comprehensive three-dimensional model in hand,analytic models provide

great value in understanding performancetradeoffs and interpreting results. Of course, the
relatively simplermodels rely on significant approximations.In compact primary-surface heat
exchangers, the dominant heattransfer is between the hot and cold flow streams directly
acrossthe separating wall, without the influence of extended surfacessuch as fins. The overall
conductance UA between hot and cold streams can be represented in terms of contributing
thermalresistances as

( ) [(----------) (----------) (-------) ]

where h is the heat-transfer coefficient between fluid and wall, A isthe primary surface area, k is
the thermal conductivity of the wall,and t is the wall thickness. In optimized primary-surface
heatexchangers the conductive heat flux across the walls is relativelylow and the conduction
distance is small (i.e., the wall thickness).Consequently the thermal resistance of the wall t/kA s
can be smallrelative to the convective resistance even when low-conductivitywall materials are
used. In contrast to extended-surface heatexchangers designs, which are often fabricated with
high-conductivitymaterials (e.g., copper or aluminum), the following analysisshows that
compact primary-surface heat exchangers do notnecessarily benefit from the use of high-
conductivity materials.As a limiting case, assume steady, fully developed, laminar flowin high-
aspect-ratio channels the Nusselt number is constant (i.e.,independent of Reynolds number).

where Dh is the channel hydraulic diameter and kf is the thermalconductivity of the fluid. It is
interesting to compare the relativethermal resistances of the convection and conduction.
Assuming airas the fluid and a hydraulic diameter of D h= 500 ^m, the convectiveheat-transfer
coefficient is h = 550 W m -2 K-1 Assuming anaverage thermal conductivity of 10 W m -1 K-1
(alumina at around 250 oC) and a wall thickness of t = 500 ^m, the ratio of conductivethermal
resistance offered by the wall and the total thermal resistance(i.e., conduction and convection)
is
In other words, even with low-conductivity ceramics, the influenceof conduction across
the wall is very small.Although conduction across the wall (i.e., normal to the
flowdirections) does not contribute significantly to performance, longitudinalheat
conduction (i.e., parallel to the flow directions) can significantlydegrade counter-flow
heat exchanger performance. The effect of longitudinal conduction can be particularly
important in compactheat exchangerswith short distances L between inlet and outlet
ports.The dimensionless longitudinal conduction parameter can be used to estimate the
effect of longitudinal conduction onperformance. In this equation, Ac is the longitudinal
cross-sectionalarea of the wall and Cmin= ' Cp is the minimumcapacity rate ( ' isthe mass-
flow rate and Cp is the heat capacity of the fluid)
.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

R.J.Kee et al[4] developed a ceramic microchannel heat exchanger and conducted

experimental tests for performance evaluation. The test stand has been developed to measure
heat exchanger performance. Mass flow controllers areused to specify hot and cold inlet air
flow rates. The mass-flow controllers (Alicat Scientific MCR- 500SLPM) have specified
accuracy of 0.8% of reading plus 0.2% of full scale, corresponding to approximately 2.2
standard liters per minute at 150 standard liters per minute(slm) . Type-K thermocouples are
used to measuretemperatures of the inlet and outlet air. The thermocouples (0megaKMQSS-
062U-6) have specified accuracy to within 2.2 oC or 0.75%of measured temperature,
corresponding to about 5.6oC at 750oC.Hot-side air is heated by passing room-temperature
air throughmultiple small tubes that are positioned within a large hightemperaturefurnace.
The hot inlet temperature is varied bychanging the electrical input to the tube furnace. The
settling timeassociated with changing inlet temperature by 50 oC is approximately15 min;
data is taken after waiting 30 min. Once the steadyinlet temperatures are achieved, the
standard deviation temperaturevariation is less than 0.5 oC. The mass-flow

controllers andthe furnace, as well as data collection, are

n
ceramic heat exchangerbody. The graphite is compressed using molybdenum
bolts.Molybdenum is chosen because it has low thermal expansion, thustending to retain
compression at high temperature. Thermocouplesare positioned at the centerline of the inlet
and outlet tubes, justupstream and downstream of the heat exchanger itself. Prior totesting,
thick fiberglass insulation is packed around the assembly(heat exchanger and manifold).
Although heat loss through theinsulation is not directly measured, the heat transfer from the
hotflow is always measured to be within a few percent of the heattransferred to the cold
stream.In addition to reporting inlet and outlet temperatures, the netheat transferred and heat-
exchanger effectiveness are also evaluated.The maximum heat that can possibly be transferred
is given as where is the minimum capacity rate and and arethe hot and cold inlet temperatures,
respectively. The capacity ratesare evaluated as C = ' C p, where ' is the mass-flow rate and C p
is the heat capacity of the fluid. The heat exchanger effectivenessis defined as where Q is the
actual heat transferred. The actual heat transferred isevaluated in terms of the enthalpy change
between inlet and outlet flows.
1. Inlet temperature

Fig. illustrates measured heat exchanger

performance asa function of hot- side inlet
temperature with hot- and cold-sideflow rates
fixed at 1.97 10-3kgs-1 (100 slm). In all cases the
coldsideinlet temperature is approximately 40 0C.
As the hot- side inlettemperature increases, heat
transfer within the metal manifoldscan increase - 420
the cold-side inlet temperature by a few degrees.
Atthe highest inlet temperature of 7500C, the net 2M
heat transferred isapproximately 750 W and the l
effectiveness is nearly constant atapproximately c
3 331
55%. The outlet temperatures and net heat
3I-
transferred are nearly linear functions of the hot 6
inlet temperature. 0 II

Fig. Measured heat exchanger performance as a function

of inlet flow rates [4]

f Balanced now, 1.97x10'

s1 fCold inlet, 7=40 C

Cold inlet-

2. FlowRates

Fig. 7.3illustrates measured performance as a function ofbalanced inlet flow rates, with
the hot- and cold- side inlettemperatures fixed at 500 0
C
and 400C, respectively. At low flowrates, the
differences between inlet and outlet temperatures
arehigh. As the flow rates increase, the hot-side
outlet temperatureincreases, the cold-side outlet
temperature decreases, and there isa net increase in
Mas* flow rale xlO-' (kg s ')
heat transferred. The effectiveness decreases Fig. 7.3. Measured performance as a function of cold-side inlet
flow rate with hot-side inlet temperature and flow rate fixed.
fromapproximately 70% at low flow rates of 4.93 [4]
x 10-4 kg s-1 (25 slm)to approximately 50% at the
highest flow rates of 150 slm.

3. Unbalanced Flow

Fig. 7.4illustrates performance with unbalanced flow. In thiscase, the hot inlet flow is
fixed at 700 oC and 1.58 x 10-3 kg s-1 (80 slm), while the cold inlet flow rate varies from1.18
x10-3 kg s-1 to 1.97 x 10-3 kg s-1 (60-100 slm). Both the hotandcold- side outlet temperatures
decrease as the cold-side flowrate increases. According to heat exchanger theory,
theeffectiveness is minimum when the ratio of inlet capacity rates is unity. Inthe experiments
shown in Fig. 8, the mass-flow rates arecontrolled by mass-flow controllers. However, because
the specificheat of air varies with temperature (for air at 700 0C,Cp=1140 J kg-1 K-1; at 50 0C,
Cp=1008 J kg-1 K-1) and the averagetemperatures are different on the two sides, the capacity
rates arenot equal when the mass-flow rates are equal.
4. Pressure Drop

Fig. 7.5shows measured pressure drop

under room-temperatureconditions and pressure
drop predicted by the three-dimensionalCFD
model. Up to about 2 x10 -3kg s- 1 (100 slm), the
model andmeasurements are in excellent
agreement. At higher flow ratesthere may be
transition to turbulent flow, which is possibly Fig. Measured and predicted pressure drop as a
thecause of some disagreement between model function of room-temperature air flow rate. [4]
and measurement.The current experiment is not
configured to measure pressuredrop during high-
temperature operation. However, the
pressuredrop scales with fluid viscosity, which, according to kinetic theory,scales
approximately as T0.65. Given good agreement for roomtemperatureoperation, the CFD
model, which considers temperature-dependent properties, is expected to provide accurate
pressurepredictions for high-temperature operation.Generally speaking, all other
performance measures beingequal, pressure drop should be as low as possible.
Importantly,however, "high" and "low" pressure drop must be understood ina relative
context. The ratio of heat-transfer-to-friction loss is oftenan important performance
parameter. Microchannel heatexchangers are designed to achieve excellent heat transfer
performancerelative to pressure drop. Pressure drop can be reduced, but only at theexpense
of making the heat exchanger significantly larger. The design by R.J Kee et al., which is
ideally sized for mass-flow rates below3 x10-4 kg s-1 (20 slm),

incorporates a relatively large heattransfersurface area into a small volume. At these flow
rates, theeffectiveness is high and the pressure drop is quite low for the NTUsdelivered.
Indeed, achieving these attributes is a primary objectiveof compact heat exchangers.

/ Following an analysis introduced by Kays and London [1] the "friction power per unit
of surface area" can be represented a
s
 Where is the pressure drop, is the heat transfer area, is the mean fluid velocity, and is
the channel cross-sectional area. The pumping power is

' ,where ' is the volumetric flow rate. For a rectangular channel with height H and
widthW, the heat-transfer surface area is = WL (i.e., the floor area between the

hot and cold fluids). The heat-transfer

coefficient h, which can be interpreted as
the "heat transfer power per unit of surface
area for onedegree of temperature
difference," can be evaluated from the
Nusselt number as

Fig. 7.6 Ratio of friction loss E and heat transfer h as a

function of Reynolds number for three rectangular channel
aspect ratios. [4]

Assuming a channel width of W =

5 mm and properties of air at T = 600 K, Fig. 7.6 shows the ratio E/h as a function of
Reynolds number for three channel heights. Both the heat transfer and the pumping losses
increase greatly as functions of increasing Reynolds number. At low Reynolds number, the
heat transfer dominates (i.e., E/h 1). However, at high Reynolds number the pumping
losses can greatly exceed the heat transfer (i.e., E/h 1)
.

FABRICATION METHODS

Various methods used for the fabrication of microchannels include Micro-

Machining, Diffusion Bonding, Chemical Etching, Stereolithography, LIGA and PLIS.
Researchers have found the best method for fabrication of ceramic microchannels as PLIS.

The Pressure Laminated Integrated

Structures (PLIS) fabrication begins by mixing
ceramic powders with appropriate binders. In
production, the green (i.e., unfired) layersthat
incorporate manifold and channel geometry are
formed usingcustom dies and high-pressure
hydraulic presses. However, toavoid the expense
of fabricating production dies, prototype
designsare machined from pressed green- state
blocks. In preparation forlaminating together in a
hydraulic press, green layers are orientedand
assembled as shown in Fig. 8.1. After laminating
the layers ina press, the assembled part is fired. As

Fig 8.1 Scanning electron microscope images

showing channel structures, with high
resolution at a channel corner.
illustrated by the scanningelectron microscope (SEM) images shown aside the fired part
becomesa single polycrystalline ceramic piece with essentially no evidenceof the bond lines
between initially laminated layers.

The PLIS manufacturing process depends upon relativelycomplex interactions

among ceramic powders and binders, layerformation pressures, and layer
[4
]
lamination pressures. For example,excessive pressures during lamination can damage or
crushchannel ribs, while insufficient pressure can cause poor bondingbetween layers.
During development, a careful design of experimentsprocess was used to determine best
material combinationsand processing conditions. The above fig.is microscopic image
that shows essentially perfectpolycrystalline joining between layers. In fact, the layers
are not"bonded" together. Rather, after sintering the resulting part isa single
polycrystalline ceramic. Prior to heat-exchanger testing,the finished parts are leak tested
to an internal pressure of 3 atm,assuring no external leaks between layers or to the
outside
.

CONCLUSION

Current research on microchannels may represent only the tip of the iceberg of future
possibilities for their expanded use. Rapid advancements in micro-machining and micro-
deformation techniques are reducing the cost of fabrication while improving the reliability
of microchannel systems, thus minimizing one of the main limitations of microchannels.

Ceramic materials enable applications at hightemperature and in harsh chemical

environments that may be difficult to achieve with metal heat exchangers. In addition to
expanding operating space with ceramics, the PLIS

process has the potential to reduce manufacturing costs relative to a comparable metal
heat exchanger. Compared to approaches in which layers are fabricated by diffusion
bonding multiple thin metal shims, the PLIS approach requires fabricating and handling
far fewer parts. Scaling from the current kilowatt-scale systems to much larger capacities
presents some significant challenges. The manifold design enables layering up with
negligible effect on pressure drop. However, further scaling probably requires serial
staging of multiple units. Serial staging of thermally isolated small units in a counter-flow
configuration can improve overall effectiveness. However, because the microchannel flow
length is increased, serial staging also increases pressure drop.

Micro heat exchangers are becoming an important area of interest in many fields of
developing technology that require compact high heat energy removal solutions. Fields
such as Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), microelectronics, biomedical, fuel
processing, and aerospace are all pushing the limits of thermal control and are finding
ways to make smaller devices with higher heat flux potential - requiring more efficient
smaller heat exchangers tocool their key working components.
REFERENCES

[1] A.Sommers , Q. Wang , X. Han , T.Joen, Y.Park, A. Jacobi CERAMICS AND

CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS IN ADVANCED
THERMAL SYSYTEMS A REVIEW

Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2010) 1e15

[2] Ohadi M, Choo K, Dessiatun S, Cetegen E

 NEXT GENERATION MICROCHANNEL HEAT EXCHANGERS
[SPRINGER PUBLISHERS]

[3] Ramesh K, Shah, Dusan P Sekulic. FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT EXCHANGER

DESIGN [WILEY]

[4] Robert J. Kee ,, Berkeley B. Almand , Justi M. Blasi , Benjamin L. Rosen ,

Marco Hartmann Neal P. Sullivan ,Huayang Zhu , Anthony R. Manerbin, Sophie Menzer
, W. Grover Coors , Jerry L. Martin THE DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND EVALUATION
OF A CERAMIC COUNTER- FLOW MICRO-CHANNEL HEAT EXCHANGER Applied
Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 2004e2012

[5] Satish G Kandlikar, SrinivasGarimella, Dongqing Li, St'phane Colin,

Micheal R. King

HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW IN MINICHANNEL AND

MICROCHANNLES

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