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1081ch8 19 PDF
1081ch8 19 PDF
Ri or Li
F
Q
V
LF V
LF B
1820
There are some basic variations to the distillation process. Column Accumulator
One such basic difference is between continuous and batch Feed
distillation. The main difference between these processes is pump
Reux
that in continuous distillation the feed concentration is rela- pump
tively constant, while in batch distillation it is rich in light Preheater
components at the beginning and lean in light components
at the end. While batch distillation is also described in this Reboiler
section, the emphasis is on the continuous processes.
Another basic difference is in the way the condenser heat
is handled. The more common approach is to reject that heat
into the cooling water and thereby waste it. This necessitates FIG. 8.19b
the use of pay heat at the reboiler, which usually is a large Distillation equipment.
part of the total operating cost of the column. An alternate
approach, also discussed in this section, is vapor recompres-
sion (Figure 8.19a), in which the heat taken out by the mixing between the two countercurrent owing phases. The
condenser is reused at the reboiler after a heat pump (com- purpose of the mixing is to get an effective transfer of the
pressor) elevates its temperature. While vapor recompression more volatile components into the ascending vapor and cor-
controls are also discussed in this section, the emphasis is on responding transfer of the less volatile components into the
the traditional air- or water-cooled condenser designs. descending liquid. The other equipment associated with the
column is shown schematically in Figure 8.19b.
The Column In continuous distillation, the feed is introduced contin-
uously into the side of the distillation column. If the feed is
The primary piece of distillation equipment is the main tower.
all liquid, the temperature at which it rst starts to boil is
Other terms for this piece of equipment are column and frac-
called the bubble point. If the feed is all vapor, the temper-
tionator, and all three terms are used interchangeably. The
ature at which it rst starts to condense is called the dew
tower, column, or fractionator has two purposes: First, it sep-
point. The feed entering the column is normally operated in
arates a feed into a vapor portion that ascends the column and
a temperature range that is intermediate to the two extremes
a liquid portion that descends; second, it achieves intimate
of dew point and bubble point. However, some optimization
strategies may call for designs where the feed is either super-
heated or subcooled. For effective separation of the feed, it
is important that both vapor and liquid phases exist through-
out the column.
The separation of phases is accomplished by differences
Removed
in vapor pressure, with the lighter vapor rising to the top of
heat the column and the heavier liquid owing to the bottom. The
wasted D portion of the column above the feed is called the rectifying
D
section and below the feed is called the stripping section.
M Compr.
Packing and Trays The intimate mixing is obtained by one
or more of several methods. A simple method is to ll the
F F
Work column with lumps of an inert material, or packing, that will
provide surface for the contacting of vapor and liquid.
Another effective way is to use a number of horizontal plates,
or trays, which cause the ascending vapor to be bubbled
through the descending liquid (Figure 8.19c).
1
Tray designs are numerous and varied. Tray designs
include bubble cap plate unit, valve, sieve plate, tunnel,
dual-ow, chimney, disc-and-donut, turbogrid trays, v-grid,
Perform-Kontakt, Haselden bafe tray, Kittel trays, and other
B
Pay heat B Recovered specialty-type units. Dualo trays, Flexitray, Varioex,
added heat Bi-Frac, Max-Frac, NYE Trays, Superfrac trays,
FIG. 8.19a Super-Flux trays, and Ultra-Frac trays are specialty reg-
In contrast with conventional distillation, the vapor recompression istered tray designs from different manufacturers that are
system uses recovered heat. variations of the aforementioned tray designs. Bubble caps
4
Y
X(t)
pressures up to 215 psia (1.48 MPa) at an operating temper-
0
Y40
Y1
4
Y 1(t) ature of 120F (49C). A partial condenser is used from
215 psia to 365 psia (1.48 to 2.52 MPa), and a refrigerant
Y 2(t)
coolant is used for the overhead condenser if the pressure is
Y4(t) greater than 365 psia (2.52 MPa).
Y10(t)
Common condensers include n fans and water coolers.
However, in order to improve efciency of heat recovery, heat
Y40(t) exchange with another process stream is often performed.
Y1 = 1 Lag Propane is the most common refrigerant used. A pressure
Y2 = 2 Lags
Y4 = 4 Lags
drop of 5 psia (34.4 KPa) across the condenser is often
Y10 = 10 Lags assumed if no measurements are available. The condenser
Y40 = 40 Lags and accumulator are the key pieces of equipment with respect
Sum of the time constants are equal. to controlling pressure in the column.
Time
Reboilers
FIG. 8.19d
Response of nth-order lags to unit step change. The liquid leaving the bottom of the column is reheated in a
reboiler. A reboiler is a special heat exchanger that provides
the heat necessary for distillation. Part of the column bottoms
These lags are cumulative as the liquid passes each tray liquid is vaporized and the vapors are injected back into the
on its way down the column. Thus, a 30-tray column could column as boil-up. The remaining liquid is withdrawn as a
be approximated by 30 rst-order exponential lags in series bottom product or as residue.
of approximately the same time constant. As shown in Figure 8.19e, reboilers come in widely vary-
ing designs. They can be internal, but most are external to
K the column. They can use natural or forced circulation.
KG (s) = 8.19(2)
(T1s + 1)n
where
n = 30 for a 30-tray column
V
Q
Figure 8.19d shows the response of nth order lags to a Q
unit step change. The effect of increasing the number of lags
in series is to increase the apparent dead time and increase
the response curve slope. Thus, the liquid trafc within the L
distillation process is often approximated by using a second- B
B
order lag plus dead time as modeled by the LaPlace transform: Internal External kettle
Ke t s
KG (s) = 8.19(3)
(T1s + 1)(T2s + 1) V V
Q
where Q
e = e of log to the base e
= dead time
T1, T2 = time constants B B
Vertical Horizontal
Condensers thermosyphon thermosyphon
FIG. 8.19e
The overhead vapor leaving the column is sent to a condenser Reboiler design variations. External kettle reboilers often use forced
and is collected as a liquid in a receiver, or accumulator. A part circulation (pump), while the thermosyphon designs depend on nat-
of the accumulated liquid is returned to the column as reux. ural circulation. The horizontal thermosyphon reboiler takes its
The remainder is withdrawn as overhead product or distillate. liquid from the bottom tray, while the others take it from the column
In many cases, complete condensation is not accomplished. bottoms.
Manipulate the stream that has the greatest inuence Steady-State Model
on the associated controlled variable.
Manipulate the smaller stream if two streams have the The rst step in the design of a control system must be the
same effect on the controlled variable. development of a process model. Frequently omitted in sim-
Manipulate the stream that has the most nearly linear ple distillation columns, this step is essential to minimize the
correlation with the controlled variable. need for eld reconguration of control strategies. Even with
Manipulate the stream that is least sensitive to ambient easily recongurable process automation systems (PASs), the
conditions. development of the model is essential to fully understanding
Manipulate the stream least likely to cause interaction the process.
problems. The model denes the process with equations developed
from the material and energy balances of the unit. A common
Unfortunately, the decision on pairing controlled and simplifying assumption is that all components of the feed
manipulated variables is complicated by the fact that the have equal heats of vaporization, which leads to the assump-
above rules may sometimes result in conicting recommen- tion of equimolal overow. Most shortcut fractionation cal-
dations. Section 8.20 provides information on relative gain culations are based upon this underlying assumption.
calculations, which can help to optimize the pairing of con- The model is kept simple by the use of one basic rule:
trolled and manipulated variables. Once the pairings are com- The degrees of freedom limit the number of controlled vari-
pleted, the equations are then solved for the manipulated ables (product compositions) specied in the equations, as
variables in terms of the controlled and load variables. In that was illustrated in connection with Figure 8.19f. Some of the
form, the equations are the mathematical representations of variables that can be manipulated to control a column are
the control systems. shown in Figure 8.19g.
D=FB 8.19(8) To QT
where: L @ Tr D(y)
F = feed rate (the inow)
Li = L[1 + (Cp/H) (To Tr)]
D = overhead rate (an outow)
B = bottoms rate (an outow) B = Bi if no accumulation occurs in
the column bottoms.
D = Di if no accumulation occurs in
If the compositions of the feed, distillate product, and the accumulator
bottoms product are known, then the component material L External reux
balance can be solved: V = VB + VF F Lf Liquid ow below feed tray
Li
100 = %LLKD + %LKD + %HKD 8.19(9) Internal reux
QB Heat addition at bottom
D %LLKD = F %LLKF 8.19(10)
F (z) QT Heat removal at top
F %LKF = D %LKD + B %LKB 8.19(11) VB Vapor boilup rate
where: VF Vapor fraction in feed
%LLKF = lighter than light key in the feed (mol%) H Heat of vaporization in reboiler
HD Heat of condensation of distillate
%LKF = light key in the feed (mol%) HL Heat of vaporization of reux
%LLKD = lighter than light key in the distillate product VB = QB/H HLi Heat of condensation of
internal reux
(mol%)
%LKD = light key in the distillate product (mol%) Lf = Li + (1 VF) F
QB Bi = Lf VB
%HKD = heavy key in the distillate product (mol%)
%LKB = light key in the bottoms product (mol%) B(x)
Material balance: F = D + B
In the most general case, the feed might have four com- separation is the energy/feed
ponents, having the concentrations of LLKF , LKF , HKF , and ratio of a column. For binary
y(1 x)
HHKF . Three of these components appear in each of the process: S =
x(1 y)
bottom and overhead products. The separation of the column Separation should be controlled
is xed by specifying the heavy key component in the over- by the more pure product.
head product HKD and the concentration of the light key
FIG. 8.19h
component in the bottom product LKB. Energy balance equations can be used to describe the steady-state
Equations 8.19(9) to 8.19(11) assume no heavier than heat flow model of a distillation column.
heavy key is found in the distillate and that no lighter than light
key is found in the bottoms. Rearranging Equation 8.19(11)
gives
However, xing a value of product split does not x either
%LKD = (F %LKF B %LKB)/D 8.19(12) the distillate or bottoms composition because many combi-
nations of %LLKF , %LKF , %LKB, and %HKD could yield the
Substituting Equation 8.19(8) into Equations 8.19(10) same value of B/F.
and 8.19(12) gives
%LLKD = (F %LLKF)/(F ) 8.19(13) Energy Balance The energy balance and the separation
%LKD = (F %LKF B %LKB)/(F B) 8.19(14) obtained are closely related. Conceptually, product composition
control can be thought of as a problem of the rate of heat
Substituting Equations 8.19(13) and 8.19(14) into addition QB at the bottom of the fractionator and the rate of heat
Equation 8.19(9) to eliminate %LLKD and %LKD: removal QT at the top of the column. A series of energy balances
produces additional equations. Figure 8.19h shows a steady-
5
state internal model of these equations.
(100 %HK D %LLK F %LK F )
B/F = 8.19(15) The vapor boil-up rate VB equals the heat QB added by
(100 %HK D %LK B ) the reboiler divided by the heat of vaporization (H) of the
bottoms product:
For a given feed composition and desired product com- VB = QB /H 8.19(16)
positions, only one bottoms-to-feed ratio, B/F (product split),
will satisfy the overall and component material balances. By The vapor rate V above the feed tray equals the vapor
xing the bottoms ow, the distillate ow will be xed. boil-up rate plus the vapor entering with the feed (feed rate
F times vapor fraction VF , provided the feed is neither sub- being used by the control equation. Also, C pL and HL should
cooled nor superheated): be calculated near the existing pressure and temperature of
the external reux.
V = VB + F VF 8.19(17)
The liquid rate, LF , below the feed tray equals the internal
The internal reux rate, that is, the liquid at the top tray reux plus the liquid in the feed:
of the column is derived by a heat balance around the top of
LF = LI + (1 VF) F 8.19(25)
the tower. Assuming a steady-state heat balance where the
heat into the tower equals the heat out: The distillate rate, D, equals the vapor rate, V, above the
feed tray minus the internal reux:
D ( H D + C pD Tt ) + LI ( H LI + C pR Tt )
I D = V LI 8.19(26)
+ L (C pL Tr ) = D ( H D + C pD To ) 8.19(18)
The bottoms rate, B, equals the liquid rate, L, minus the
+ L ( H L + C pL To ) + LI (C pL Tt ) boil-up, VB :
I
where B = L VB 8.19(27)
Cp = specic heat The criterion for separation is the ratio of reux (L) to
To = overhead vapor temperature (vapor at its dew point) distillate (D) ows vs. the ratio of boil-up (V) to bottoms (B)
L = external reux ow rates. Manipulating reux affects separation equally as
Tr = external reux temperature well as manipulating boil-up, albeit in opposite directions.
LI = internal reux Consequently, only one degree of freedom exists to control
Tt = top tray temperature (liquid at its bubble point) separation. Thus, for a two-product tower, two equations
dene the process. One is an equation describing separation,
Equation 8.19(18) reduces to: and the other is an equation for material balance.
LI H LI = L H L + L C pL (To Tr ) 8.19(20)
Di = V Li
DA= Di D
or
QT
To
Li H L C pL
L @ Tr
= 1.0 + (To Tr ) 8.19(21) D
L H Li H L
Li = L[1 + (Cp/H) (To TR)]
resulting in the equation
V = VB + VF F
LpI /L = K2 [1 + K1 (Tpo Tpr)] 8.19(22) GT
If a total condenser is employed, the composition of the
internal reux and external reux are the same, i.e., F
GT & GB are second order lags
H LI = H L , so the constant K2 = 1.0. Thus,
DA & BA represent accumulations in
GB the accumulator and the column
LI 8.19(23)
bottoms respectively.
L= VB = QB/H
[1 + K1 (TO Tr )] Li = GB[GT Li + (1 VF) F)
or zI = L [1 + K1 T] 8.19(24) QB
Bi = Li VB
BA = Bi B
Note: This equation is valid for whatever units are used B
for C pL or HL. Because specic heat and heat of vaporiza-
tion are nearly always in mass units, care must be taken to FIG. 8.19i
account for density differences whenever volume units are Dynamic internal flow model.
Because a change in the reux rate must work its way product separation, the degree of separation and the orienta-
down the column due to tray or packing hydraulics, this tion of separation are important. The degree of separation is
change will not be seen at the reboiler until some time has
passed. The holdup at each tray has previously been modeled (%LK D %HK B )
Degree of Separation = ln e 8.19(32)
by the LaPlace transform of Equation 8.19(1). This Laplace (%HK D %LK
KB )
transform can be converted to a simple rst-order exponential
lag equation of the form, which describes the response to a while the orientation of separation for a given degree of
step change in input: separation is dened as
t
Llag = L (1 e ) %HK D
8.19(28) Orientation of Separation = 8.19(33)
%LK B
where
L is the liquid incoming to the tray The relationship between x (the light key component) and
7
Llag is the liquid leaving the tray the energy balance was developed by Shinskey as a function
of separation S:
t is the time constant
y(1 x )
These lags are cumulative as the liquid passes each tray S= 8.19(34)
x (1 y)
on its way down the column. However, implementation of
multiple rst-order lags is impractical. Fortunately, it can be where
shown that multiple lags in series can be approximated by a x = mole fraction of the key light component the distillate
dead time and a second-order exponential lag as shown by (%LKD)
the LaPlace transform of Equation 8.19(3). For this reason, y = mole fraction of the key light component in the bot-
two dynamic terms (GT and GB) are included in Figure 8.19i. toms, (LKB)
Equation 8.19(25) is then rewritten as
The relationship between separation (S) and the ratio of
L = GB[GT LI + (1 VF) F] 8.19(29)
boil-up to feed (V/F) over a reasonable operating range is
where V/F = a + bS 8.19(35)
t1 t 2
GB = 1 (1 e ) (1 e )
t3 t 4
GT = 2 (1 e ) (1 e ) where a and b are functions of the relative volatility, the num-
1 and 2 are the dead times ber of trays, the feed composition, and the minimum V/F. The
control system therefore computes V based on the equation:
GB and GT are the solution to the LaPlace transform of y(1 x )
V = F a + b 8.19(36)
x (1 y)
Equation 8.19(3).
Changes in boil-up rates are observed at the condenser
in a matter of seconds. Normally, no dynamic terms are Because y is held constant, the bottom composition con-
necessary for vapor streams, as the value of use of comput- troller adjusts the value of the parenthetical expression if an
ing resources to that of the benets by compensating for the error should appear in x. Let V/F = y(1 x)/(1 y), and the
dynamics is negligible. control equation becomes:
The liquid inventory in the condenser or associated accu- V = F(a + b[V/F])/x 8.19(37)
mulator will change during unsteady-state actions. In the
unsteady state, the difference DI D is the rate of accumu- where [V/F] = the desired ratio of boil-up to feed.
lation of material in the accumulator. Similarly for the liquid Figure 8.19j illustrates four of the most common basic
inventory at the bottom of the tower (the kettle), the differ- controls for the ows and levels of a two-product fractionator,
ence BI B is the rate of accumulation: where it is assumed that feed ow and tower pressure are
held constant. A different set of the above control equations
DA = DII D 8.19(30) for controlling internal product ow rates will apply, depend-
BA = BI B 8.19(31) ing upon the conguration of instrumentation used.
where
Scaling
DA is the accumulation in the overhead accumulator
BA is the accumulation in the tower bottoms The form of the control system equations inuences the com-
puting functions required. Boolean operands, such as high
Separation Equations and low selectors, and dynamic functions, such as dead times,
lead, and lag function, are also used. Most process automation
The control of product compositions for a fractionator is pri- systems have these basic computing function blocks. Imple-
marily a matter of control of the internal ows. In considering mentation in a distributed control system (DCS), programmable
PC PSP PC PSP
LC LC
L D L D
FC FC FC FC
DSP DSP
F LSP F LSP
QSP
QSP
FC FC
BSP
LC BSP
LC
FC FC
Q Q
B B
Case 1 Case 2
PC PSP PC PSP
LC LC
L D L D
FC FC FC FC
F LSP F
DSP LSP DSP
QSP QSP
FC FC
LC BSP LC BSP
FC FC
Q Q
B B
Case 3 Case 4
FIG. 8.19j
Four cases of conventional distillation control configurations.
1 2 3 4 5 1.143 L
Volts
10 20 30 40 50
Analog signals
mA dc
4 8 12 16 20 100%
mA dc
1 2 3 4 5 L = 100%
50
0 25% 50% 75% 100% L = 50%
93 116 138 160 182C
25
200 240 280 320 360F
Temperature transmitter L = 25%
0 0.85 1.7 2.93 3.4 m3/h
Process values
FIG. 8.19l
0 450 636 779 900 GPH
Multiplier output for the solution of Equation 8.19 (39).
Dierential pressure ow transmitter
%
0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.0
3
Chromatograph output 0 to 700 gpm (0 to 2.65 m /h); and the ratio range, R, is 0
to 0.8 (R = M/L).
FIG. 8.19k
Common analog signals and their relationship to process variables.
700M = (1000L)(0.80R) 8.19(38)
SP
FT FRC
D
PRC
PT Accumulator
FRC FT
D
L
Heat FRC FT FT FRC
Q
balance Boiling
logic C point
Main fractionation
calculation
FT FRC
Q FRC FT
C
FIG. 8.19n
Control of product flows and pump-around refluxes.
Yi
HIC FY X & mD + Yi ARC Y
AT
TC
V + LqL SP
TT FC
FT D
FY FRC
Distillate
D(y) D2
Reux, L FT
Distillate
(D)
Receiver
Wi - Initial batch quantity FIG. 8.19p
yi - Initial product concentration Control system for batch distillation.
v
FC
FT
Steam, Q L LqL Figure 8.19p shows the control system that will accom-
x plish this when the vapor rate from the batch column is main-
Wi( y2) tained constant. The equation describing this operation is:
FIG. 8.19o
Y = mD + yi 8.19(44)
Batch distillation.
where
y = the fraction of key component in the product
by turning on the heating and cooling systems. During the m = the rate of change of y with respect to the distillate (D)
distillation process, the initial charge in the vessel continually yi = the initial concentration of the product
depletes while building up the overhead product in the dis-
tillate receiver.
The only adjustment required is the correct setting of m.
Batch distillations are more common in smaller, multi-
The higher its value, the faster y will change and the smaller
product plants where the various products can only be man- will be the quantity of material recovered.
ufactured at different times, and where a number of different
mixtures may be handled in the same equipment.
Equation 8.19(43) is the basic equation that describes this CONTROL OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
operation:
When minimization of fractionator utilities is an objec- material balance. Ratio control utilizes a ratio of any two ow
tive, the following guidelines are recommended: rates at each end of the column. The two common examples
of ratio control are the control of reux-to-distillate ratio and
Implement control to achieve composition control on the boil-up-to-bottoms ratio. These control congurations per-
all products of the fractionator form quite differently depending upon the fractionator char-
Operate the fractionator to produce minimum oversep- acteristics.
aration
Ascertain that the reduction in energy usage is reected
in the energy inow to the production complex CONTROL LOOP INTERACTION
Minimize energy waste from blending of oversepa-
rated products The selection of which product composition to control (or
both, if control of both can be controlled) and the decision
on which variables will give better control can be aided by
Alternative Control Strategies calculation of a relative gain array. The concept of relative
13,14
gain provides a measure of the interaction that can be
Many choices confront the design engineer when selecting expected between control loops. This subject is covered in
the control variables for a column. The rst decision involves more detail in Chapter 2 in Section 2.12 and in Section 8.20.
conguration of the top or bottom control loops, which The concept may be used to nd the control congurations
directly determines product compositions. Once these strat- that will have the least amount of interaction. Therefore,
egies are tentatively determined, the control strategies for the relative gain analysis should be considered the rst step in
remaining variables (e.g., pressure or levels) become easier evaluating alternative composition control strategies.
to select. In addition, some pairings can be made heuristically from
Pairings of controlled and manipulated variables are nor- operating experience and on the basis of a general under-
mally made according to the single-input single-output standing of column dynamics (Table 8.19q).
(SISO) method. Multivariable control, where multiple-input The following are general rules used to reject some pos-
and multiple-output (MIMO) variables are paired, are dis- sible control pairings:
15,16
TABLE 8.19q
4
Dynamic Response and Sensitivity Limitations on the Pairing of Distillation Control Variables
(Both compositions should not be controlled by material balance (B,D) if both specications are important)
Manipulated
Distillate Flow Bottoms Product Flow Vaporization Rate (V) or Reflux Flow Rate
Controlled Variable
(D) (B) Heat Input at Reboiler (O) (L)
Variable
Composition of Overhead Product (ACy) OK if L/D 6 Notes 1 and 2 Note 2
Note 3
Composition of Bottoms Product (ACx) Note 3 Notes 1 and 2 OK if trays 20
Accumulator Level (LCa) OK if L/D 6 Not good with furnace OK if L/D 0.5
OK if V/B 3
Bottoms Level (LCb) OK if V/B 3 Not good if furnace is used
OK if diameter at bottom
20 ft
Notes: 1. Control that concentration (x or y) which has the shorter residence time by throttling vapor ow (v).
2. More pure product should control separation (energy).
3. Less pure product should control material balance.
4. When controlling both x and y, the only choices for possible pairings are:
a. Control y by D and x by V.
b. Control y by D and x by L.
c. Control y by L and x by V.
d. Control y by B and x by L.
Of these, choice d is not recommended because a y/B combination is not responsive dynamically.
10. Accumulator level should not be controlled with number of the sidestream tray is greater than a mini-
reboiler heat if the control objective is to maintain mum value (approximately 100).
overhead product specication and the V/B ratio is 9. Bottoms level should not be controlled with bottoms
less than a minimum limit (approximately 3). ow if the V/B ratio is greater than a minimum limit
(approximately 3).
Because of lack of sensitivity, these loops should not be
paired: Choices for controlling product compositions include
1. Overhead composition should not be controlled with (1) controlling top or bottom composition only (generally
reux ow if the reux ratio (L/D) is less than a mini- suitable for constant separation conditions, where specica-
mum value (approximately 6). tions for one product are loose or where effective feedforward/
2. Accumulator level should not be controlled with dis- feedback systems can be designed to compensate for load
tillate ow if the reux ratio (L/D) is less than a max- changes) and (2) controlling of both product compositions
imum value (approximately 6). (minimizes energy use and provides tight specication top and
3. Accumulator level should not be controlled with reux bottom products for columns in which the problems of inter-
ow if the reux ratio (L/D) is less than a maximum action are small).
value (approximately 0.5). These choices can be broken down further into consid-
4. Bottoms composition should not be controlled with erations such as manipulation of distillate-boil-up, DV con-
sidedraw ow if the sidedraw is a vapor phase. guration (generally suitable for high reux columns) or
5. Overhead composition should not be controlled with manipulation of reux-boil-up, LV conguration (generally
sidedraw ow if the sidedraw is a liquid phase. suitable for low reux columns), and so forth.
6. Bottoms composition should not be controlled with Further considerations include the use of decoupling con-
sidedraw ow if the sidedraw is a liquid phase and the trol schemes (can present practical problems, such as insensi-
sidedraw tray number is greater than a minimum num- tive control, operating problems, and high sensitivity to errors)
ber (approximately 20). and the use of temperature measurements to infer composition
7. Sidedraw composition should not be controlled with or analyzers to measure composition directly (generally an
reux or distillate ow if the difference between the total economic decision based on how well a temperature-sensitive
number of trays and the number of the sidestream tray control point can be determined and the costs of analyzer
is greater than a minimum value (approximately 20). hardware and maintenance). These choices are based on oper-
8. Bottoms level should not be controlled with sidedraw ating objectives of the column, expected disturbance variables,
ow if the difference between the bottoms and the and the degree of control loop interaction.
If the cost of on-line analyzer hardware and maintenance is When composition of the distillate is more important, it
prohibitive, or if backup is desired in case of analyzer failure is desirable to maintain a constant temperature in the upper
or maintenance, and because the results of laboratory analysis section, as in Figure 8.19s. In this conguration the sensing
take too long to be usable for effective control, temperature point for column pressure control should be located near the
measurement often can be used to infer composition. temperature control point. Keeping the sensor locations close to
Because distillation separates materials according to their each other helps to x the relation between temperature and
difference in vapor pressures, and because vapor pressure is a composition at this particular point.
temperature-controlled function, temperature measurement has If column temperature proles caused by small positive
historically been used to indicate composition. This presumes and negative changes in manipulated variables, such as a 1%
that the column pressure remains constant, or that the temper- change in distillate ow (Figure 8.19t), can be generated, the
ature measurement is compensated for pressure changes, and
that feed composition is constant. Then, any change in compo-
sition within a column will be detected as a temperature change. Sensor location for
Stage maximum sensitivity
The best point to locate the temperature sensor cannot be
18
established from generalizations. The important consideration
is to measure the temperature on a tray that strongly reects
16
the changes in composition. When composition of the bottom
product is important, it is desirable to maintain a constant tem-
14
perature in the lower section. This can be done by letting the
1% decrease in D 1% increase in D
temperature measurement manipulate the reboiler steam supply
12
by resetting the steam ow controller set point (Figure 8.19r).
10
TT TRC
8
Set
FRC 6
FT
4
Steam
LT LIC
2
14 TT
6 TT TDRC FRC
SP FT
1 FRC
FT
Steam
AT ARC
following criteria may be helpful in selecting sensor loca- used. (For details, refer to Chapter 8 of Volume 1 of this
17
tions: (1) The sensitivity of the temperature-manipulated handbook.)
variable pairing should be in the range of 0.1 to 0.5C/% and Once, the time required for a chromatographic analysis
(2) equal temperature changes should result when increasing (several minutes) was a great barrier to its use for automatic
and when decreasing the manipulated variable. control. Since then, the equipment has been enhanced so that
For a two-product fractionator, distillation temperature analyses can now be made in less than 5 min, and in many
is an indication of composition only when column pressure cases for low-volatility hydrocarbons, the analysis can be
remains constant or if the temperature measurement is pressure- made continuous.
compensated. When separation by distillation is sought between With careful handling, the under 5 min sampling rate will
two compounds having relatively close vapor pressures, tem- permit closed-loop distillate control. In fact, fractionators are
perature measurement, as an indication of composition, is successfully controlled with cycle times as long as 710 min
not satisfactory. by applying dead time compensation algorithms.
Fixing two temperatures in a column is equivalent to Light ends fractionators have been satisfactorily con-
xing one temperature and the pressure. Thus, by controlling trolled by the use of chromatography. Figure 8.19v illustrates
two temperatures, or a temperature difference, the effect of the controls of a superfractionator designed to separate iso-
pressure variations can be eliminated. The assumption used butane and normal butane. In this case, the chromatograph
here is that the vapor pressure curves for the two components continuously analyzes a sample from one of the intermediate
have constant slopes. trays, and this measurement is used by the analyzer controller
Controlling two temperatures is not equivalent to con- to modulate the product draw-off valve.
trolling a temperature difference. A plot of temperature dif- Overhead and bottoms analyzers typically measure the
ference vs. bottom product composition exhibits a maximum. loss of a valuable product or the presence of impurities.
Thus, for some temperature differences below the maximum Impurity components are chosen because small concentration
it is possible to get two different product compositions. variations can be measured more precisely and with better
Separation of normal butane and isobutane (in the repeatability, and can provide a more sensitive measure of
absence of other components, such as pentanes and heavier separation. For example, the change of an impurity from 1.0
substances) can be accomplished very well by using temper- to 1.1% can be measured with greater precision than a change
of the major component from 99 to 98.9%.
ature difference control. Figure 8.19u illustrates how the heat
input to such a column can be controlled by a temperature When composition analyzers are used in feedback con-
difference controller. trol, several congurations can be considered. These include
1) direct control of a manipulated variable, 2) cascade control
adjusting the set point of a slave temperature controller, and
Control by Analyzers 3) analysis control in parallel with temperature control in a
selective control conguration. The conguration used
Analytical or composition control is a way to sidestep the depends on the control objective, sensitivity of control, and
problems of temperature control. Although additional invest- analysis dead time.
ment is needed for the analytical equipment, savings from
improved operation usually results. Several types of instru- Direct Control by Analyzers Analyzer controllers in a feed-
ments are available for composition analysis. Of these, the back conguration can be considered when the dead time of
gas chromatograph is the most versatile and most widely each analysis update is less than the response time of the
SP SP
FT FRC FT FRC
+ +
ARC AY AY AT
ARC AT +
PRC PRC
X
AY AY AY
PT TT SP PT TT SP Lag Dead
Accumulator Accumulator
FRC FT FRC FT time
L D L D
Fractionation
Fractionation
F F
B B
SP
FT FRC PRC
PT
ARC AT
SP
PRC TRC
Absorber stripper
PT TT SP Accumulator
FRC FT
L D
FY
<
SP
TRC
Fractionation
FRC
F FT
Reboiler
ARC
Lean oil to
absorber
B FIG. 8.19z
Analyzer control in a low select configuration with a temperature
FIG. 8.19y constraint controller.
Triple cascade configuration of overhead composition control.
is often used when the fractionator is not the nal step in the
18
Analyzer controls can be used in a high or low select separation sequence. This often occurs in a natural gas
conguration in combination with temperature when a high liquids separation train where a de-ethanizer, a depropanizer,
or low limit based on temperature is important. The temper- a debutanizer, and a deisobutanizer (butane splitter) produce
ature controller is a constraint controller (see Section 2.28 in the products ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and gasoline
Chapter 2 for details) serving to prevent the temperature from as shown in Figure 8.19bb.
exceeding a limit. Specications for the primary overhead products may
An example of using this control conguration is the include limitations on the amount of both light and heavy
control of the bottoms of an absorber stripper. Here, the impurities. For example, the propane product from the over-
temperature should not exceed a certain value, as no addi- head of the depropanizer would have limitations on ethane
tional stripping of the light component in the bottoms of the as well as isobutane. The problem is that the light impurity
column could be accomplished. Even though an analyzer (lighter than light key) cannot be controlled in the tower that
controller may call for more heat, this heat would only produces that product. Rather, it must be controlled in an
increase the bottoms temperature of the recycled oil to the upstream tower.
absorber without removing the impurity, thereby reducing
the absorption capability at the absorber.
Set Override
Figure 8.19z depicts an analyzer controller in a low select point
conguration with the temperature constraint controller. EF
<
TIC FIC FY PIC PT
Note that both cascade and selective control congura-
tions require external feedback to protect them from reset Master Slave
windup. Figure 8.19aa illustrates how the external feedback TT EF EF
(EF) is applied to the master controller in a cascade cong- FT
uration (TIC) and to both controllers (FIC and PIC) in a
selective control conguration. For more details on external
A/O
feedback, refer to Section 2.28 in Chapter 2.
FIG. 8.19aa
Fractionator Trains A controller may use as its measure- In a cascade configuration the external feedback signal (EF) is the
ment the analysis of a single component, or may use the ratio slave measurement, while in selective control configurations, it is
of two components. A ratio (e.g., ethane-to-propane, C2/C3) the signal that is throttling the control valve.
Propane Isobutane
NGL product combined isopentane plus normal pentane concentrations in
product
the presence of isobutane and normal butane to control the
butane-pentane separation. Here, investigation revealed that
Deisobutanizer
AX C5+ gas chromatography provides the best solution.
Depropanizer
Conditioned
sample
PSV Ok Ok
(fast but (slow)
not repeatable)
PC
Overhead Packed NG
condenser column
Percent Distillate
evaporated product
temperature
NG (D)
PI controller
Feed
TT TRC
(F)
FO
TC
To
distillation Ok
Boiler pot column (fast)
controls
Sample Float
outlet
valve Bottoms
Drain product
valve Heater
(B)
Ok
Analyzer Ok (slow)
euent (slow & low
FIG. 8.19cc pressure)
The end-point distillation analyzer is a miniature version of the FIG. 8.19dd
process column. The choices of sampling point locations for analyzers used in dis-
tillation column control.
Analyzer
FIG. 8.19ee
Sampling system for a liquid product in a refinery application.
points are present in the sample. When the sample lines are it requires pressure compensation if the pressure varies. As
long, some separation between components can also occur. analyzers are increasingly replacing temperature-based con-
However, vapor samples can be used when warranted and if trols, the argument favoring constant pressure operation is
the proper care can be taken. also lessening. However, even when temperature control is
A satisfactory point for measuring bottoms product com- used, the temperature measurements can be compensated for
position is at the point of highest pressure. This approach pressure variations.
will ensure a representative sample and will provide the pres- The primary advantage of oating-pressure control is the
sure drop to return the sample bypass. The point of highest ability to operate at the minimum column pressure within the
pressure is generally immediately after the product pump. constraints of the system. Lower pressure reduces the vola-
However, if liquid holdup in the reboiler and kettle is large, a tility of distillation components, thereby reducing the heat
long lag is introduced, which slows the transient response of input required to effect a given separation. Other advantages
the measurement and control system. Alternative sample include increased reboiler capacity and reduced reboiler fouling
points such as a bottoms tray or seal pan may be used, but due to lower tower temperatures.
may require extra expense for the sample system. In the following paragraphs, oating-pressure control strat-
A satisfactory sample-point location for measuring the egies will be described for the following conditions: (1) liquid
distillate is the outlet liquid of the overhead vapor condenser. distillate withdrawn when noncondensables are present,
Sampling the overhead accumulator liquid after the reux or (2) vapor distillate withdrawn when noncondensables are
distillate pump should be avoided because of the tremendous present, and (3) liquid distillate withdrawn when the amount
process lag it introduces. Sampling the overhead vapor of noncondensables is negligible.
reduces the process lag of sampling after the condenser if a
repeatable, representative sample can be obtained. Liquid Distillate and Inerts
Dry Dry
condenser condenser
Water
Vaporizer
Water
PRC PRC
PT PT
LRC Vapor (D) Vapor
(D)
LT Receiver LT LRC
FIG. 8.19gg
Column pressure control when the distillate is in the vapor phase and contains inerts for variable (A) and constant condenser water flow
configurations (B).
Partially
ooded
condenser
P
Water PRC
P Vapor
PT LT
(D) P
PT PRC P
LIC
LT LRC
Liquid
(D)
FIG. 8.19hh
Column pressure controlled by hot gas bypass throttling in case of vapor (A) and liquid (B) distillate processes.
rate of condensation depends upon the mechanical construc- should be owing at a rate of more than 4.5 ft/s (1.35 m/s),
tion of the condensing equipment. and the water should have a residence time of less than 45 sec.
The shorter the residence time of the water, the better will
Controlling the Cooling Water Flow Figure 8.19ii describes be the quality of control obtained, owing to the decrease in
a control conguration where the column pressure is con- dead time or lag in the system.
trolled by throttling the cooling water ow from the con- With a properly designed condenser, the pressure con-
denser. This method of control is recommended only when troller needs only proportional control, because a narrow
the cooling water is treated with chemicals that prevent the throttling range is sufcient. However, as the residence time
fouling of the tubes in the event of high temperature rise of the water increases, the time lag of the system will
across the condenser tubes. In such conguration, the main- increase, and consequently the controller will require a wider
tenance costs are low, because the control valve is on the throttling range and will need automatic reset to compensate
water side and the control performance is acceptable, pro- for the load changes.
vided the condenser is properly designed. The control obtained by using a wide proportional band
The best condenser for this service is a bundle-type unit is not satisfactory for precision distillation columns because
with the cooling water owing through the tubes. This water of the length of time required for the system to recover from
an upset. Also, the dead time varies with load, and therefore
the integral setting of the PRC should be set to match the
variation in residence time.
Water Dry
Therefore, it is unacceptable to use this control system
condenser on a condenser box with submerged tube sections, because
there would be a large time lag in the system due to the large
volume of water in the box. It would require the passage of
PRC a signicant amount of time before a change in water ow
PT
rate would change the temperature of the water in the box
and nally would affect the rate of condensation.
LIC
LT Controlling the Condensate Flow To reduce such unfavor-
able time lags, it becomes necessary to use a different type
of control system, one that permits the water ow rate to
remain constant and controls the amount of surface exposed
to the condensing vapors. This is done by modulating the
ow of condensate from the condenser.
FIG. 8.19ii When the column pressure is dropping, this condensate
Column pressure control by throttling condenser water. throttling valve reduces the condensate ow, causing it to
Partially
PCV ooded
2 condenser
PRC-1>PRC-2
PRC PRC
1 P 2
PCV
1 PRC
PT PT Inerts
PT PRC PT
P
LT LIC LT LRC
Liquid
(D)
Liquid (D)
FIG. 8.19jj
High-speed column pressure control.
build up and ood more tube surface and, consequently, to (Figure 8.19jj, Part A). The column pressure is maintained
reduce the condensing surface exposed to the vapors. by throttling the ow of vapor through the condenser. Con-
Thereby, the condensing rate is reduced, and the pressure in trolling the rate of ow through the condenser provides faster
the column rises. In such designs, a vent valve should be pressure regulation for the column.
installed to purge the noncondensables from the top of the Part A of Figure 8.19jj shows the operation if there are
condenser if it is expected that noncondensables could build no inerts, as follows: If column pressure rises, PRC-1 opens
up and blanket the condensing surface. PCV-1. This increases the vapor pressure in the condenser,
which pushes some of the condensate out of it and increases
the condensing surface area exposed to the vapors. Therefore,
Control of Hot Vapor Bypass A third possible control con-
the rate of condensation is increased, and thereby the column
guration for applications with liquid distillate containing
pressure is lowered back to the set point of PRC-1.
negligible inerts is used when the condenser is located below
At this higher rate of condensation, the pressure drop
the receiver. This is frequently done to make the condenser
(P) across PCV-2 is also reduced (the valve opens). If the
available for servicing and to save on steel work. It is usual
column pressure drops, the opposite sequence occurs: PCV-1
practice to elevate the bottom of the accumulator 1015 ft
closes and the ooding of the condenser increases, reducing
(34.5 m) above the suction of the pump in order to provide
the rate of condensation and increasing the pressure drop
a positive suction head on the pump.
(P) across PCV-2 by slightly closing it. The setting of PRC-1
In this type of installation the control valve is placed in
must always be above that of PRC-2.
a bypass of the vapor line to the accumulator (see
The most common pressure control conguration is
Figure 8.19hh, Part B). When this valve is open, it equalizes
shown in Part B of Figure 8.19jj. Here, the column pressure
the pressure between the vapor line and the receiver, causing
controller is throttling the hot vapor bypass, as was the case in
the condensing surface to become ooded with condensate
Part A of Figure 8.19hh, but in addition a second pressure
because of the 1015 ft of head in the condensate line from
controller is utilized on the accumulator. This PRC is set at
the condenser back to the receiver.
about 5 PSIG below the required tower pressure and is used
The ooding of the condensing surface causes the pres- to vent the inert gases that may build up in the system.
sure to build up because of the decrease in the rate of con-
densation. Under normal operating conditions, the subcooling Vacuum Systems
that the condensate receives in the condenser is sufcient to
reduce the vapor pressure in the receiver. The difference in For some liquid mixtures, the temperature required to vapor-
pressure permits the condensate to ow up the 1015 ft of ize the feed would need to be so high that decomposition
pipe between the condenser and the accumulator. would result. To avoid this, it is necessary to operate the
A modication of this latter system controls the pressure column at pressures below atmospheric. Steam jet ejectors
in the accumulator by throttling the condenser bypass ow are often used to create vacuum in distillation systems. These
Demethanizer
Turbine
Compressor
FIG. 8.19kk
Vacuum column pressure control.
TT TRC
Nonlinear
LT LRC
Set
FRC
FT
Reboiler
FIG. 8.19oo
Feed flow to the next column is kept relatively constant by the use
FIG. 8.19nn of a nonlinear level controller (LRC) on the surge tank acting as
Main fractionator pressure control. the cascade master of the slave flow controller (FRC).
To column
TRC
Set
FRC
TT FT
Steam
Distillate
X Feed
FT FY FC
FIG. 8.19qq
The use of a temperature-flow cascade loop improves the column
m feed temperature controls provided by a preheater.
Feed
FIG. 8.19pp
Feedforward control minimizes feed rate disturbances. line. In this conguration, the temperature of the feed leaving
this preheater controls the steam ow into the preheater. In
such a cascade conguration, the temperature master is usu-
the set point to the FRC remains constant. This will allow ally a three-mode controller. On start-up, the initially large
the surge tank to fulll its purpose and smooth out the load correction provided by rate action of this three-mode con-
variations between the related processes. If the level drops troller helps to get the unit lined out faster. A full discussion
below 25% or rises above 75%, the FRC set point is reduced of the advantages of cascade loops is provided in Section 2.6
or increased respectively to protect it from draining or ood- in Chapter 2. Figure 8.19qq describes such a control system
ing the tank. on a preheater application.
If feed rate disturbances must be accepted by the column, An alternate feed preheating conguration is to use an
a feedforward control system as shown in Figure 8.19pp can economizer on the feed stream. An economizer is a heat
10
be used to minimize the impact of these disturbances. The exchanger designed to take advantage of the waste heat to
ratio, m, is selected by performance of a simple material preheat the feed. Often, if the bottoms product is just sent to
balance around the column. Changing the product ow in storage, it must be cooled anyway. Therefore, exchanging its
proportion to the feed ow minimizes internal column tran- heat content with the feed stream accomplishes both the
sients and, thus, the quantity of off-spec material during objective of feed preheating and that of product cooling.
recovery. Two control congurations are common. If heat from the
The value of m, however, is accurate only for one feed bottoms product stream is not sufcient, a second exchanger
composition and will have to be readjusted either manually using steam is also installed to augment the heating of the
or automatically for different feed compositions. Dynamic feed, and on this second exchanger, a temperature control
compensation, which will be discussed in more detail in system like that previously shown in Figure 8.19qq is used.
Section 8.21, is also recommended here. If the available bottoms product heat is more than sufcient,
Another method of minimizing feed rate disturbances is temperature control is achieved by manipulation of a bypass
to use adaptive tuning or other nonlinear level control tech- valve around the economizer, as shown in Figure 8.19rr.
niques (see Section 2.36 in Chapter 2) on the level controller.
Constant temperature feed does not necessarily mean
The key is to allow the accumulator, or the tower kettle, to
constant feed quality. If feed composition varies, its bubble
utilize its capacity to accommodate transient material balance
point also varies. It is common practice to set the temperature
accumulations and act as a surge drum to minimize feed
control at a point that is equivalent to the bubble point of
ow changes to the next unit.
the heaviest feed. As the feed becomes lighter, some of it will
vaporize, but this variation can be handled by subsequent
Feed Temperature Control
controls.
The thermal condition of the feed determines how much
additional heat must be added to the column by the reboiler.
For efcient separation, it usually is desirable to have the FEEDFORWARD CONTROLS
feed preheated to its bubble point when it enters the column.
Unless the feed comes directly from some preceding distil- This section discusses the basic single-inputsingle-output
lation step, an outside source of heat is required to achieve feedback control loops, serving to control the product qual-
that. ities, feed rate and temperature, and tower pressure. Such
Steam may be used to heat the feed, and a thermocouple feedback systems are capable of compensating for deviations
inside a thermowell can detect the temperature inside the feed and disturbances only after they have occurred and have been
4. Henley, E. J., and Seader, J. D., Equilibrium-Stage Separation Oper- Whistler, A. M., Locate Condensers at Ground Level, Petroleum Refiner.,
ations in Chemical Engineering, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 33(3): 173174, March 1954.
1981.
5. Smith, D. E., Stewart, W. S., and Grifn, D. E., Distill with Com- 19601969
position Control, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 1978.
6. Fenske, M. R., Fractionation of Straight-Run Pennsylvania Gaso- Denbigh, K., The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium, London: Cambridge
line, Industrial Engineering Chemistry, May 1932. University Press, 1961, pp. 63 and 116.
7. Shinskey, F. G., Process-Control Systems, Application, Design, Van Kampen, J. A., Automatic Control by Chromatograph of a Distillation
Adjustment, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1988. Column, Convention on Advances in Automatic Control, Nottingham,
8. Bannon, R., et al., Heat Recovery in Hydrocarbon Distillation, England, April 1961.
Chemical Engineering Progress, July 1978. Smuck, W. W., Operating Characteristics of a Propylene Fractionating
9. Converse, A. O. and Gross, G. D., Optimal Distillate Rate Policy in Unit, Chemical Engineering Progress, June 1963.
Batch Distillation, Industrial Engineering Chemistry, August 1963. Lupfer, D. E. and Johnson, M. L., Automatic Control of Distillation Col-
10. Thurston, C. W., Computer-Aided Design of Distillation Column umns to Achieve Optimum Operations, ISA Transactions, April 1964.
Controls: Part 1, Hydrocarbon Processing, July 1981. Rijnsdorp, J. E., Interaction in Two-Variable Control Systems for Distilla-
11. Jensen, B. A., and Collins, P. L., Incentives For Tighter Fractionator tion Columns, in Automatica, Vol. 1, London: Pergamon Press, 1965.
Control, Control, November 1990. Forman, E. R., Control Systems for Distillation, Chemical Engineering,
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Balance Control Structure for Distillation Columns, Industrial & Perry, E. S., and Weissberger, A., Distillation, 2nd ed., New York: Inter-
Engineering Chemistry Research, September 1991, pp. 21592168. science, 1965.
13. Gordon, L. M., Practical Evaluation of Relative Gains: The Key to Bristol, E. H., On a New Measure of Interaction for Multivariable Process
Designing Dual Composition Controls, Hydrocarbon Processing, Control, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, January 1966.
December 1982. Luyben, W. L., 10 Schemes to Control Distillation Columns with Side-
14. Shinskey, F. G., Predicting Distillation Column Response Using stream Drawoff, ISA Journal, Vol. 13, No. 7, pp. 3742, 1966.
Relative Gains, Hydrocarbon Processing, May 1981. Van Winkle, M., Distillation, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
15. Jensen, B. A., Harper, T., and Likins, M. R., An Expert System in 1967.
Fractionator Control System Design, Proceedings of the AIChE Wood, C. E., Method of Selecting Distillation Column Tray Location for
Spring Meeting, Orlando, FL, March 1990. Temperature Control, presented at the Joint IMIQ-AIChE Meeting,
16. Shinskey, F. G., An Expert System for the Design of Distillation Mexico City, September 2427, 1967.
Controls, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Owens, W. R., and Maddox, R. N., Shortcut Absorber Calculations, Indus-
Chemical Process Control, Asilomar, CA, January 1986. trial Engineering Chemistry, December 1968.
17. Thurston, C. W., Computer-Aided Design of Distillation Column Hengstebeck, R. J., An Improved Shortcut for Calculating Difcult Multi-
Controls: Part 2, Hydrocarbon Processing, August 1981. component Distillations, Chemical Engineering (NY), January 13,
18. Grifn, D. E., Fractionator Controls Can Save Energy, Oil & Gas 1969.
Journal, March 1978. Buckley, P. S., Controls for Sidestream Drawoff Columns, Chemical Engi-
19. Oglesby, M. W., and Hobbs, J. W., Chromatograph Analyzers for neering Progress, Vol. 65, No. 5, 1969, p. 45.
Distillation Control, Oil and Gas Journal, January 10, 1966. Luyben, W. L., Feedback Control of Distillation Columns by Double Dif-
20. Bhullar, R. S., Advanced Distillation Control, Control, May 1990. ferential Temperature Control, Industrial and Engineering Funda-
21. Van Kampen, J. A., Automatic Control by Chromatograph of a mentals, Vol. 8, November 1969.
Distillation Column, Convention on Advances in Automatic Control, McNeill, G. A., and Sacks, J. D., High-Performance Column Control,
Nottingham, England, April 1961. Chemical Engineering Progress, March 1969.
22. Luyben, W. L., Distillation Decoupling, AIChE Journal, Vol. 16,
No. 2, pp. 198203, March 1970.
23. Shinskey, F. G., The Stability of Interacting Loops with and without 1970
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