Vibration Measurement

1
 Introduction
Why we need to measure vibrations:
To detect shifts in n which indicates
possible failure
To select operational speeds to avoid
resonance
Measured values may be different from
theoretical values
To design active vibration isolation systems
To identify mass, stiffness and damping of a
system
To verify the approximated model
2
 Introduction

Type of vibration measuring instrument

used will depend on:
Expected range of frequencies and
amplitudes
Size of machine/structure involved
Conditions of operation of the
machine/structure
Type of data processing used
3
 Equipmental Modal Testing
General arrangement for experimental modal analysis:

&x&(t )

f(t)

v(t)

4
 Vibration Measurement

Dynamics testing is a valuable

complement to dynamics analysis
Modal testing
Natural frequencies
Damping
Mode shapes
Operational testing
In-service loads (often random)

5
 Transducers

Translates motion or forces into

electrical signals
Size of transducer is important (micro)
Ideally does not influence the structures
dynamics through added mass or stiffness
Analytical models often include effects of
transducer mass

6
 Variable resistance transducer

x (t ) Strain gage

Cantilever beam

= const x(t ) base

Sec. 10.2
7
 Variable resistance transducer

http://www.blh.de
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 Piezoelectric transducer
F=A p

Qx=d F=d A p
h
F
Vout(t)= h p(t)

d = piezoelectric constant
v =voltage sensitivity coeff
h = thickness of transducer
http://www.bksv.com/
11
 Electrodynamic transducer

Vout
Sensor: vel. Volt

Vout(t)=B l v(t)

Exciter: I F

B l =V/v=F/I
F=Bl I

13
 Response Transducers
(acceleration)
Accelerometers are very common
Based on piezoelectric elements
piezoresistive, capacitive, etc.
See Figures 10.12 in book www.bksv.com
Accelerometers themselves are m/c/k
systems
Must watch for internal resonances

14
 Response Transducers
(velocity)
MHD (magneto-hydrodynamics)
ATA Sensors Inc, USA
http://www.aptec.com/Sensors2/ars01_01s_mhd_angular_rate_sensor.htm

Lasers vibrometer
Doppler shifts
Can scan large structures
Line of sight
Noncontact

15
 Response Transducers
(displacement)
LVDT
linear variable differential transformers
Magnets and coils
Noisy; best for low-freq, high-
displacement application
RVDT
rotary variable differential transformers
Optical sensors (noncontact)

http://www.transtekinc.com/
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 Linear variable differential transformer
transducer

Output voltage depends on the axial displacement of the core

Insensitive to temp and high output

http://www.daytronic.com/Products/trans/lvdt/default.htm
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 Modal Testing

The use of our analytical methods

to date to interpret vibration
measurements
A standard skill used in industry

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 Measurement Hardware
Load cell

Accelerometer
Structure
Laser, etc

Exciter
SC SC Display

Power
Signal Analyzer
supply

Modal Software

Signal
generator

SC = Singal Conditioning
19
 Exciters
Electromagnetic shakers which may apply a
force through a range of frequencies
(harmonic or random inputs)
Instrumented hammers which simulate an
impact (recall the impulse response)

B&K 4808,
5~10 kHz, 112 Newtons

20
 Mechanical Exciters
Force applied as an
inertia force:

Force applied as an
elastic spring force:

Used for frequency <30

Scotch yoke
Hz and loads <700N mechanism

22
 Mechanical Exciters

Makes use of unbalance created by 2

masses rotating at same speed in
opposite directions, load: 250N-25kN
23 F(t) = 2mR2cost
 Signal Conditioning
The direct output of a transducer not
usually well suited for input into an analyzer
Impedance miss matched, voltage or
current levels too low
SC is a charge or voltage amp designed to
take an accelerometer signal and match
it to the input requirements of the analyzer

B&K 2635 charge amplifier

http://www.bksv.com/3073.asp
24
 Analyzer
Electronic boxes (really dedicated computers)
which gather signals and manipulate them
mathematically
Like all other computer based technologies
the analyzer boxes have evolved almost in
to chip sized devices
Essentially their main source of manipulation
is digital Fourier Transforms for manipulating
the vibration data in the frequency domain

25
 Fourier Series of F(t) of period T

a0
F(t ) = + (an cosnT t +bn sin nT t)
2 n=1
2
where T =
T
2
T

a0 = F(t)dt
T 0
2
T

an = F(t)cosn Ttdt n = 1,2,3....

T 0
2T
bn = F(t)sin nT tdt n = 1,2,3....
T0

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 Basic idea of the Analyzer

Analog voltage in from force f(t) and one

of x(t), v(t) or a(t) transducers
Signals are filtered, digitized and
transformed to the frequency domian
Manipulated to produce digital
frequency response functions from
which vibration data is extracted

27
 Digital signal processing

The analyzer takes signals form the

transducer and puts the signal into a
form that can be mathematically
manipulated
This of course is best performed with
digital computers, hence we rely on
some basic principles of DSP (Matlab)

28
 Forming a digital signal:
Analog to Digital Conversion
The analog signal x(t) is sampled at many
equally spaced time intervals to produce
the digital record
{x(t1), x(t2), .x(tN)}
where x(tk) is the discrete value of x(t) at
time tk and N is the number of samples
taken
Constructed by A/D converter (eg gated)
29
 Sampling rate
Aliasing is caused by not sampling enough of
the signal so the digital record does not catch
the details of the analog signal
Problem is solved by choosing a sample rate
of 2.5 times the largest frequency of interest
and by
Anti-aliasing filters (cut off filter) allowing a
sane choice of sampling rate

30
 Digital Fourier Transform

a0 N / 2 2 itk 2 itk
xk = x(t k ) = + ai cos + bi sin ,k = 1,2...N
2 i =1 T T
where
1 N
a0 =
N
x
k =1
k

1 N 2 ik
ai = xk cos
N k =1 T
1 N
2 ik
bi =
N x k sin T
k =1

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 FFT/DFT Analyzer
Above becomes the matrix equation
x=Ca where
C contains the sin and cos terms
x is the vector of samples and
a is the vector of Fourier Coefficients
The analyzer computes the coefficients
in the DFT formula by a=C-1x
N is fixed by hardware (a power of 2)

32
 Spectral Leakage
If the signal is not periodic in N samples
(signal cut off mid period) the DFT will
produce extra frequencies, called leakage
Fixed by windowing, multiply signal by a
function which is zero at the end points, or
tapers off (many kinds, depending on nature
of signal)
Downside, it adds damping to signal

33
 Random Signal Analysis
1
T
Autocorrelation : Rxx ( ) = lim x(t)x(t + )d
T T
0 Tells how fast x(t) is changing

1

j
Power Spectral Density (PSD) : Sxx () = R ( )e d
2 xx
Fourier transform of R

1
T

Crosscorrelation : Rxf ( ) = lim x(t) f (t + )d

T T
0 Tells how fast one signal changes
relative to another

1
Cross Spectral Density : Sxf ( ) =
2
Rxf ( )e j
d
 R and S are available from DFT and
connect response to system frequency
response function

S fx () = H ( j )S ff

Sxx ( ) = H( j )Sxf

2
Sxx ( ) = H( j ) S ff
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 1
G(s) = 2
Transfer function
ms + cs + k
1
G( j ) = H( ) = Frequency response function
k m + cj
2

1 t
h(t) = e sin d t Impulse response function
md
1
LT[h(t)] = G(s) = 2
ms + cs + k
f (t) deterministic f (t) random
2
X(s) = G(s)F(s) Sxx ( ) = H( ) Sff ( )
t

x(t) = h(t ) f ( )d
2
E[x 2 ] = H( ) S ff ( )d
0

36
 The way it works

PSDs calculated in analyzer

Used to form H(w) for force in, response
out (velocity, position or acceleration)
H(w) used to extract modal data of
structure in a number of different ways,
forming the topic of Modal Testing

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 Coherence

Compute H(w) a
2 number of different
Sxf ( )
=
2 ways
Sxx ( )S ff ( ) Compare the
0 2 1 various measured
values of H(w)
should be 1, especially Indicates how good
near resonance the measurement is

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 Transfer function nomenclature

2
X (s) sX ( s ) s X (s)
= G ( s ), or = G ( s ), or = G(s)
F (s) F ( s) F (s)
response standard reciprical
Displacement compliance dynamic stiffness
Velocity mobility impedance
Acceleration inertance apparent mass

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 Measured FRF

Natural frequency
taken as peak value

Illustrates peak picking method

of determining modal parameters
40
 Damping ratio from peak picking

Use the two

frequencies
determined from the
H (d )
H( a ) = H( b ) = half power (0.707)
2 points
b a
= Gives the modal
2 d damping ratio

41
 Example 1 : Response with two modes:

second mode
First mode
b a
b a 2 =
1 = 22
21
21.67 17.10
10.16 9.75 =
= = 0.02 40
20 = 0.11

42
 Mode shape measurement

j t jt
Mx + Cx + Kx = fe , x = ue
&& &
( K M + jC )u = f
2

u = ( K M + j C ) f
2 1

( ) = ( K M + jC )
2 1

= [ Sdiag( + 2 i i j ) S ]
i
2 2 T 1

43
 S = M1 / 2 P, P = [u1 : u2 :Lun ]

T 1 1
( ) = S diag 2 S
+ 2 j
2
i i i
T
n ui u i
( ) = 2 2
i=1 + 2ii j
i

in element form at resonance

T
u iu i sr
= 2i Hsr ( i ), where Hsr = sr
2
i

Measurement points

44
 Need only one column to get
mode shape
Suppose ui = [a1 a2 a3 ]
T

a12 a1a2 a1 a3
ui uTi = a2 a1 a22 a2 a3
a a a a 2
3 1 3 2 a 3

really only 3 unkowns a1 , a2 and a3 . So just three

elements of () need be measured per mode to get
the mode shape

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 Measure MDOF FRF
Freq Response Fun.

Force
Transd. Accel. #1

Shaker

Accel. #2

Accel. #3

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 Impulse Response Testing

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49
 Inertial sensor model

case

m
x
m
. .
c(x-y) k(x-y)

y
k/2 c k/2

z = x y
c k
&z& + z& + z = &y& = 2Y sin t
0
m m
 Frequency Response Function for Vibration Sensor

Z r2
=Y
Y (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2 r ) 2
2 r
= tan 1

1 r 2

2Y sin( t ) Acceleration
z (t ) = =
n2
n2

z (t ) = Y sin( t )

51
 Frequency Response Function for Vibration Sensor

If stiff spring, big k high n

r= /n small
2Y sin( t ) Acceleration
z (t ) = =
n2
n2
a) If no damping ( = 0) r < 0.1
r = .1 output value has 1% error
b) If = 0.7, r < 0.25

If soft spring, small k low n

r= /n large
z(t) ~ y(t)
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 Example 10.2
A vibrometer having a natural frequency
of 4 rad/s and = 0.2 is attached to a
structure that performs a harmonic motion.
If the difference between the mximum
and the minimum recorded values is 8
mm, find the amplitude of motion of the
vibrating structure when its frequency is
40 rad/s.

54
 Solution
Amplitude of recorded motion:
Y (10 )
2
Z= = 1.0093Y = 4 mm
(1 10 ) + [2(0.2)(10)]
2 2 2

Amplitude of vibration of structure:

Y = Z/1.0093 = 3.9631 mm

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 10.3.2 Accelerometer
Measures acceleration
of a vibrating body.

Y 2 sin (t )
z (t )n2 =
(1 r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

1
If 1,
(1 r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

z (t ) Y sin (t )
2
n
2

56
 10.3.2 Accelerometer

If 0.65< < 0.7,

1
0.96 1.04 for 0 r 0.6
(1 r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

Accelerometers are preferred due their

57
small size.
 Example 10.3
An accelerometer has a suspended mass
of 0.01 kg with a damped natural
frequency of vibration of 150 Hz. When
mounted on an engine undergoing an
acceleration of 1 g at an operating speed
of 6000 rpm, the acceleration is recorded
as 9.5 m/s2 by the instrument. Find the
damping constant and the spring stiffness
of the accelerometer.

58
 Solution
1 Measured value 9.5
= = = 0.9684
(1 r ) + (2r )
2 2 2 True value 9.81

or (1 r ) + (2r ) = (1 / 0.9684 )
2 2 2 2
= 1.0663 (E.1)
6000(2 )
Operating speed = = 628.32 rad/s
60
d = 1 2 n = 150(2 ) = 942.48 rad/s
r 628.32
Thus = = = = 0.6667
d 1 n
2
1 2 942.48

r = 0.6667 1 2 2
(
or r = 0.4444 1 2
) (E.2)
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 Solution
Substitute (E.2) into (E.1):
1.58014 2.27142 + 0.7576 = 0
Solution gives 2 = 0.7253, 0.9547
Choosing = 0.7253 arbitrarily,
d 942.48
n = = = 1368.8889 rad/s
1 2
1 0.7253 2

k = mn2 = (0.01)(1368.8889 ) = 18738.5628 N/m

2

Damping constant
c = 2mn = 2(0.01)(1368.8889)(0.7253)
= 19.8571 N - s/m
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 Machine Maintenance Techniques
Life of machine follows the bathtub curve:

Machine fatique, wear, deformation, etc, lead to increase in the

clearances between mating parts, misalignments in shaft, crack
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initiation in parts and unbalance in rotors
 Machine Maintenance Techniques
Breakdown maintenance:
Allow the machine to fail and then replace
it with a new machine
This strategy is used when machine is
inexpensive and no other damage is
caused by the breakdown.

6
 Machine Maintenance Techniques
Preventive maintenance:
Maintenance performed at fixed intervals
Intervals determined statistically from past experience
This method is uneconomical
Condition-based/Predictive maintenance:
Replace fixed-interval overhaul with fixed-interval
measurements
Can extrapolate measured vibration levels to predict
when they will reach unacceptable values

63
 Machine Maintenance Techniques
Maintenance costs are greatly reduced

64
 Machine Condition Monitoring Technique
Following methods are used to monitor
machine conditions:

Aural and visual a skilled technician will listen

and see the vibrations produced by the
machine
Operational variables monitoring performance
is monitored wrt intended duty. Deviation
denotes a malfunction.
65
 Machine Condition Monitoring Technique
Temperature monitoring rapid increase in
temperature is an indication of malfunction
Wear debris found in lubricating oils can be used to
assess extent of damage by observing
concentration, size, shape and colour of the
particles
Available vibration monitoring techniques

66
 Vibration Monitoring Techniques
Time domain analysis
E.g. following is an acceleration waveform of a
faulty gearbox. Pinion is coupled to 2685 rpm
motor.

Period of waveform same as period of pinion.

This implies a broken gear tooth on the pinion.
67
 Vibration Monitoring Techniques
Peak level, RMS level and crest factor may be
used as indices to identify damage
Changes in Lissajous figures can be used to
identify faults.

68
 Relationship between machine components
and the vibration spectrum
Each rotating element generates identifiable frequency. Thus
changes in the spectrum at a given freq can be attributed to the
corresponding element.

69
 Vibration Monitoring Techniques
2nd gear was at
fault although 1st
gear was engaged.

70