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Micro-Hydro Power Systems - NEW
Micro-Hydro Power Systems - NEW
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Hydro resources
2.3 Types of turbines: impulse and reaction
2.4 Types of generators: synchronous and induction
2.5 Steady-state operation
2.6 Grid-connected systems: constant-frequency and
Variable-frequency operations
2.7 Stand-alone Systems: self-excited induction
generator and its control
1. Introduction
Hydropower is a very significant renewable
source in generating electricity.
It accounts for 19% of the global production of
electricity.
In some developing countries in Asia, Africa, it
accounts for more than 90%.
In USA, it accounts for 9% which is more than
ten times larger than all the other renewables
combined.
Water Cycle
2. Hydro Resources:
Energy in Water
At any point on the water flow, the total energy
contained is given by
Energy = Potential Energy + Pressure Energy +
Kinetic Energy
= g
P=H gQ
P= g Q H
Where Q is the water flow rate passing through
the turbine (m3/s)
Example-1
A 10 cm diameter penstock (i.e. pipe) delivers 0.01 m3/s
of water through an elevation change of 30 m. The
pressure in the pipe is 200 kN/m2 at the powerhouse.
What fraction of the available head is lost in the pipe?
What power is available for the turbine?
The reference elevation level is taken as that of the
power house.
At the Higher elevation, pressure and speed are zero.
Therefore head is only due to the elevation.
Total Available Head = 30m
At the power house, elevation is zero. Therefore, head
is only due to pressure and speed.
P = gQH N = gQ H G kQ 2 ( )
For maximum power at the turbine, dP/dQ=0
dP
dQ
( )
= g H G 3kQ 2 = g ( H G 3 H ) = 0
1 HG
H = H G Q =
3 3k
S.Rajakaruna July 2007 - Renewable Energy Systems 22
Pelton Turbines
Run-Away Speed
If the turbine is free to rotate (ie. under no-load),
it will finally operate at the no-load speed or the
run-away speed producing zero torque.
For this condition, the linear speed of the
buckets should be equal to the jet speed.
D 2
0 = 2 gH N 0 = 2 gH N
2 D
Where D is the diameter of the Pelton wheel
and 0 is the run-away speed. Note that run-
away speed is independent of Q.
S.Rajakaruna July 2007 - Renewable Energy Systems 33
Torque-Speed Characteristic of
Impulse Turbines
Slope=mrat
Q
T = Trat mrat ( m rat )
Qrat
Thus, neglecting change in
efficiency
Example 2
5. The rated Torque of the turbine
6. Derive an equation for the torque-speed characteristic
of the turbine
7. If the water-flow rate is reduced to 70% of rated value,
derive the new torque-speed characteristic.
Solution
1 2 v2
1.
mv = mgH N H N =
& & v = 2 gH N
2 2g
HN=Gross head Pipe losses = 75(1-0.3)= 52.5 m
S.Rajakaruna July 2007 - Renewable Energy Systems 39
Solution
v = 2* 9.81* 52.5 = 32.1m / s
D 2v 2* 32.1
v= 0 0 = = = 128.4 rad / s
2 D 0.5
Solution
4. Power of water Pw
4. Types of Generators
1. Synchronous Generators
2. Induction Generators
Synchronous Generators
The speed of a synchronous generator is equal to
the synchronous speed (i.e. the speed of rotating
magnetic field).
N m = N s = 120 f / P
Nm is the shaft speed in rpm, f is the frequency of
stator winding electrical supply in Hz and P is the
number of poles of stator winding.
Because of the direct proportionality between
frequency and rotor speed, a synchronous
generator connected directly to the grid operates
at a constant speed.
S.Rajakaruna July 2007 - Renewable Energy Systems 49
To regulate the speed of a synchronous generator,
a speed regulator is required. Mechanical governor
based speed regulators are very expensive.
Synchronous generators are more expensive
compared to induction generators, needs dc
exciters, needs synchronization to connect to the
grid, needs more maintenance, not easily available
in the market at small power levels used in micro-
hydro power stations.
Due to these reasons, synchronous generators are
not normally used below mini hydro power range.
S.Rajakaruna July 2007 - Renewable Energy Systems 50
Rotor
speed
f3 f2 f1
f5 f4
generator
Equivalent Circuit
Rotor impedances have been referred to the stator. s is the operating slip.
R1, X1, R2, X2 are very much smaller than Rm and Xm. Under running
condition, operating slip is below about 0.05. Therefore R2/s is very large.
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Linear Region
Synch. speed
>> ( X th + X 2 )
R2 R2
>> Rth
58
s s
3 Vth2 R2 3Vth2
Te = = s
s R2 2 s s R2
Note: VthV1
motor
Rotor
speed
f3 f2 f1
f5 f4
generator
f2
T2
T1
Tt2
Q2
f1
Tt1 Q1 Te2
Torque Te1
6. Grid-Connected Systems
Both Synchronous generator and the induction
Generator can be operated either as grid-connected or
as isolated.
Operation at Variable-Frequency
3Vth2 3Vth2 (s m )
Te = s
R s
s 2 s
2
3 Vth
Te = ( s m )
R2 s
motor
Rotor
speed
f3 f2 f1
f5 f4
generator
Example 3
The micro-hydro turbine described in Example 2 is coupled through
a gear box of speed ratio 3 and power efficiency 80% to a cage
type induction generator with following rated data. 415V, 3-Phase,
50 Hz, 4-Pole, delta-connected. The rotor winding resistance
referred to the stator is 1.2 and all the other equivalent circuit
parameters can be ignored.
The generator shaft speed is 3 times higher than that of the turbine.
The torque at generator shaft is 1/3 times that of turbine shaft, if the
gearbox is ideal.
At steady-state,
0.267 * 510 8.1* m 65.45 + 17.44 * (157.1 m ) = 0
3
m = 166.2 rad / s Tm = 158.77 Nm
Solution
2
t ,rat = 625* = 65.45 rad / s Tt ,rat = 510 Nm
60
-Tt
55.4 t ,rat
Turbine
speed
Tt ,rat
-595.4 Turbine rated
point
Current operating
point
Solution
2
3 415
(s 196.35 ) = 136
1.2 157.1
17.44 (s 196.35 ) = 136 s = 188.55 rad / s
P 4
f = s = * 188.55 = 60 Hz
4 4
V 415
V = rat f = * 60 = 498.1 V ( line )
f
rat 50
The rated operation results in V> Vrat, hence the operation is not
acceptable. Therefore, the gear ratio should be reduced below 3.
2
t ,rat = 625* = 65.45 rad / s Tt ,rat = 510 Nm
60
Generator
Torque
166.2 m,rat
Te at f=60Hz Generator
Te at f=50Hz speed
Tm
Tm,rat
-158.77 Operating point corresponding to rated
operation of turbine
7. Stand-Alone (Isolated)
Operation
In the areas where grid is not available, both
synchronous and induction generators are capable of
acting as the stand-alone generator by supplying power
to an isolated rural community or a factory.
Most such power systems used for rural electrification in
developing countries are of micro-hydro power level and
use a cage-type induction machine as the generator.
No mechanical speed governor is used. Instead a low-
cost electrical load controller is used to control the
voltage and frequency.
Hydro-Turbine
Steady-State Performance
Terminal voltage drops with the increasing load and then the voltage
collapses to zero when the limit of self-excitation is reached.
Voltage drops faster with the increasing load power when the power
factor of load is lower.
S.Rajakaruna July 2007 - Renewable Energy Systems 87
The larger the capacitance at the terminals, the higher the output
voltage and the maximum power that can be drawn from the generator.
By connecting a
properly sized
capacitor bank in
series with the
load, the voltage
drop due to
loading can be
reduced.
icontroller
iref
icontroller
Feedback Control