Electrical Power & Energy Systems, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp.

397-410, 1997
1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
ELSEVIER PII: S0142-0615(97)01~10-0 0142-0615/97517.00+0.00

Design of reactive current

and voltage controller of
static condenser
K R Padiyar and A M Kulkarni
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, India

The Static Condenser (STATCON) [2-7] is a second

The STATic CONdenser (STATCON) is a shunt connected
generation FACTS device used for shunt reactive power
voltage source converter using self-commutating devices
compensation. It is based on voltage source converters
like GTOs which can be used for reactive power control.
(VSCs) and uses self commutating power semiconductor
Their principle of operation is similar to that of a synchron-
devices such as GTOs. The converter is connected to the
ous condenser. A typical application of a STATCON is for
system bus through a small reactance, which is the leakage
voltage regulation at the midpoint of a long transmission
reactance Xl of the coupling transformer (Figure la). The
line. In this paper, a two stage structure for the control of
reactive power drawn or supplied by the STATCON can be
voltage is investigated. This uses a closed loop reactive
varied by varying the magnitude of the converter output
current controller whose reference is set by an outer voltage
voltages. In this sense, the STATCON is similar to the
controller. For reactive current current control, the use of a
synchronous condenser. Ideally, the output voltages of the
PI controller and a f u z ~ logic PI controller is investigated.
converter are in phase with the corresponding bus voltages.
It is found that the fuzzy logic controller overcomes the
However, a small phase difference exists in the steady state
problem of oscillatory instability encountered when a con-
(which depends on the reactive power output) so that active
ventional PI controller is used. An important observation is
power may be drawn from the lines to compensate for the
that the plant transfer function for voltage control (by
losses. The current on the DC side is mainly a ripple of
reactive current injection) is generally of the nonminimum
magnitude smaller than the AC line currents. As no real
phase type. This precludes the use of large gains in a PI
power exchange is involved in the steady state, the DC
controller as there is a risk of instability of an oscillatory
voltage can be maintained by a capacitor. The output voltage
mode. Eigenvalue analysis using a linearized model is
contains harmonics and therefore higher pulse numbers are
carried out to design a compensator in cascade with
usually used by appropriately combining a number of six-
an integral controller to overcome this problem. 1997
pulse VSCs.
Elsevier Science Ltd.
The major advantages of the STATCON over the Fixed
Capacitor-Thyristor Controller Reactor (FC-TCR) type
Keywords: FACTS Controllers, Static Compensator, Con-
SVC (Figure lb) are [4,5]:
troller design
(1) A significant reduction in size can be achieved because
I. Introduction of the reduced number of passive elements and their
smaller size.
The rapid development of power electronics has made it
(2) The STATCON can supply required reactive current
possible to use high rating power electronic equipment for
even at low values of bus voltages, while the reactive
high voltage systems. Reactive power controllers, such as
current capability of the FC-TCR at its limit varies
SVCs (Static VAR Compensators), using thyristors have
linearly with the voltage.
already been operated successfully. The concept of FACTS
[ 1] (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) envisages the use of The main advantage of power electronics based FACTS
solid state controllers to achieve flexibility of system opera- controllers is their fast speed of response. Design and
tion together with fast and reliable control. Fast control over analysis of automatic controls for the STATCON therefore
the reactive power can allow (secure) loading of transmis- assumes great importance and is the topic of investigation of
sion lines nearer their thermal limits, regulate the voltage and this paper.
improve system damping. Hitherto there have been considerable efforts by research-
ers to study the use of FACTS controllers for damping
Received 6 December 1995; accepted 17 October 1996 electromechanical oscillations (below 5Hz) in power

397
398 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

'aS{-"- R x' + t + !V Thyristor

controlled
+ reactor Fixed
IX2 Rp capacitor

ibs ( R Xl 4
Figure 1. (a) Six pulse STATCON and (b) FC-TCR SVC
systems. These studies often use very simplified models design. For the purposes of controller design and analysis we
which can be justified because the phenomena involve use linearized analysis extensively. The analysis is validated
relatively slow dynamics. Network dynamics are usually using digital simulation.
neglected in these studies. However the study of phenomena This paper is organised as follows. In Section II, we
at higher frequencies is necessary when we seek to design the formulate a mathematical model of the STATCON in the
automatic control systems associated with the FACTS con- DQ frame of reference. Section III describes the model of the
trollers. This includes the dynamic behaviour of the network, power system to which the STATCON is connected. In
the FACTS controller and the interaction between them [8]. Section IV, the control strategy employed for reactive
A typical application of the STATCON is to regulate the current control of STATCON and the controller structure
voltage at the midpoint of a long transmission line. The to achieve the same is explained and compared to the
regulation of voltage by reactive current injection necessi- controller structure for SVC. The design and evaluation of
tates a two stage controller structure. This consists of an the reactive current controller (using fuzzy logic) and vol-
outer voltage controller which sets the reference of an inner tage controller are explained in Section V. The controller
reactive current controller. design and performance evaluation are illustrated with the
In this paper we analyse and design the reactive current help of a case study.
and voltage controllers. The nonlinear nature of the STAT-
CON equations makes it difficult to ensure stability for all
operating points when a PI controller is used for reactive II. Mathematical model of STATCON
current control. Use of nonlinear state variable feedback has
been discussed in [9]. We explore the use of fuzzy logic
control instead for the control of reactive current.
I1.1 Basic equations
The differential equations for a STATCON are (refer to
The interaction between the network and the STATCON
Figure la):
(as a reactive current injection device for voltage magnitude
control) is then studied. In particular, we examine the plant d/as OOo
(R/as -- (V~s -- Vas)) (1)
transfer function (voltage control by reactive current injec- dt Xl
tion). There is a potential for adverse interaction (oscillatory
instability) because of the fact that the plant transfer function dibs OJo
(Ribs -- (V~s -- Vbs)) (2)
has a zero on the positive real axis. This limits the gain that dt Xl
can be used if we use a PI or integral type controller. This dies 600
problem is overcome using a compensator in cascade with an (Rics - (V~s - Vcs)) (3)
dt xl
integral controller so as to attenuate the oscillatory mode.
Digital simulation has been the main tool for studying fast dVDc _ 600 VDC , "~
transients. While simulation is a powerful tool for validation ~- tDc) (4)
dt be
of control design and diagnosis, it is not possible to use it for
where iuc and V~s, V~s, V~s are the dc side current and
converter output phase voltages respectively.
2
Now (/aS + ibS +icS) = 0 and if we assume (Vas + vbS +
a VI' l I I VcS) = 0 then it implies that (Vas + V~s + V/s) = 0
$6 T

HI I i (o0t
Then we can write the converter output phase voltages as:
V~s= VDcS~(t) (5)
3 V~s= VDcSb(t) (6)
b
$6
I I i
Vcs = VDcS~(t) (7)
i

toOt Where S~, Sb, S~ are the switching functions for a six-pulse
I I STATCON and are shown in Figure 2. In the steady state,

c
$6
I I S~(t)=sb(t+ 2~o3)=S~(t+ 4~o3) (8)

I I
II toOt
If we assume the converter to be lossless,

VDCiDC= i i i
VaS/aS "q- VbS/bS "~- VcS/cS (9)
Figure 2. Switching functions for six pulse STATCON Therefore, by substituting equations (5)-(7) into equation (9)
 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni 399

iDC = iasS~ + ibSSb + i,:sS~ (10) The ac phase voltages can also be transformed in a similar
manner.
Clearly, the dynamical equations are time-variant and
difficult to analyse for a varying firing angle. If the switching
functions (S~, Sb, S~) are approximated by their fundamental Remarks
sine components (neglecting harmonics) we get: S i n c e [Ck] -1 = [Ck] T, the transformation is power invariant.
We can ignore io because it is always zero.
2
i = VDC--sin(~Oot+ tx + 0)
VaS (11) The equations in the D-Q variables are time invariant and
71" are given by
V~s=VDc sin O ~ o t + a + 0 - - (12)
- diDs
dt
VcS=VDC sin O~ot+tx+O-- (13) diQs
dt
2 (/aS sin(Jot + ot + 0)
iDC = ~r dvoc
. dt
+ ibS sin(o%t + <, + O - ~ ) Rwo cooksin(a + 0)
--60 o
x1 XI

(14) R~o cookcos(or + O)

CI,1o
Xl XI
Remark o~oksin(o~ + 0) oJokcos(o~ + O) too
The approximation made above is valid if the harmonic bc be bcRp
components are small, compared to the fundamental. For a
--~o
six pulse STATCON harmonic components are substantial. 0
However, if higher pulse numbers are used, harmonics can
be reduced. The above analysis for a six pulse STATCON
''1
iQS / +
x,
0
-,,,oVvsl (16)
can be easily extended to higher pulse numbers where the / xi Lvos d
approximations are justified. From the point of view of vlx: J
control system design, then, we can neglect the harmonics 0 0
though detailed simulation is necessary to validate any
results. O= tan-1 (vDS~ = angle of STATCON bus voltage
\VQS//
The STATCON bus (phase) voltages are given by:
Vs = ~/(vg s + V~s) = magnitude of STATCON bus
Vas = Vs sin(o~ot + 0) voltage.
c~ is the angle by which the converter output voltage
vbs = ~ Vs sin(o~ot + O-- 7 ) leads the bus voltage

and k = V~
Vcs = V~ Vs sin(o~ot + O- 4-~) 7r

where Vs is the line to line rms voltage and O is the angle of The analysis given above was for a 6-pulse STATCON.
the STATCON bus. As was mentioned before, higher pulse numbers are used
Note that ot is the angle by which the fundamental compo- to reduce harmonics. The switching functions defined for
nent of converter output voltages leads the STATCON bus a 6-pulse STATCON have odd harmonics, excluding
voltages. triplet harmonics. We can eliminate the 5th and 7th har-
monics by using a 12 pulse STATCON which combines the
11.2 Equations in the r)Q frame output of two 6-pulse converters [7] using transformers.
We use Kron's transformation to the D-Q-O variables: The switching functions for a 12 pulse converter are given
by:
cos(o~ot) sin(o~ot) V/~

r::l co/.
= N
sP2 =
qi /

+
1
St2 = "6 "r- " ~ t,'6 - $6 )

1
t~ll p

(S b,
6 - s6a' )
Cj
(17)

(18)
Lies cos(o~ot_~) sin(oo t ~ )
1 ,
S~2 = Sg +----~(Sg'- $6b' )
r,o,] [c,l/,o,
x/,o,/: i,o, <,,>
(19)

a' b' c'

where $6, s6, $6 are the switching functions for the second
Lios d Lios 6-pulse converter. These are related to the switching
400 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

functions S~, $6b, S~ in the steady state by the relations: Therefore

iR0] [COS00 --sin00 0"

86ar (t) = Sg ( t + --O~o
271" ~2 ) (20)

S 6 (t) = S b t +-- (21)

voiI=-lio cos0ooo,
60o
sin 0o ]
X [Asl(Oto,Oo)]-I[Bs1N] c s 0 o J Vso (27)

It can be shown that the fundamental components of (S~2, It can be shown that [iR0, ip0, VDC0]are independent of 00. The
S~2, S[2) are twice those oof (S~, $6b, S~). steady state characteristics are shown in Figure 3c for a bus
Consequently k = 2V/6hr for a 12-pulse STATCON. voltage magnitude of Vs0 = 1.0 per unit and the data are
In all that follows we consider a 12-pulse STATCON. given in Appendix A. 1.
The STATCON state equations can be written as It is obvious that control of reactive current is possible by
variation of o~. It is important to note that in the above
JCDQ = [Asl(a, 0)]X DQ Jr- [Bs1N]UsEQ (23) analysis we have considered only fundamental frequency
switching for the converter (which implies that the magni-
where tude of the converter ac output voltages in the steady state are
related to the capacitor voltage by a fixed constant k which
xDQ = [iDS iQS rDC] T depends on the pulse number). The fact that the capacitor
DQ T voltage is itself a function of a explains the superficially
USN = [VDS VQS] strange fact that we can achieve reactive current control by
phase angle control of the converter alone.
Real and Reactive currents are defined mathematically as A positive value of oLimplies that the STATCON is in the
inductive region while a negative value implies that it is in
ip - - iDSVDS -1- iQSVQS -~- iDS sin 0 + iQS COS 0 (24) the capacitive region.
Vs Linearizing equation (23) about an operating point we
obtain
iR -- iDSVQS -- iQsVDs = iDS COS 0 -- iQS sin 0 (25)
Vs 0 DQ 0 [s]as (28)
= [As]AX s + [BsN]AUsN +
By this convention, positive iR implies the STATCON is
[a o ]
in the inductive region (consumes reactive power) while
negative iR implies it is in the capacitive region. Rco o cooksin(ao + 0o)
The steady state representation (equivalent circuit and -coo
xl Xl
phasor diagram) of the STATCON is shown in Figure 3a
and b. For a given value of bus voltage we can obtain the Rcoo cookcos(ao + 0o)
coo
steady state characteristics by setting the LHS of equation Xl Xl
(23) equal to zero and solving for the steady state values of cooksin(ct0 + 00) cookcos(c~0+ 00) COo
the state variables for various values of ct. bc bc bcRp
xDQ -1 DQ (29)
= --[Asl(ot0, 00)] [Bs1N]U SN0 (26)

iQs + rids 1.0

> VslO 0.8
R xl

I ,~ 0.4
0.6 VDC

O
0.2
0
D -0.2

1 kvDc ix _ VS
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-0.5 -0[4 -0.3 - .2 -0.1 0.1 '
0.2 013 '
0.4 0.5
ot (degrees)
.~Q

Figure 3. (a) Equivalent circuit, (b) phasor diagram and (c) steady state characteristics
 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni 401

Recognising that, dynamics can be neglected and they can be modelled by the
steady state control characteristics. In contrast, when study-
[cos00 sin 00 [ AVDs ing the fast dynamics associated with the SVC or STATCON
AO = L Vso Vs0 ] LAvQS] (30) controller the network transients cannot be neglected, while
the slowly changing dynamic variables associated with the
we get
generator rotor can be frozen at their pre-disturbance values.
[BN] The Single Machine Infinite Bus system to be studied is
shown in Figure 4.
wok cos(c~0 + Oo)VDCo The generator is represented by a voltage source behind a
Xl transient reactance. The network is represented by two pi
wok sin(o~0 + O0)VDc0 equivalents. We consider a symmetrical three phase network
which is linear and time invariant. The differential equations
xl
in the DQ frame are given by:
wokcos(oL0 + Oo)ioso wok sin(s0 + 00)iQs0
k Jc~Q ~__[Ar~]XN
DQ + [BNs]u~ Q + [B DQ~ DQ
i lv C (33)
bc bc
where XN Q are the state variables associated with the network
rcos00 sin00]
(31) elements in the DQ frame and are indicated in Figure 4. Note
L Vs0 Vso + [BslN]
that for every group of three phase dynamical elements
(capacitances or inductances) we have two state variables
in the DQ frame; the zero sequence variables are assumed to
wok cos(or0 + O0)VDC0 be zero.
Xl UNIts = [iDS iQS]r
wok sin(t~o + O0)VDco
DQ is the vector of the generator and infinite bus voltages
vG
Xl
which are assumed to be constant therefore AvDQ = 0.
wk cs(a + 00)iDS0 b wk sin(a0 + 0)iQs The network is linear and the state matrix remains
bc be unchanged on linearization.
wok cos(a0 + 00)VDC0
Xl
IV. Controller structure
wok sin(t~0 + O0)VDco The standard control strategy for reactive power control is to
= (32)
Xl regulate the voltage magnitude of the bus to which it is
connected [10]. Voltage reference for the voltage regulator
wokcos ot0iR0+ wok sin o~oipo
itself may be adjusted so that the system satisfies certain
bc bc steady state constraints. The ability of the STATCON to
Note: The subscript '0' indicates the steady state operating regulate voltage under widely varying operating conditions
point value of the variable. is dependent on its rating. The STATCON can be used in
conjunction with fixed or mechanical switched compensa-
tion (which will provide most of the reactive power required
III. N e t w o r k model in the steady state) so as to reduce the required ratings and
Since the number of differential equations required to steady state losses of the STATCON and to make available
describe the power system is very large it is necessary to the maximum controllable compensation during faults.
use a simplified model wherever possible. In transient The control characteristics of the STATCON and a FC-
stability studies generator stator and network transients are TCR type SVC are shown in Figure 5a and b. It is apparent
neglected because the rotor swings are comparatively 'slow'. that, at the limits, the STATCON supplies reactive power
In fact in these studies, the SVC or STATCON controller proportional to the voltage whereas the SVC has fixed

Generator ( Transmission
line ) Infinitebus
iQ1, iDl iQ2' iD2 iQ3,im iQ4,io4
) ) > >

+ EbLO "

<

iQs, iDs
I Statcon I
Figure 4. System under study (state variables of network indicated)
402 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

1300
1280
Inductive region
1260
1240
~ o o
) ) & 1220 x

ia iR b kp=O
1200

Figure 5. Controller characteristics. (a) STATCON 1180

and (b) SVC x

x
1160
susceptance characteristics (when it hits its limits). A small

1140
slope is given in the controllable range so that the STAT-
CON or SVC does not hit the limits too often and also to 1120 Capacitive region
facilitate parallel operation of two or more compensators. 1100
SVC is a variable impedance type reactive power controller. -so .7'0 40 J0- 0 So -10 -10 20
The susceptance of the TCR depends on the firing angle of Real part
the thyristors alone. The STATCON varies the injected
(reactive) current by varying the magnitude of the converter Figure 7. Eigenvalues locus (PI controller: kp =
output voltages. The reactive current is not only dependent 0 - 1.0,k_{i}/k_{p}= 10)
on the firing angle of the devices, but on the bus voltage as in the transmission network.). Consequently, the controller
well (which is a complicated function of the injected reactive designed with this simplification has to be validated when
current and system parameters). the entire system is considered.
The structure of an SVC controller is shown in Figure 6b.
Since the susceptance as a (nonlinear) function of the firing
angle is known the controller has two stages. The firing angle V.1 Pl contro//er
can be derived directly from Bref (no feedback control OfBref Equation (25) can be linearized to obtain
is necessary) while Br=f is set by the outer voltage controller.
For the STATCON an 'inner loop' for reactive current AiR = [C]Ax~ Q + [DON]Au~Q (34)
control (Figure 6a) is necessary since iR is not a function
of the firing angle alone. There is an additional advantage in [Co ] = [ c o s 0 o -sin0o 0] (35)
that reactive current limits can be incorporated into the
controller itself. The feedback signal for the voltage regu- [DON] = (--iososinOo -iQsoCOSOo)["cOsO0 sin 0o.]
lator has an additional term kDiR so as to achieve the slope in L Vso Vso J
the control characteristic. The outer controller in both cases (36)
is generally of the integral (I) or the proportional-integrai
(PI) type with high values of gain for fast control of voltage. The STATCON bus voltage is assumed to be constant to
In pursuance of the controller structure envisaged we simplify the design procedure as explained before. Therefore
bifurcate the design problem into two tasks: we consider AuD~ = 0 with Vs0 = 1.0.
(1) Design of the reactive current controller The linearised mathematical model of the STATCON (equa-
(2) Design of the outer voltage controller. tion (28)) along with equations (34) and (35) is used to get

2,0 ) ~ ) I I I 1 I I

V. Reactive current controller design

In this section we investigate two approaches for the design 11'6,2 Inductive region
~ '
of the reactive current controller: (1) The PI controller and
(2) the fuzzy PI controller.
The reactive current of the STATCON depends on the 0.S
difference between the bus voltage and the converter
output voltage. To simplify the design procedure we -~ o.4
design the reactive controller assuming the voltage at u

STATCON bus to be a constant (neglecting the dynamics o

+ '~= -0,4
v-,...vTx2"E /-- Reaetive
I "'l/ -0,8
-l " ~ I - [controller
Vs-iRkD tZ -1,2
Capacitive region
v ~ , ~ ~ - - , , i = =f(13, ] >,,, -1,6

Linarizor -2,0 t..

Vs-iRkv 0,1 0.5
Time (s)
Figure 6. Controller structure. (a) STATCON and Figure 8. Instability in inductive region (kp = 0.4,
(b) SVC k= = 4.0)
 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni 403

the required transfer function as 2.0 i l [ I ] I I I 1

AiR(S) 0 0 -1 0 1.6
-- [C s ] ( s I - A s ) [B,~] (37)
As(s)
Inductive region
The following observations (see Appendix A.2) can be made 1.2
about the poles and zeros of the transfer function:
0.8
(1) The poles and zeros are independent of 00.
(2) The poles are also independent of or0, ipo, iR0 and VDC0 "~ 0.4 iR
and therefore of the operating point.
(3) For the data given in Appendix A.1, there is one real and on
o
a pair of complex poles. There is also a complex pair
of zeros (which are sensitive to the operating point "~ -0.4
e~
variations).
-0.8
The movement of the complex open loop poles for operating
points in the inductive region (a 0 = 0.5) and capacitive -1.2
region (c~0 = -0.5) when a PI controller is used is shown C a p a ~
in Figure 7. In the inductive region the poles move towards -1.6
the imaginary axis resulting in oscillatory instability.
The important point is that, because of the variation of -2.0 I I I I I I I I I
0.05 0.45
zeros with the operating point, the angle of departure for this Time (s)
complex mode varies from 0 to - 1 8 0 as the operating point
is changed. Thus design of a compensator in cascade with the Figure 10. Response to step change in iRref (non-
PI controller which is suitable for all operating points is also linear feedback controller)
difficult.
derivation of a control law from heuristic and imprecise
To validate our linearized analysis (which neglects har- ('fuzzy') rules. While the mathematical models of the power
monics in the switching functions) and to check the perfor-
system are available, they tend to be highly nonlinear and
mance for large deviations from an operating point, we have
controller design is often a formidable task. Fuzzy logic
carried out the simulation of a 12-pulse STATCON using the
control has been applied for the design of power system
TUTSIM sofware package [11,12]. We have used the differ-
stabilizers [15,16] and has been shown to give better perfor-
ential equations (1)-(4). The action of the converter is
mance than conventional controllers. For the STATCON we
modelled using the switching functions (switching instants encounter a situation where the system is not amenable to
are obtained from 0 and the controller output o0. The conventional output feedback in all operating regions.
instability predicted by linearized analysis in the inductive
Therefore we will explore the possibility of using a fuzzy
region (when a PI controller is used) is also brought out by
logic controller for this purpose.
simulation, as shown in Figure 8.
We briefly outline the steps involved in the design [ 14,17]
V.2 Nonlinear state variable feedback (refer to Figure 11):
Schander and Mehta [9] have pointed out, using the fre-
(1) Fuzzification: where precise numerical values obtained
quency response of the system, that while the STATCON is
by measurements are converted to membership values of
amenable to feedback control in the capacitive region, there
the various linguistic variables (e.g. 'Positive Small').
is little phase margin near the system resonant frequency in
For the STATCON controller, the inputs are the error
the inductive region (causing oscillatory instability if a PI
and change in error defined as
controller is used). They have proposed nonlinear feedback
in addition to the PI controller so as to improve the damping e k = iRref -- iRk
in the inductive region. The controller (Figure 9) shows a fast
response to a step change in reference as seen in the A e k = ek -- e k - 1
simulated response (Figure 10). Sampling is done every 1 ms
The inputs are categorised as belonging to the
V.3 Fuzzy logic controller various linguistic variables with their corresponding
Fuzzy logic control [13,14] essentially involves the

Fuzzy I
J
icontroller rules
In ~uts
VDC
Action
interface
x,,
(defuzzifier)
IR
+
)_//->
90
E LA F I Fuzzy
controller

Condition
iR ref 90 + .90 interface
ki
Outputs (fuzzifier)
-90 [ functions I

Figure 9. Nonlinear feedback controller Figure 11. Fuzzy logic controller

404 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

NL:Negative large PL:Positive large VQS

NM:Negative medium PM:Positive medium
NS:Negative small PS:Positive small
Z:Zero
m

NL NM NS Z[ PS PM PL

P
iRref
i-a---r--
states--
-ii
controller
Fuzzy or nonlinear ~ - ~
feedback (states:
xc)
I ~x ] Statcon ] iDS

] [ xs
[
~ qetwork
States:
St
XN

-f3 -f2 -fl 0 fl f2 f3

I~R
eK
Tr-
NL NM NS ZI PS PM PL Figure 14. Interfacing of dynamical subsystems
(schematic)
The combinations and corresponding (fuzzy) controller
b actions are shown in Table A.2.
-d3 -d2 -d I 0 d1 d2 d3 AeK
(3) Defuzzification: It should be noted that various rules (n)
Figure 12. Membership functions may be in operation for a certain set of (ek, Aek), each
recommending possibly different fuzzy controller
membership values. The membership functions are actions. These have to be combined in a certain way to
shown in Figure 12. The membership value of an input obtain a precise numerical output corresponding to the
x in a particular linguistic variable R is denoted by #R(x). actual controller action. We have used the following
See Appendix A.1 for the fuzzy logic controller defuzzifier because of its simplicity:
parameters.
(2) Fuzzy Control: where the heuristic rules of the knowl-
edge base are used to determine the (fuzzy) controller 1.tiai

action. A O t - i=1
For example the STATCON controller employs a rule:
IF ek is Zero AND Aek is Positive Small THEN con- i=l
troller action is Positive Small.
'ek is Zero AND Aek is Positive Small' defines another where ~i is the membership value of the linguistic
linguistic variable. Though it is possible to derive a variable recommending the fuzzy controller action and
membership value for this new variable in many possi- a i is the precise numerical value corresponding to that
ble ways the rule we have chosen (due to its simplicity) fuzzy controller action (see Appendix A. 1 for the con-
is troller data).
The controller increments the firing angle: Aa. Thus,
IXA,",B(x,Y) = min(/~a(X),/~B(Y))
this type of controller will give zero steady state error for
In the above example A = 'Zero' step change in reference or any step disturbance.
B = 'Positive Small'
A n B ----'Zero AND Positive Small' The fuzzy controller can be considered as a nonlinear PI
X = e k y = Ae k
1.0 i T I ~ I I I I I
2.0 i i ? I ] I I I I
0.8, L
i
1.6 I
0.6 i
Inductive region
1.2
[ 04l l
il Inductive region
0.8 i lltll.Lm, t.,,,.....=
"~ 0.4
o
2 iR
~ 0
'~ -0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.8
-0.6 Capacitive region j
-1.2 ~
Capacitive region
-0.8 4
-1.6 1
_1.0 i I ~ t J I t ~ t
-2.0 t ~ I i I I I I 1.0
Time (s)
1.4

0.05 0.45
Time (s)
Figure 15. Response to step change in iRref with
Figure 13. Response to step change in iRref (fuzzy network dynamics considered (nonlinear feedback
logic controller) controller)
 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni 405

controller, i.e.
Aot k = Kpf(e~, Aek)Aek + K~f(ek, Aek)ek (38) -0.05

The membership functions, knowledge base and method

-0.10
of defuzzification essentially determine the controller per-
formance. As mentioned before, their choice is heuristic,
-0.15
though a rough estimate of the parameter values can be
obtained from our knowledge of steady state characteristics d:3
-0.20
and simulated open loop behaviour. These have to be tuned
after evaluation of the performance using simulation. -0.25
The fuzzy logic controller offers many more tunable Z
.~.
parameters than a conventional PI controller. Moreover, -0.30
since the final output is a combination of the recommended
actions of many rules (which themselves operate on combi- -0.35
nations of the inputs (ek, Aek)), the controller is more robust
to changes in system or controller parameters than a con- -0.40
ventional controller. Since design and analysis of fuzzy
controllers has still not reached maturity, the performance -0.45
can at present be gauged only from simulation. The simula-
tion results (Figure 13) indicate that the fuzzy PI controller is -0.50 I t r I I I I I !
0.25 0.45
relatively insensitive to operating point variations and is not T i m e (s)
unstable in the inductive region. The response time of the
fuzzy logic controller is however somewhat slower than the Figure 17. Instability with integral type voltage
nonlinear feedback controller. r e g u l a t o r (nonlinear feedback reactive current
controller)
V.4 Inclusion of network dynamics
does not suggest itself. Besides, the response is relatively
The dynamic subsystems, i.e., the network, STATCON (and
unaltered if there are changes in the system. Remedies like
its reactive current controller) are interfaced with each other
nonlinear feedback can be used, but the choice of feedback
as shown schematically in Figure 14. It is important to refer
signals and controller structure is not always obvious.
all quantities to a common base (here we take the network
base as the common base).
When the dynamics of the network are included, the fuzzy VI. Voltage controller design
logic controller performance is practically unchanged while
We now investigate the regulation of voltage magnitude of
the performance of the nonlinear feedback controller dete-
the STATCON bus using output feedback and an integral
riorates though it is stable (see Figures 15 and 16). This
controller to set the reference of the reactive current con-
indicates that the fuzzy logic controller is more robust with
troller (iRref). Generally gains of the integral controller are
respect to changes in the plant.
large so as to have fast control of the voltage magnitude.
Therefore we can conclude that, while the fuzzy logic
Simulation results (Figures 17 and 18) using an integral
controller relies on the proper tuning of parameters and some
controller and for both the fuzzy (reactive current) controller
heuristics, it is useful in situations where the system is
and the controller with nonlinear feedback, for the operating
nonlinear and a suitable control law for all operating points
point in the capacitive region (Case I in Tables 1 and 2) show
1.0 [ I I I I I I I I

0.8 -0.05

0.6 -0.10

0.4 -0.15
Inductive region

"~ 0.2 ~ -0.20

0 '~ -0.25
Z

'- -0.2 -0.30

-0.4 Capacitive region -0.35

-0.6 -0.40

-0.8 -0.45

-1.0 I I I I I I I I I -0.50
1.0 1.4 0.25 0.45
T i m e (s) T i m e (s)

Figure 16. Response to step change in iRref with Figure 18. Instability with integral type voltage reg-
network dynamics considered (fuzzy logic controller) ulator (fuzzy logic reactive current controller)
406 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

Table 1. Operating conditions (network base) 290

Vg VS 280 ~ _ Case# ~ _ _ ~ /
(generator (STATCON
270
bus voltage) bus voltage) Case #4
260
Case 1 Single 1.05Z65 1.023Z32.6
t~
Case 2 line 250 Integral controller g a i n ~
Case 3 Double 1.05Z37.5 1.0284Z19 r~
Case 4 line "Uo 240
230
Table 2. Critical pole-zero locations 0

QFIXED Qs Zeros Poles 210

Case 1 0.0 0.22 447.3 -47.1 _+j223.2
-448.3
Case 2 0.22 0.0 571.2 -37.3 _j207.8
-549.3
Case 3 0.0 -0.22 2196.1 - 7 6 . 6 _+j280.3
-2191.8
Case 4 -0.22 0.0 641.1 - 5 8 . 2 __+j264.2
-670.0
that the operating point is (oscillatory) unstable. The oscilla-
tion frequency is about 17 Hz for the fuzzy controller while it
is around 35 Hz for the nonlinear feedback controller. The
integral controller gain is - 140. To diagnose this instability,
we investigate the nature of the transfer function associated
with the regulation of voltage magnitude using reactive
current.
Vl. 1 Nature o f plant transfer function
The transfer function of interest for voltage control and the
controller structure described previously is AVs(S)/AiRref(S)
The linearised state equations of the combined system
(including the reactive current controller with nonlinear
feedback and network equations) can be written as (see
Figure 14).
~kSfDQ = [ A 0 ] ~ DQ -t- [B0]AiRref
where Ax DQ = [Ax DQAx DQAxc] r
Axc represents the states of the nonlinear feedback
controller. The output is the magnitude of the STATCON
bus voltage
AVs = v/(v s + v s)= vQs0_ vos _
~vQs + Vso ~VDs
~___ [C0]~x DQ
The plant transfer function is given by [C](sI - A) -1 [B].
The nature of the plant transfer function was investigated for
various operating conditions. Cases 1 and 2 (see Table 1)
represent the situation when a single circuit line is transmit-
ting power to the infinite bus. The line is stressed and
therefore capacitive compensation is required at the mid-
point. This can be achieved in two ways; either STATCON
alone is used (Case 1) or it is used in conjunction with a Fixed
Capacitor (Case 2). QFIXED and Qs denote reactive power
supplied by fixed compensation and STATCON, respec-
tively. Similarly Cases 3 and 4 represent inductive compen-
sation when a double circuit line is used. Table 2 shows the
operating conditions of the STATCON for the above-
mentioned cases and the critical pole-zero locations. Clearly
there will be as many eigenvalues as there are states in the
200
-80 -;0 -'~0 -'~0 ; 210 4'0 60 80
Real part
Figure 19. L o c u s of critical m o d e for i n c r e a s i n g
integral gain ( n o n l i n e a r f e e d b a c k r e a c t i v e c u r r e n t
controller)
model; the poles and zeros not shown are stable and do not
affect the closed loop control of voltage in a significant
manner.
Remarks
(1) There exists a zero on the right half of the complex plane
(on the positive real axis), i.e., the plant is of nonmini-
mum phase type. This is true for all the cases shown. The
(zero frequency) gain of the controller transfer function
has to be negative in order that the steady state be
reached. This is consistent with the fact that for a drop
in voltage (positive error) a negative change in iR is
required while an increase requires a positive change in
iR.
(2) It can be inferred from classical root locus techniques
that a pair of complex poles will migrate towards the
right half plane for increasing gains with integral (or PI)
type controller resulting in an unstable oscillatory mode.
This is shown in Figure 19 for an integral controller and
(39) for all the cases. Clearly the problem is more acute in the
capacitive region. Lower gains are not admissible as it
renders the response unacceptably slow.
(3) While in the cases shown, the inner reactive current
controller is taken to be of the PI type with nonlinear
feedback, a zero on the positive real axis is present even
if the reactive current control is represented as a plant
with first order dynamics i.e.
iR(S) - - iRref(S) (40)
1 +sT
It can be proved (see Appendix A.3) that AVs(S)/AiR(s)
has a nonminimum phase zero where injected reactive
current is treated as an input and under the following
assumptions:
Real current injection = 0
Quiescent reactive current = 0
Relaxation of the above conditions and inclusion of the
dynamics of the reactive current controller renders
analytical treatment difficult although the strong
numerical evidence (Table 2) seems to suggest that the
zero on the positive real axis of the transfer function is
quite general.
VI.2 Compensator design
It is apparent that an output feedback configuration with a PI
 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni 407

or I controller alone is not feasible. A compensator in 1.25 I I [ I i I I I

cascade with the I controller to overcome this problem is

1.20
conceptually the most simple solution and easiest to imple-
ment. However the following points are to be borne in
1.15
mind;
(1) While a pair of poles will eventually migrate towards the 1.10
RHS of the complex plane for large gains, the compen- t~
r~

sator has to ensure that there is a range of values of gains 1.05

which allow for a fast response and maintain stability.
(2) Cancelling the open loop poles associated with the .~ 1.0
Z
oscillatory mode exactly with zeros of the compensator
"~ 0.95
is not possible; however the movement of this pole
towards the imaginary axis can be inhibited by placing
[IllI' lrl' t'
the compensator zeros close to these poles and ensuring 0.90
that the angle of departure is towards the LHS of the
complex plane by choosing the poles of the compensator 0.85 f
appropriately.
0.80 I
Using G~(s) = (s 2 + als + a2)/(s 2 + bl s + b2) with
two poles and two zeros in cascade with the integral 0.75 2_ I I I I I I I I
0.50 0.75
controller i.e. T i m e (s)

GA~) = - ~ G;(s)
s controller gain = 500 (nonlinear feedback reactive
it is possible to cancel the effect of the critical poles. The
poles of the compensator are placed further to the left of the
imaginary axis than the zeros. The compensator poles are
placed at -300_-_j220 and zeros at - 3 0 _ j 2 2 0 . The
frequency response of the compensator has a 'notch' at
approximately 220 rad/s and hence it attenuates the oscilla-
tory mode. The root loci of the system for all cases is shown
in Figure 20, which brings out the improvement. Note that
the compensator can also be placed in the feedback path.
We use a similar controller but of lower frequency (poles:
- 3 0 0 + j l l 0 , zeros: - 3 0 ___j110) to remedy the problem in
the fuzzy logic controller.
The response for the integral controller with the compen-
sator is shown in Figures 21 and 22 for both the fuzzy logic
controller and the controller with nonlinear feedback for a
step change in voltage reference.
VII. Conclusions
Figure 21. Response for step change in Vref; integral
current control)
structure which has a closed loop reactive current controller
whose reference is set by an outer voltage controller.
The STATCON equations are nonlinear; a linearized
model is used for analysis and design. Digital simulation is
used for validation of the analysis and design.
We summarize our findings:
(1) In the design of the reactive current controller the zero
locations of the plant transfer function (linearized
model) vary with the operating point and this makes it
unsuitable for PI controllers as there is a risk of oscilla-
tory instability when the STATCON operates in the
inductive region.
(2) Fuzzy logic control (of reactive current) can overcome
the instability which was encountered with a PI con-
troller. The controller is found to be robust to changes in
1.25
I [ I t t I ! ~ I

In this paper w e have investigated a two stage controller 1.20

320 1.15

Case #3 1.10
300
Integral controller gain : 0-400
280 1.05
~-k Case #4
8
260
'~ 1.o
e~ 25
240
t~ = 0.95
e~
Case #2 Case #1
~a 220
0.90
-- 200 #l ~
Case #2 0.85
180 \ "Case #4
\
160 \ Case #3 0.80

140
-350 -3 ; 0 -2'50 . . -150
-200 . . -100 -50 0 0.75 I q I t I I I I I I
0.50 0.75
Real part T i m e (s)

Figure 20. L o c u s of critical a n d c o m p e n s a t o r m o d e s Figure 22. Response for step change in Vref; integral
for i n c r e a s i n g integral g a i n ( n o n l i n e a r f e e d b a c k controller gain = 1000 (fuzzy logic reactive current
r e a c t i v e c u r r e n t controller) control)
408 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

the plant (inclusion of dynamics which were ignored as a 11. TUTSIM on IBM PC, Users Manual Version 6.55.
simplification in the design) and compares favourably 12. Padiyar, K. R. and Kulkarni, A. M., Transient simulation of
with a conventional controller with nonlinear feedback. static condenser. New Concepts in EHV and UHV
(3) An important observation is that the plant transfer Transmission. Paper presented at the Ninth National Conven-
function for voltage regulation using reactive current tion of Electrical Engineers, Bangalore, India, Nov. 1993,
control generally has a zero on the positive real axis of pp. 74-83.
the complex plane. This precludes the use of high gains 13. Zadeh, L. A., Fuzzy sets. Information and Control, 1965, 8,
if a integral or PI controller is used as it tends to 338-353.
destabilize an oscillatory mode. This is true for both
the fuzzy logic logic controller and the controller with 14. Lee, C. C., Fuzzy logic in control systems--Parts I and II.
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1990,
nonlinear feedback.
20(2), 404-435.
(4) A compensator in cascade with an integral controller is
designed to overcome this problem. 15. Hassan, M. A., Malik, O. P. and Hope, G. S., A fuzzy logic
based stabilizer for a synchronous machine. IEEE Transac-
Besides analysing control problems likely to arise in the tions on Energy Conversion, 1991, 6(3), 407-413.
application of the S T A T C O N and the possible solutions
16. Hiyama, T., Application of rule based stabilizer controller to
to them (as summarized above), this paper also seeks to electric power system. IEEProceedings, Part C, 1989,136(3),
emphasize the use of the powerful tool of eigenanalysis (of 175-181.
linearized system) for the study of network-FACTS con-
troller interactions which until recently have been mainly 17. Padiyar, K. R. and Kulkarni, A. M., Fuzzy control of static
condenser. Emerging Trends in Power Systems. Paper pre-
studied using digital simulation.
sented at the Eighth National Power Systems Conference,
New Delhi, India, Dec. 1994, pp. 426-429.
VIII. Acknowledgement
The financial support received from the Department of Appendix A.1
Science and Technology, Government of India under the
project titled 'Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) S T A T C O N data (per unit on its own base)
Controllers' is gratefully acknowledged. Base: 300MVA, 400kV, 12 pulse
r = 0.01, x 1 = 0.15, b e = 1.136, Rp = 78.7
Reactive Current Controller with nonlinear feedback (on
IX. References S T A T C O N base)
1. Hingorani, N. G., FACTS--Flexible AC Transmission Sys- kp = 0.33, ki = 3.33, g = 2.0, Tw = 0.1
tems. IEE International Conference on AC and DC Power Network data (per unit on its base)
Transmission, London 1991, Publication no. 345, pp. 1-7.
2. Sumi, Y., Haramuto, Y., Hasegawa, T., Yano, M., Ikeda, K. Table A.1. Parameters corresponding to membership
and Matsuura, T., New static VAR control using force com- functions (refer to Figure 11)
mutated inverters. IEEE Transactions, 1981, PAS-100(9),
4216-4224. fl 0.01 d1 1
3. Gyugyi, L., Reactive power generation and control by thyris- f2 0.02 d2 2
tor circuits. IEEE Transactions, 1979, IA-15(5), 531-532. f3 0.03 d3 3
4. Edwards, C. W., Mattern, K. E., Stacey, E. J., Nannery, P. R.
and Guberniok, J., Advanced static var generator employing Table A.2. Combination of inputs and corresponding
GTO thyristors. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 1988, (fuzzy) controller action
3(4), 1622-1627.
Aeflek NL NM NS Z PS PM PL
5. Larsen, E. V., Miller, N. W., Nilsson, S. L. and Lindgren,
S. R., Benefits of GTO-based compensation systems for NL PL PL PL PL PM PS Z
electric utility application. IEEE Transactions on Power NM PL PL PM PM PS Z NS
Delivery, 1992, 7(4), 2056-2061. NS PL PL PM PS Z NS NM
6. Schauder, C., Gernhardt, M., Stacey, E., Lemak, T., Gyugyi, Z NM PS PS Z NS NS NM
L., Cease, T. W. and Edns, A., Development of a +--100MVAR PS PM PS Z NS NM NL NL
static condenser for voltage control of transmission systems. PM Z Z NS NM NL NL NL
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 1995, 10(4), 1486- PL Z NS NM NL NL NL NL
1496.
7. Trainer, D. R., Tennakoon, S. B. and Morrison, R. E., Analysis Table A.3. Numerical values corresponding to fuzzy
of GTO based static VAR compensators, lEE Proceedings on
Electric Power Applications, Part B, 1994, 141(6), 293-302.
controller actions

8. Clark, K., Fardanesh, B. and Adapa, R., Thyristor controlled Fuzzy controller action ai
series compensation application study-control interaction
considerations. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, NL -0.314
1995, 10(2), 1031-1037. NM -0.157
NS -0.078
9. Schauder, C. and Mehta, H., Vector analysis and control of
Z 0
advanced static var compensators. IEE Proceedings, Part C,
1993, 140(4), 299-306. PS 0.078
PM 0.157
10. Miller, T. J. E., Reactive Power Control in Electrical Systems. PL 0.314
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1982.
 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni 409

Base: 1000MVA, 400kV, 50Hz Rth Lth Vs

(Single circuit line)
r I ~. 0 . 0 6 4 4 5 , X|l ~- 0.6095, bcl = 0.1776
Infinite bus voltage = 1.0Z0
Xth = xt~ = 0.13636, x~ = 0.4245
kD = 0.0 (Slope of control characteristic)

Fuzzy Logic Controller data (on STATCON base)

Figure A.3.1. Simplified system
Appendix A.2 Clearly, the poles arc independent of the operating point.
Zeros, however, are dependent on the operating point (ip0,
Poles and Zeros of AiR(s)/Act(s ) iR0, VDC0,Or0) solutions of the equation:
AiR(S) [cO](sI 0 -1 0
AoL(s)
-- -As) [B~] (A.2.1) [C][Coo]-l adj(sI - A o,
s )[Coo][B=]
o = 0 (A.2.8)

The matrix [A] can be transformed to [A'] which is

independent of 0o as follows: Appendix A.3
[a o'] = tCoj[a][CeoV ~ Nature of transfer function for simplified system
R(.o o 60oksin a0 We consider a simple equivalent network at the STATCON
--CO O bus as shown in Figure A.3.1. The positive sequence driving
Xl Xl point impedance for this network at the STATCON bus is
R60o COok COS Ot0 (Rth -t- SLth)
6d0
Xl Xl Zth(S) = (s2LthCth + SRthCth + 1) (A.3.1)
60oksin oto 60okcos oto 600 If it is assumed that the voltage source in the network is a
bc bc bcRp constant, then,
(A.2.2)
where vb <s) l -- o /Aibs(s)/
cos0o sno i] AVcs(S) J Zth(S) [ Aics(S) J

0o --187o coS0Oo (A.2.3)

The equations in the DQ frame are
(A.3.2)

Therefore,
AvQs(s)J Lz2~Q(s) zDQ(s)] LAiQs(s)]
AiR(s) _ [C][Ceo]-l(sl -- A')-l[Ceo][B ] (A.2.4)
Aol(s) VAIDS(s)]
(A.3.3)
= [zDQ(s)] [ AiQs(s) J
Since,
[C][Coo]-l = [1 0 0] (A.2.5) The impedances in the DQ frame are related to the positive
sequence impedance as follows
[C0o][n] = [~10 ko~o
VDC0 COSOt 0 -- Xl VDC0 s i n or0 zDQ ~-. z D Q ~- Zth(S +J600) + Zth(S --J600)
2
(A.3.4)

-- 60--~k
t i cRsb c
60ok. . ]r
+ --~c sin t/PJ (A.2.6) Z~ Q = _Z~Q = jZ~(s +jwo) -2 Zth(S -- J600) (A.3.5)

Therefore both the poles and zeros are independent of 0o. Now,
This is not surprising because the transformation (equation
(A.2.3)) is time invariant (since the bus voltages are assumed
AVs = Av/(V~s + 4s)= v;;~o
~vsvQs" . vOSOvso
Avos
to be constant) and is equivalent to transforming equations to
a local frame of reference (the equations are originally = sin 0OAVDs+ cos 0oAVQs (A.3.6)
formulated in the D-Q frame of reference in which 0o is We now make the following assumptions:
the STATCON bus angle). The poles are given by the (1) Reactive current is considered to be an input and its
solution of the characteristic equation quiescent value is zero.
det(sI - A) = det(sI - A') (2) Real current is identically zero.
Therefore,

[AiDs(s)] = [cosO ]AiR(s)+iRO I -sin0]A0(s)

/aiQs(S) ] - sin0o L- cos 0o j
x, : x-~-~ +''x s +R-~-;
=[csOoIAiR(S)--
sin 0o (A.3.7)
= 0 (A.2.7)
410 Reactive current and voltage controller: K. R. Padiyar and A. M. Kulkarni

From equations (A.3.3), (A.3.6) and (A.3.7) we have, Since Rth ~ 0 we can approximate this as
cos 0o ....
AVs(s,=[sinOo cOSOo][ZDQ(s)][_sinOoIAtR(S)
N(s) ~ s a + woe 1 (A.3.11)
L~hCth
(A.3.8)
Using equations (A.3.3)-(A.3.5), this reduces to
For transmission lines of realistic length (1/~hCth) > co2.
AVs(s ) __ [ z D Q ( s ) ] = J Z~(s + jwo) - Zth(S -- Jwo) AiR(S) Clearly there are a pair of zeros of N(s) given by
AiR(S) 2

If Z~(s)= KN(s)ID(s), it can be easily shown that the

(A.3.9)
_*
(( 1)
numerator polynomial is
l
Thus the simplified system transfer function has a zero on
LthCth (A.3.10) the positive real axis.