Chapter 11 / Analog Mammography Machines, Processors, and Films 225

RIPPLE
The significant point of this discussion is that mammography
single-phase
alternating theoretical effective x-ray units operate differently and should be used according to their ripple
current intensity content. Because of the varying ripple, different mammogra-
full-wave
rectification 100% 100% phy units require the use of different kV or kVp settings.
single phase Without proper kV or kVp settings, the exposure times might
full-wave become prohibitively long. Table 11-3 lists the proper settings
modified 7% 7%
waveform when comparing dedicated mammography units to the vary-
three-phase
ing ripple.
6-pulse 13% 20% High-frequency/constant potential units have several advan-
tages. Weigl compared a conventional single-phase generator
three-phase
12-pulse 3.5% 5% with a high-frequency/constant potential generator (a multi-
pulse generator) also supplied by a single-phase line.6 He noted
constant the following primary differences:
potential 0% 0%
time
1. Dose yield and exposure times. We have already
Figure 11-6 seen that dose yield of a three-phase generator is
Tube current and x-ray intensity diagrams. Alternating voltage approximately 60% higher than the dose yield of a
output from the x-ray transformer is converted into direct current single-phase generator. This means that a multipulse
by means of full-wave rectification. Single-phase, single-phase with generator (high-frequency/constant potential) also
modified waveform, three-phase/6-pulse, three-phase/12-pulse, has a higher dose yield than a conventional single-
and constant potential circuits show progressively less variation phase generator. Figure 11-7 shows the comparison
with time of the voltage curve (decreased ripple effect). Short between a conventional single-phase generator, a
pulses of x-ray intensity are produced by the single-phase new multiphase generator, and a conventional
generator, whereas steady x-ray intensity results from the constant 12-pulse generator. The dose yield of the multipulse
potential system. (Reprinted with permission from Feig SA. generator is equivalent to that of a 6- to 12-pulse
Mammography equipment: principles, features, selection. Radiol
three-phase generator. Therefore, the dose yield of
Clin North Am. 1987;25(5):897.)
the multipulse generator reduces exposure times
by approximately 40% than that of a conventional
waveform. By using a microprocessor to control the onoff single-phase generator. In other words, a tube cur-
action, power is delivered efficiently. rent of 500 mA on a high-frequency generator
All manufacturers produce mammography units using high- results in the same dose output as 800 mA on a
frequency inverter technology (meaning over 10,000 Hz) with conventional single-phase generator.
constant potential output (meaning less than 13.5% ripple). 2. Skin dose. Comparative depth-dose measurements
However, a further distinction must be made: the most efficient illustrate that the skin dose for the same film dose is
constant potential units will have 2% ripple; the less efficient considerably less from a high-frequency generator than
units between 5% and 13% ripple. The amount of ripple should the skin dose from a conventional single-phase genera-
remain essentially equal for small and large focal spot operation. tor, due to the different high-voltage wave shapes.

Table 11-3 Power Variations in Mammography Unitsa

SINGLE-PHASE
CONSTANT POTENTIAL 3-PHASE, 6-PULSE GENERATOR
GENERATOR GENERATOR RIPPLE GENERATOR, (FILTERED),
SETTING 5% 13% 20% RIPPLE 25% RIPPLE
25 kVp  24.4 kV 23.4 kV 22.5 kV 21.9 kV
28 kVp  27.3 kV 26.2 kV 25.2 kV 24.5 kV
32 kVp  31.2 kV 29.6 kV 28.8 kV 28.0 kV

a
Discussion of kilovoltage (kV) rather than kilovolt peak (kVp) settings is more appropriate when making comparisons between
machines. Kilovoltage factors in the inefficiency (or ripple content) of a machine. The average (or effective) kilovoltage equals
kilovolt peak minus one-half ripple.
226 Unit 2 / Film/Screen Mammography
table top
mR
1400
3-phase
12 pulse
1200
multipulse
1000
800
600
single phase
400
200
0 kVp
60 80 100 120 140
Figure 11-7
Comparison of dose yield of a conventional single-phase genera-
tor, a multipulse generator (high-frequency/constant potential),
and a conventional 12-pulse generator. (Three-phase, 12-pulse
units have never been available for mammography, although
three-phase, 6-pulse units are common. The line signifying three-
phase, 6-pulse would lie between the multipulse and single-phase
lines.) (Reprinted with permission from Weigl W. A new high-
frequency controlled x-ray generator system with multi-pulse
wave shape. I Radiol Eng. 1983;1(1):7.)
Figure 11-8 shows the relationship between the skin
dose of a high-frequency generator and a conventional
single-phase generator as a function of the x-ray tube
voltage. The soft x-ray radiation component responsi-
ble for the different skin dose is considerably less with
the high-frequency generator, due to low ripple, than
with a conventional single-phase generator. The high-
frequency technique ensures minimum radiation
exposure to the client even if the generator is con-
nected to a single-phase power supply.
3. Space requirements. A further advantage of high-
frequency technology is the reduced size. The
generator does not consume much space, and it
consists only of the control desk and the single tank
tube unit; no additional high-tension transformer
or electronics cabinets are necessary.6
High-frequency/constant potential units have the following
advantages:
1. The ability to use lower kV settings; thus, contrast is
increased.
Depthdose single phase Skindose multipulse
Depthdose multipulse Skindose single phase
1 with same depth dose
0.9 10
1 cm
20
2 cm
0.8
0.7
0.6
50 60 70 80 90 100 kV 120
Figure 11-8
Comparison of depth doses (skin doses) of conventional single-
phase and multiphase generators (high-frequency/constant
potential). (Reprinted with permission from Weigl W. A new
high-frequency controlled x-ray generator system with multi-
pulse wave shape. I Radiol Eng. 1983;1(1):7.)
2. The increase in mR/s means x-ray production is more
efficient; greater efficiency results in shorter exposure
times.
3. Less client motion is likely with shorter exposure times.
4. The client receives a lower x-ray dose.
5. X-ray tube should last longer because output is higher.
6. Less interference from reciprocity law failure.
7. Decrease in unit size. Smaller components are used
when building a unit; therefore, the units are compact
and consume less space.
The radiation output waveform should have less than
5% kVp ripple (10% exposure ripple). Rise time (time
until kVp is accurate and regulated) and the time to terminate
an exposure should be less than 16 milliseconds.
kV Selection
X-rays are produced using two methods: the Compton effect
(Figure 11-9) and the photoelectric effect (Figure 11-10).
Screenfilm mammography uses the photoelectric effect to
produce its special high-contrast x-ray spectrum.
The photoelectric effect depends on the atomic number of
the substance (the target material) that is bombarded. Elements