Density Based Traffic Signal System Using Ir Sensors: Chapter-1

DENSITY BASED TRAFFIC SIGNAL SYSTEM USING IR SENSORS
CHAPTER-1
HITS-COE 2013-2017
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the project is to solve traffic congestion which is a severe problem in many
modern cities all over the world.
To solve the problem, we have designed a framework for a dynamic and automatic traffic
light control system and developed a simulation model to help in building the system on
hardware. Generally, each traffic light on an intersection is assigned a constant green signal
time. It is possible to propose dynamic time-based coordination schemes where the green
signal time of the traffic lights is assigned based on the present conditions of traffic. The
intelligent work which is done by traffic inspector will be perfectly done by the stand alone
microcontroller based circuit with the help of 4 pairs of sensors.
IR sensors based traffic control system is an application specific project, which is used to
control the traffic. An embedded system is developed which consists of a microcontroller, IR
sensors, LEDs and 7 segment display.
Fig1.1: IR Transmitter and Receiver Model
This project is implemented by placing IR transmitters, receivers and leds at the 4 way
junction, the four paths are represented as R1,R2
Transmitters and receivers are placed at either sides of the four paths, and 4 leds at corner of
the junction
HITS-COE 2 (2013-2017)
When there is traffic along the paths, value of R would be 000 which are the values of IR
sensors and if there is no traffic the value is 111
For instance, let the traffic at the path R1 be initially 111 i.e. there is no traffic , when the
traffic reaches the first sensor, the value of R would be 011,if it reaches second sensor ,the
value of R is 001,and then if it reaches the last sensor that is the third one, it is recognized
that traffic is heavy and the led glows which indicates that vehicles can move forward, traffic
is cleared, and the sensor values automatically changed to 111. The control goes to the next
path where the values of sensors contains more no of zeroes
This entire embedded system is placed at that junction Microcontroller is interfaced with
leds and IR sensors.
HITS-COE 3 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-2
HITS-COE 4 (2013-2017)
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger
mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as
part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems
control many devices are common in day to day life. Ninety-eight percent of
all microprocessors are manufactured as components of embedded systems.
An embedded system usually does not look like a computer, often there is no keyboard or
monitor or mouse. But like any computer it has a processor and software, input and output.
The word embedded means it is built into the system.
For example, a controller is embedded in an elevator and tells the motor to move the elevator
to different floors based on buttons that are pushed. A decoder is embedded in a satellite
television set-top box to read a signal from the dish and send information data that a TV can
understands. Often this type of system must do its work in a specific amount of time. This is
called real-time computing. If a set-top box got interrupted to do another task, you would see
a bad picture on the TV, for example. A general purpose computer will often have short
pauses while it does something else, it is not real-time.
Embedded systems control many of the common devices in use today, from card readers in
hotel door locks to many controls in a car, an MP3 player, a digital camera, large systems like
traffic lights, airplane controls, or assembly line controllers in a factory.
2.1 COMMON FEATURES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Embedded systems are designed to do a specific task, unlike general-purpose
computers.
It does not look like a computer.
Many embedded systems must be able to do things in real-time - in a short amount of
time (almost instantly from a human view).
Many embedded systems must be very safe and reliable, especially for medical
devices or avionics controlling airplanes.
Start-up time are less as compared to general purpose system.
It may use a special operating system (or sometimes a very small home-made OS) that
helps meet these requirements called a real-time operating system, or RTOS.
The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware,
and are stored in read-only memory or flash memory chips. They run with limited
computer hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard and/or
screen.
HITS-COE 5 (2013-2017)
Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Sometimes they are built as a set, like
the various parts of a car - the radio, the throttle control, the pollution control, etc. Sometimes
they can communicate to the internet or a cell-phone network and they may have a USB
reader or other connections.
2.2 HARDWARE:
CPU:
The most important chip is the central processing unit or CPU. It is a standard microprocessor
or a microcontroller. Microcontrollers include the microprocessor as well as simple
peripheral equipment so the system can be smaller and cheaper. They have less flexibility
because those parts cannot be changed. Usually these parts include Flash memory and
support for serial ports, USB, etc.
Unlike a microprocessor for a general-purpose computer, bigger and faster is not always
better. Many embedded processors are very small. Sometimes this is to use less space or less
power, sometimes it is to be cheaper. General-purpose computers will use microprocessors
that read 32-bit or 64-bit words and run at speeds measured in GHz, but embedded processors
are usually 4 to 32 bits and run at speeds usually measured in tens of MHz (a hundred times
slower). (But the programs are also smaller and do not check for things that are not used).
Readymade computer boards:
There are "ready-made" computer boards that can be used in some embedded systems. These
often use Windows CE, Linux or an embedded real-time operating system.
Sometimes it may be easier to use a stand-alone system. These usually share many
components with general purpose computers, but are smaller than one in a general purpose
computer. Boards such as the VIA EPIA can run Microsoft Windows. The advantage is that it
saves some electrical engineering time and can use the same software development tools used
for PC-type software development. Examples of such embedded devices are the ATMs or
displays in casinos. This works well if the real-time requirements are not real strict (it doesn't
matter much if a job takes eight seconds instead of five, for example).
ASIC and FPGA solutions:

If the device needs to be very small or will be sold in very high-volume, it makes sense to
make a custom or specialized chip that does exactly what is neededSoCs can be made as a
special-order application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or by using a field-programmable
gate array (FPGA) which is programmed for building the embedded system.
HITS-COE 6 (2013-2017)
Peripherals:
Embedded systems interact with the outside world or other components using peripherals
such as:
Serial Ports: RS-232, RS-422, RS-485. This used to be quite common, with the 9-pin
(or larger) connectors.
Synchronous Serial Communication Interface: IC Inter-Integrated Circuit, IS Inter-
Integrated Sound, SPI, etc.
Universal Serial Bus (USB).
Networks: Ethernet, Controller Area Network, etc.
Discrete Input/Output: General Purpose Input/output (GPIO). It is used for a small
keypad, or to light an LED.
Analog to Digital/Digital to Analog converters (ADC/DAC).
Debugging: JTAG, ICSP port, for software engineers.
2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

An embedded system is built around a processor. The central processing unit does the
necessary computation based on the input it receives from various external devices. The
functionality of the CPU is an embedded system is same as the functionality of the CPU in a
desktop, except that the CPU in an embedded system is less powerful. The processor has
limited internal memory, and if this internal memory is not sufficient for a given application
external memory devices are used. The hardware also includes many components that
facilitates the user-application interaction, such as display units, keypads etc.
Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of an Embedded System

HITS-COE 7 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-3
HITS-COE 8 (2013-2017)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Fig3.1: Block Diagram of Density Based Traffic Signal System Using

IR Sensors
HITS-COE 9 (2013-2017)
3.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
Fig 3.2:Schematic Diagram of Density Based Traffic Signal System

Using IR Sensors
3.3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

1. AT89S52 Microcontroller
2. Power supply
3. IR sensor pairs(4)
4. LEDs[Red(4), green(4)]
5. Resistors
6. Capacitors
HITS-COE 10 (2013-2017)
3.3.1 AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER:

Microcontroller:
The microcontroller incorporates all the features that are found in the microprocessor. It has
also added features to make a complete microcomputer system on its own. The
microcontroller built-in ROM, RAM, parallel I/O, serial I/O, counters and a clock circuit.
The advantages of built-in peripheral devices are as follows:
Built in peripherals have smaller access times hence speed is more.

Hardware reduces due to single chip microcomputer system.
Less hardware reduces PCB size and increases reliability of the system.
Features of AT89S52 Microcontroller:
The AT89S52 is an 8-bit microcontroller designed by Intel. It was optimized for 8-bit math
and single bit Boolean operations. Its family includes 8031, AT89S52, 8052 and 8751.
The features of AT89S52 family are as follows:
4096 bytes on-chip program memory.

128 bytes on-chip data memory.
Four register banks.
128 user-defined software flags.
64 kilobytes each program and external RAM addressability.
One microsecond instruction cycle with 12MHz crystal.
32 bidirectional I/O lines organized as four 8-bit ports.
Multiple modes, high speed programmable serial port.
Two multiple mode, 16-bit timers/counters.
Two-level prioritized interrupt structure.
Full depth stack for subroutine linkage and data storage.
Direct byte and bit addressability.
Binary or decimal arithmetic.
Signed overflow detection and parity computation.
Hardware multiple and divide in 4 microseconds
HITS-COE 11 (2013-2017)
3.3.2 PIN CONFIGURATION OF AT89S52:
Fig 3.3: Pin Configuration of AT89S52
HITS-COE 12 (2013-2017)
3.3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION OF AT89S52:
Fig 3.4: Block Diagram and Description of AT89S52
HITS-COE 13 (2013-2017)
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MEMORIES:

The AT89S52 can access upto 64K program memory and 64K data memory. The AT89S52
has 4K bytes of internal program memory and 256 bytes of internal data memory.
Internal RAM Organization:
The AT89S52 has 128-byte internal RAM. It can be accessed using RAM address
register. The internal RAM of AT89S52 is organized into three distinct areas:
Register Bank
Bit addressable
General purpose
AT89S52 Register Banks (working registers):
The first 32-bytes of address 00H to 1FH of internal RAM constitute 32 working registers.
They are organized into four banks of eight registers each. The four register banks are
numbered 0 to 3 and consists of eight registers named R0 to R7.
Each register can be addressed by name or by its RAM address.
Only one register bank is in use at a time. Bits RS0 and RS1 in the PSW determine which
bank of registers is currently in use.
RS1 RS0 Bank Selection
0 0 Bank 0
0 1 Bank 1
1 0 Bank 2
1 1 Bank 3
Table 3.1: Register Bank

On reset, the bank 0 is selected and hence it is a default register bank. Register banks when
not selected can be used as general purpose RAM.
Bit/Byte Addressable: The AT89S52 provides 16 bytes of a bit-addressable area. It occupies

RAM byte addresses from 20H to 2FH, forming a total of 128(16 X 8) addressable bits.An
addressable bit may be specified by its bit address of 00H to 7FH, or 8 bits may form any
byte address from 20H to 2FH.
HITS-COE 14 (2013-2017)
General purpose RAM: The RAM area above bit addressable area from 30H to 7FH is
called general purpose RAM. It is addressable as byte.
ROM space in the AT89S52: The AT89S52 has 4 Kbyte of internal ROM with address
space from 0000H to FFFFH. It is programmed by manufacturer when the chip is built. This
part cannot be erased or altered after fabrication. This is used to store final version of the
program. It is accessed using program address register.
AT89S52 I/O PORTS STRUCTURE: The AT89S52 has 31 I/O pins configured as
four eight-bit parallel ports (P0, P1, P2, and P3). All four ports are bidirectional i.e. each pin
will be configured as input or output. All port pins are multiplexed except the pins of port 1.
Each port consists of a latch, an output driver and an input buffer.
Port 0(Pins 32-39): Port 0 pins can be used as I/O pins. The output drives and input buffers of
port 0 are used to access external memory. Port 0 outputs the low order byte of the external
memory address, time multiplexed with the data being written or read. Thus, port 0 can be
used as multiplexed address/data bus.
Port 1(Pins 1-8): Port 1 pins can be used only as I/O pins.
Port 2(Pins 21-28): the output drives of Port 2 are used to access external memory. Port 2
outputs the high order byte of the external memory address when the address is 16bits wide.
Otherwise, port2 is used as an I/O port.
Port 3(Pins 10-17): All port pins of Port 3 are multifunctional. Therefore, each pin of port 3
can be programmed to use as I/O or as one of the alternate function.
Symbol Position Alternate Use
RD P3.7 External memory read signal.
WR P3.6 External memory write signal.
T1 P3.5 External timer 1 input.
T0 P3.4 External timer 0 input
INT1 P3.3 External interrupt 1 input.
INT0 P3.2 External interrupt 0 input.
TXD P3.1 Serial data output.
RXD P3.0 Serial data input .
Table 3.2: Structure of Port-3
HITS-COE 15 (2013-2017)
I/O BIT MANIPULATION PROGRAMMING:
Port 0 has open drain outputs and hence to use this port as an input or an output it is
necessary to connect external pull-up resistors.
Port 1, port 2 and port 3 do not require any pull-up resistors since they have internal pull-up
resistors.
On reset, all ports are configured as an input port.
If the ports are configured as an output port, to make them input ports again, we have to write
FFH on these ports.
AT89S52 TIMERS:
AT89S52 has two timers, timer 0 and timer 1. Basically both, timer 0 and timer 1 are 16 bit
registers. Since AT89S52 is an 8-bit microcontroller, each 16-bit register can be accessed as
low byte register(TL) and high byte register(TH).
TH1 TH0 TL0

TL1
Timer Control (TCON) register
Timer Mode (TMOD) register
Structure of TMOD Register:
Timer/counter mode control (TMOD) is the special function register in AT89S52 having
format as follows:
Fig 3.5: Structure of TMOD Register

M0/M1: sets the Mode of the respective timer.
C/T: External Counter/Internal Timer select 1 = Counter, 0 = Timer.
Gate: When set (1), timer runs only when respective INT input is high.
HITS-COE 16 (2013-2017)
Structure of TCON Register:
Fig 3.6: Structure of TCON Register
BIT Symbol Functions
7 TF1 Timer1 over flow flag. Set when timer

rolls from all 1s to 0. Cleared When the
processor vectors to execute interrupt
service routine Located at program
address 001Bh.
6 TR1 Timer 1 run control bit. Set to 1 by

programmer to enable timer to count;
Cleared to 0 by program to halt timer.
5 TF0 Timer 0 over flow flag. Same as TF1.
4 TR0 Timer 0 run control bit. Same as TR1.
3 IE1 External interrupt 1 Edge flag. Not

related to timer operations.
2 IT1 External interrupt1 signal type control

bit. Set to 1 by program to
Enable external interrupt 1 to be triggered by

a falling edge signal. Set
To 0 by program to enable a low level signal

on external interrupt1 to generate an interrupt.
1 IE0 External interrupt 0 Edge flag. Not related to timer

operations.
HITS-COE 17 (2013-2017)
0 IT0 External interrupt 0 signal type control bit.

Same as IT0.
Table3.3:Elements of TCON Register

Timer modes of AT89S52:
Mode0: Mode 0 is exactly same like mode 1 except that it is a 13-bit timer
instead of 16-bit. The 13-bit counter can hold values between 0000 to 1FFFH
in TH-TL. Therefore, when the timer reaches its maximum of 1FFH, it rolls
over to 0000, and TF is raised.
Mode 1: It is a 16-bit timer; therefore it allows values from 0000 to FFFFH to

be loaded into the timers registers TL and TH. After TH and TL are loaded
with a 16-bit initial value, the timer must be started. We can do it by SETB
TR0 for timer 0 and SETB TR1 for timer 1. After the timer is started. It
starts count up until it reaches its limit of FFFFH. When it rolls over from
FFFF to 0000H, it sets high a flag bit called TF (timer flag). This timer flag
can be monitored. When this timer flag is raised, one option would be stop the
timer with the instructions CLR TR0 or CLR TR1 for timer 0 and timer 1
respectively. Again, it must be noted that each timer flag TF0 for timer 0 and
TF1 for timer1. After the timer reaches its limit and rolls over, in order to
repeat the process the registers TH and TL must be reloaded with the original
value and TF must be reset to 0.
Mode 2: It is an 8 bit timer that allows only values of 00 to FFH to be loaded

into the timers register TH. After TH is loaded with 8 bit value, the AT89S52
gives a copy of it to TL. Then the timer must be started. It is done by the
instruction SETB TR0 for timer 0 and SETB TR1 for timer1. This is like
mode 1. After timer is started, it starts to count up by incrementing the TL
registers. It counts up until it reaches its limit of FFH. When it rolls over
from FFH to 00. It sets high the TF (timer flag). If we are using timer 0, TF0
goes high; if using TF1 then TF1 is raised. When Tl register rolls from FFH
to 00 and TF is set to 1, TL is reloaded automatically with the original value
kept by the TH register. To repeat the process, we must simply clear TF and
let it go without any need by the programmer to reload the original value. This
makes mode 2 auto reload, in contrast in mode 1 in which programmer has to
reload TH and TL.
HITS-COE 18 (2013-2017)
Mode3: Mode 3 is also known as a split timer mode. Timer 0 and 1 may be
programmed to be in mode 0, 1 and 2 independently of similar mode for other
timer. This is not true for mode 3; timers do not operate independently if mode
3 is chosen for timer 0. Placing timer 1 in mode 3 causes it to stop counting;
the control bit TR1 and the timer 1 flag TF1 are then used by timer0.
SERIAL INTERFACE:
The serial port of AT89S52 is full duplex, i.e., it can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The register SBUF is used to hold the data. The special function register SBUF is
physically two registers. One is, write-only and is used to hold data to be transmitted out of
the AT89S52 via TXD. The other is, read-only and holds the received data from external
sources via RXD. Both mutually exclusive registers have the same address 099H.
SCON Register:
Register SCON controls serial data communication.
Address: 098H (Bit addressable)
Fig 3.7: Structure of SCON Register
Mode select bits:
Table 3.4 Mode Selection Bits

HITS-COE 19 (2013-2017)
SM2: multi-processor communication bit .

REN: Receive enable bit.
TB8: Transmitted bit 8.
RB8: Received bit 8.
TI: Transmit interrupt flag.
RI: Receive interrupt flag
PCON Register (Power Mode control Register):
Register PCON controls processor power down, sleep modes and serial data band
rate. Only one bit of PCON is used with respect to serial communication. The seventh bit
(b7)(SMOD) is used to generate the baud rate of serial communication.
Address: 87H
Fig 3.8: Structure of PCON Register

SMOD: Serial baud rate modify bit.
GF1: General purpose user flag bit 1.
GF0: General purpose user flag bit 0.
PD: Power down bit.
IDL: Idle mode bit.
DATA TRANSMISSION:
Transmission of serial data begins at any time when data is written to

SBUF. Pin
P3.1 (Alternate function bit TXD) is used to transmit data to the serial data network.
TI is set to 1 when data has been transmitted. This signifies that SBUF is empty so
that another byte can be sent.
Data Reception
Reception of serial data begins if the receive enable bit is set to 1 for all modes. Pin
P3.0 (Alternate function bit RXD) is used to receive data from the serial data network.
Receive interrupt flag, RI, is set after the data has been received in all modes. The
data gets stored in SBUF register from where it can be read.
HITS-COE 20 (2013-2017)
SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION MODES:
Mode-0:
In this mode, the serial port works like a shift register and the data
transmission works synchronously with a clock frequency of fosc /12. Serial data is
received and transmitted through RXD. 8 bits are transmitted/ received at a time. Pin
TXD outputs the shift clock pulses of frequency fosc /12, which is connected to the
external circuitry for synchronization. The shift frequency or baud rate is always 1/12
of the oscillator frequency.
Fig 3.9: Mode 0 operation in Serial Data Transmission
Mode-1 (standard UART mode) :

In mode-1, the serial port functions as a standard Universal Asynchronous
Receiver Transmitter (UART) mode. 10 bits are transmitted through TXD or received
through RXD. The 10 bits consist of one start bit (which is usually '0'), 8 data bits
(LSB is sent first/received first), and a stop bit (which is usually '1'). Once received,
the stop bit goes into RB8 in the special function register SCON. The baud rate is
variable.
The following figure shows the way the bits are transmitted/ received.
Fig 3.10: Mode 1 operation in Serial Data Transmission
HITS-COE 21 (2013-2017)
Bit time= 1/fbaud
In receiving mode, data bits are shifted into the receiver at the programmed baud rate.
The data word (8-bits) will be loaded to SBUF if the following conditions are true.
RI must be zero. (i.e., the previously received byte has been cleared from
SBUF)
Mode bit SM2 = 0 or stop bit = 1.
INTERRUPT STRUCTURE OF AT89S52:
The most powerful and important features are interrupts in AT89S52 microcontroller.
In most of the real-time processes, to handle certain conditions properly, the actual task must
be halt for some time it takes required action and then must return to the main task. For
executing such type of programs, interrupts are necessary. It entirely differs from the polling
method wherein the processor must check sequentially each device and ask whether the
service is required or not while consuming more processor time.
Interrupts in AT89S52 microcontroller are more desirable to reduce the regular status
checking of the interfaced devices or inbuilt devices. Interrupt is an event that temporarily
suspends the main program, passes the control to a special code section, executes the event-
related function and resumes the main program flow where it had left off.
Interrupts are classified as maskable and non-maskable, vector interrupts etc. Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR) comes into the picture when interrupt occurs, and then tells the
processor to take appropriate action for the interrupt, and after ISR execution, the controller
jumps into the main program.
The AT89S52 microcontroller can recognize five different events that cause the main
program to interrupt from the normal execution. These five sources of interrupts in
AT89S52are:
Timer 0 overflow interrupt- TF0

Timer 1 overflow interrupt- TF1
External hardware interrupt- INT0
External hardware interrupt- INT1
Serial communication interrupt- RI/TI
The Timer and Serial interrupts are internally generated by the microcontroller, whereas
the external interrupts are generated by additional interfacing devices or switches that are
HITS-COE 22 (2013-2017)
externally connected to the microcontroller. These external interrupts can be edge triggered
or level triggered. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller executes the interrupt
service routine so that memory location corresponds to the interrupt that enables it.
Interrupt Structure of AT89S52 Microcontroller:
Upon RESET all the interrupts get disabled, and therefore, all these interrupts must be
enabled by software. In all these five interrupts or any combination can be activated, this
sets the corresponding interrupt flags as shown in the figure. All these interrupts can be set or
cleared by bit in some special function register that is Interrupt Enabled (IE), and this in turn
depends on the priority, which is executed by IP interrupt priority register.
Fig3.11: Interrupt structure of AT89S52

Interrupt Enable (IE) Register:
This register is responsible for enabling and disabling the interrupt. It is a bit addressable
register in which EA must be set to one for enabling interrupts. The corresponding bit in this
register enables particular interrupt like timer, external and serial inputs. In the below IE
register, bit corresponding to 1 activates the interrupt and 0 disables the interrupt.
Interrupt Priority Register (IP):
It is also possible to change the priority levels of the interrupts by setting or clearing the
corresponding bit in the Interrupt priority (IP) register as shown in the figure. This allows the
low priority interrupt to interrupt the high-priority interrupt, but prohibits the interruption by
another low-priority interrupt. Similarly, the high-priority interrupt cannot be interrupted. If
these interrupt priorities are not programmed, the microcontroller executes in predefined
manner and its order is INT0, TF0, INT1, TF1, and SI.
HITS-COE 23 (2013-2017)
INTERRUPT PROGRAMMING In AT89S52:
1. Timer Interrupt Programming
Timer 0 and Timer 1 interrupts are generated by the timer register bits TF0 and TF1. These
interrupts programming by C code involves:
Selecting the timer by configuring TMOD register and its mode of operation.
Choosing and loading the initial values of TLx and THx for appropriate modes.
Enabling the IE registers and corresponding timer bit in it.
Setting the timer run bit to start the timer.
Writing the subroutine for the timer for time required and clear timer value TRx at the
end of subroutine.
2. External Hardware Interrupt Programming:
AT89S52 microcontrollers consist of two external hardware interrupts: INT0 and

INT1 as discussed earlier. These are enabled at pin 3.2 and pin 3.3. These can be edge
triggered or level triggered. In level triggering, the low at pin 3.2 enables the interrupt, while
at pin 3.2 the high to low transition enables the edge triggered interrupt. This edge
triggering or level triggering is decided by the TCON register that has been discussed above.
The programming procedure in AT89S52 is as follows:
Enable the corresponding bit of external interrupt in IE register.

If it is level triggering, just write the subroutine appropriate to this interrupt, or else
enable the TCON register bit corresponding to the edge triggered interrupt whether
it is INT0 or INT1.
3.3.4 PIN DESCRIPTION OF AT89S52:
Port 0(Pins 32-39): Port 0 pins can be used as I/O pins. The output drives and input
buffers of port 0 are used to access external memory. Port 0 outputs the low order
byte of the external memory address, time multiplexed with the data being written or
read. Thus, port 0 can be used as multiplexed address/data bus.
Port 1(Pins 1-8): Port 1 pins can be used only as I/O pins.
Port 2(Pins 21-28): the output drives of port 2 are used to access external memory.
Port 2 outputs the high order byte of the external memory address when the address is
16 bits wide. Otherwise, port 2 is used as an I/O port.
Port 3(Pins 10-17): All port pins of Port 3 are multifunctional. Therefore, each pin of
port 3 can be programmed to use as I/O or as one of the alternate function. They have
HITS-COE 24 (2013-2017)
special functions including two external interrupts, two counter inputs, two special
data lines and two timing control strobes.
Table3.5:Structure of Port-3
Power supply Pins Vcc (Pin 40) and Vss (Pin 20): AT89S52 operates on D.C. power
supply of +5V with respect to ground. The +5V is to be connected to pin Vcc and
ground to pin Vss with rated supply current of 125mA.
Oscillator Pins XTAL2 (Pin 18) and XTAL1 (Pin 19): For generating an internal
clock signal, the external oscillator is connected at these two pins.
ALE (Address Latch Enable, Pin 30): AD0 to AD7 lines are multiplexed. To
demultiplex these lines and for obtaining lower half of an address, an external latch
ALE signal of AT89S52 is used.
RST (Reset, Pin 9): this pin is used to reset AT89S52. For proper reset operation,
reset signal must be held high at least for two machine cycles, while oscillator is
running.
PSEN (Program Store Enable, Pin 29): it is the active low output control signal used
to activate the enable signal of the external ROM/EROM. It is activated every six
oscillator periods while reading the external memory. Thus, this signal acts as the read
strobe to external program memory.
EA (External Access, Pin 31): When the EA pin is high (connected to Vcc), program
fetches to address 000H theough 0FFFH are directed to the inetrnal ROM and
program fetches to addresses 1000H throgh FFFFH are directed to external
ROM/EPROM. When EA is low, all addresses (0000H to FFFFH) fetched by
program are directed to the external ROM/EPROM.
3.4 POWER SUPPLY:
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies to an electrical power to operate the
system. The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to
HITS-COE 25 (2013-2017)
another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power
converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built
into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies
found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical
energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells,
electromechanical
systems generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another power
supply.
All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and
a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and
output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections, though some power
supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input
or output. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions
such as external monitoring and control.
3.4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION:
Fig 3.12: Block Diagram of Power Supply
Transformer:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is
AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
HITS-COE 26 (2013-2017)
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is
A. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms,
including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide
rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based

semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and
motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker"
of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector".
Regulator:
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. We are using LM7805 regulator in this project .it may be used to regulate one
or more AC or DC voltages.
Filters :
The output after being processed by full wave rectifier is not a pure DC. The output is
a pulsating DC. The output contains large fluctuations in voltages. This is quite apparent from
the block of full wave rectifier shown above. The power supply that we intend to design must
not have any variation in output voltage. The voltage that we get from full wave rectifier
fluctuates between 0 V and Vpeak, and hence it contains AC components. These AC
components need to be filtered out so as to obtain DC voltage
Load:
An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that

consumes electric power. This is opposed to a power source, such as a battery or
generator, which produces power. In electric power circuits examples of loads are
appliances and lights
Load affects the performance of circuits with respect to output voltages or currents,
such as in sensors, voltage sources, and amplifiers. Mains power outlets provide an
easy example: they supply power at constant voltage, with electrical
HITS-COE 27 (2013-2017)
appliances connected to the power circuit collectively making up the load. When a
high-power appliance switches on, it dramatically reduces the load impedance.
If the load impedance is not very much higher than the power supply impedance, the
voltages will drop. In a domestic environment, switching on a heating appliance may
cause incandescent lights to dim noticeably.
HITS-COE 28 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-4
HITS-COE 29 (2013-2017)
IR SENSORS
4.1 INFRARED IN ELECTRONICS:
Infrared light is light whose frequency is just below the range of visible red light.
Specifically, infrared is light whose frequency falls between 1 THz to 400 THz (one THz is
one trillion cycles per second). The infrared spectrum falls right between microwaves and
visible light.
Theres an inverse relationship between frequency and wavelength. In other words, the lower
the frequency, the longer the wavelength. If you describe infrared in terms of its wavelength
rather than its frequency, infrared waves are longer than the waves of visible light, but shorter
than microwaves.
The wavelength of infrared light is between 0.75 to 300 micrometres, which is a millionth of
a meter. Thus, at the very bottom edge of the infrared spectrum, the infrared waves are about
one third of a millimetre long. At the upper end, the waves are about one thousandth of a
millimetre long. If the waves get any shorter than that, they become visible light.
Infrared light is often used to detect objects that we cant see in visible light. One common
application of this is night vision. According to a principal of physics called Plancks law, all
matter emits electromagnetic radiation if its temperature is above absolute zero. Some of that
radiation is in the infrared spectrum, so devices that can detect infrared light can literally see
in the dark.
To enhance the effect, some night-vision devices actually illuminate an area with infrared
light. Because the human eye cant see the infrared light, the area illuminated still appears
dark to us, but to a detector sensitive to infrared light, the area is lit up and fully visible.
Another common application of infrared light is for wireless communications across short
distances. The best known infrared devices are television remote controls. The remote control
unit contains a bright infrared light source, and the television itself includes an infrared
detector.
HITS-COE 30 (2013-2017)
When you point the remote control at the television and push a button, the remote control
turns on the infrared light source and encodes a message on it. The receiver picks up this
signal, decodes the message, and does whatever the message directs it to do turns up the
volume, changes the channel, and so on.
Like visible light, infrared light can be blocked by solid objects and it can bounce off of
reflective objects. Thats why the remote wont work if your spouse is standing between you
and the television. But its also why you can get around your spouse by pointing the remote at
a window. The infrared waves bounce off the glass and, if the angle is right, arrive at the
television.
The first wireless remote control was developed by Zenith in 1955. It used ordinary visible
light, could turn the TV on or off, and could change channels.
4.2 INFRARED SENSOR:

An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called
as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of
thermal radiations. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by
an infrared sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector
is simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that
emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and these
output voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.
4.3 IR GENERATION:
The infrared generation unit (DFM-NIR) is designed to generate laser radiation in the near
infrared wavelength range, from 1.5 m to 5.2 m, by difference frequency mixing (DFM)
with residual 1064 nm light. It is operated together with a Quanta-Ray Nd: YAG pumped
dye laser, either a Precision Scan or a Cobra-Stretch model.
4.4 IR LED:
An IR LED, also known as IR transmitter, is a special purpose LED that transmits infrared
rays in the range of 760 nm wavelength. Such LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or
aluminium gallium arsenide. They, along with IR receivers, are commonly used as sensors.
HITS-COE 31 (2013-2017)
The appearance is same as a common LED. Since the human eye cannot see the infrared
radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify whether the IR LED is working or not,
unlike a common LED. To overcome this problem, the camera on a cell phone can be used.
The camera can show us the IR rays being emanated from the IR LED in a circuit.
4.5 IR SENSOR DESCRIPTION:
Fig4.1: Circuit Diagram of IR Sensor Fig4.2: IR Sensor

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor modules in an electronic
device. This sensor is analogous to humans visionary senses, which can be used to detect
obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real time. This circuit comprises of the
following components:
1. LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair

2. Resistors of the range of kilo ohms.
3. Variable resistors.
4. LED (Light Emitting Diode).
5.
LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied
to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and
the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area and integrated optical components may be used to
shape its radiation pattern.
HITS-COE 32 (2013-2017)
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-
intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting
elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety
of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and
limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared
wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of
seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task

lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and
faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as
aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals,
camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough for room
lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their
high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology.
LM358:
The LM358 is a low power dual operational amplifier integrated circuit originally
introduced by National Semiconductor. It is used in detector circuits.
The abbreviation LM358 indicates an 8-pin integrated circuit, comprising two

operational amplifiers at low power. The LM358 is designed for general use as
amplifiers, high-pass filters and low, band pass filters and analog adders.
Resistor:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors may be used to reduce current flow, and, at
the same time, may act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors, that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor
HITS-COE 33 (2013-2017)
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors
have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a
lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical
activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within
integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The
nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.
Variable Resistor:
The resistor whose electrical resistance value can be adjusted as per requirement by
adjustable component attached to it is called variable resistor.
It is an electronic component. It is applied in an electronic circuit for adjusting circuit

resistance to control voltage or current of that circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical
resistance is varied by sliding a wiper contact along a resistance track. Sometimes the
resistance is adjusted at preset value as required at the time of circuit building by adjusting
screw attached to it and sometimes resistance can be adjusted as when required by controlling
knob connected to it. The active resistance value of the variable resistor depends upon the
position of the slider contact on the resistance track.
In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits continuous IR
rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the receiver varies
depending upon the IR Rays received. Since this variation cannot be analysed as such,
therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational amplifier (op-
amp) of LM 358 is used as comparator circuit.
When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input goes
higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC. Thus the output of the comparator
goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver module receives signal to the
potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator goes high and the
LED starts glowing. Resistor R1 (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330) are used to ensure that
minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like Photodiode and normal
LEDs respectively.
4.6 TYPES OF IR SENSORS:

There are two types of infrared sensor based on its function:
Thermal Infrared sensor
HITS-COE 34 (2013-2017)
Quantum infrared sensor
These are the types of infrared sensors based on the working mechanism:
Active Infrared Sensors

Passive Infrared sensors
4.6.1 ACTIVE INFRARED SENSORS:

Active infrared sensors are the types of infrared sensor that emit infrared radiation which is
later received by the receiver. The IR is emitted by a IR Light Emitting Diode (LED) and
received by photodiode, phototransistor or photoelectric cells. During the process of
detection, the radiation is altered, between process of emission and receiving, by object of
interest. The alteration of radiation causes change in received radiation in the receiver. This
property is used to generate desired output with help of associated electronic circuit.
There are two types of Active infrared sensors:
Break beam sensors:

These types of Active IR sensor have emitter and receiver placed in such a way that the IR
emitted by the emitter falls directly in to the receiver. During the operation, IR beam is
emitted continuously towards the receiver. The flow of IR can be interrupted by placing an
object between the emitter and receiver. If the IR is transmitted but altered then receiver
generates output based on the change in radiation. Similarly if the radiation is completely
blocked the receiver can detect it and provide the desired output. For example: lets consider
a Break beam sensor and a conveyer belt as shown in figure. When an opaque object
interrupts the IR flow the receiver doesnt receive any signal thus the conveyer belt stops.
Furthermore advanced use of these types of sensors can be to acquire different shape and
surface profile of objects.
Reflectance sensors:
These types of sensors use reflective property of IR. The emitter emits an IR beam which is
reflected by the object. The reflected IR is the detected by the receiver. The object causes
change in the property of the reflected IR or the amount of IR received by the receiver varies.
The degree of change is dependent on the reflectance of the object. Thus detecting the change
in amount of received IR helps in figuring out the properties of object such as surface
geography and reflectance.
4.6.2 PASSIVE INFRARED SENSORS:

Passive infrared sensors detect the infrared radiations from outer source. When an object is in
a field of view of a sensor it provides a reading based on a thermal input. It does not generate
any infrared. There are different kinds of Passive infrared sensor.
Pyroelectric infrared sensor (PIR):
The infrared sensor has its detecting area. Multizonal Fresnel lens array is associated
covers the pyroelectric transducer. This lens is Plano convex lens that are designed to
HITS-COE 35 (2013-2017)
collect the infrared radiation from the different spatial zones. Fresnel lens is made up
of material that can transmit infrared range of 8M to 14m. This lens dose not view
the space in continuous fashion, the detection pattern of sensor is fan shaped .It views
as a discrete beams or cones.
The gap between the cones increases with the distance and it is inversely proportional to
the sensitivity of the sensor.
Speed sensor:
The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed of multiple motors. The temperature
sensor is used for industrial temperature control. PIR sensor is used for automatic door
opening system and Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance measurement.
4.7 APPLICATIONS OF IR SENSORS:

Radiation Thermometers:
IR sensors are used in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the
temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the
following features
Measurement without direct contact with the object

Faster response and easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors:
These types of devices are used for detecting the light emitted from the flames and to monitor
how the flames are burning. The Light emitted from flames extend from UV to IR region
types. PbS, PbSe, Two-colour detector, pyro electric detector are some of the commonly
employed detector used in flame monitors.
Moisture Analysers:
Moisture analysers use wavelengths which are absorbed by the moisture in the IR region.
Objects are irradiated with light having these wavelengths (1.1 m, 1.4 m, 1.9 m, and
2.7m) and also with reference wavelengths. The Lights reflected from the objects depend
upon the moisture content and is detected by analyzer to measure moisture (ratio of reflected
light at these wavelengths to the reflected light at reference wavelength). In GaAs PIN
photodiodes, Pbs photoconductive detectors are employed in moisture analyzer circuits.
HITS-COE 36 (2013-2017)
Gas Analysers:
IR sensors are used in gas analysers which use absorption characteristics of gases in the IR
region. Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as dispersive and
non-dispersive.
HITS-COE 37 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-5
HITS-COE 38 (2013-2017)
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn junction

diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
Fig 5.1: Circuit Diagram of an LED

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm) and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-
intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in
remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer
electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red.
Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,
automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and
lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat
HITS-COE 39 (2013-2017)
more expensive, and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.LEDs have allowed new text, video displays,
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced
communications technology.
5.1 WORKING OF AN LED:

To understand the working principle of light emitting diode, we first have to understand a
basic of quantum theory. According to this theory, when an electron comes down from its
higher energy level to lower energy level, it emits energy in form of a photon. The energy of
this photon is equal to the energy gap between these two energy levels. When a pn junction
diode is forward biased, current flows through the diode. Flow of current through the
semiconductor is caused by both flow of free electrons in opposite direction of current and
flow of holes in the direction of current. Hence during flow of these charge carriers, there will
be recombination. Recombination mean electrons in condition band jump down to the
valence band. During this jump electron will emit electromagnetic energy in form of photons
whose energy is equal to forbidden energy gap E.g. Again according to quantum theory,
energy of a photon is the product of frequency of electromagnetic radiation and Planck
constant.
Where h is Planck constant. Again velocity of electromagnetic radiation is fixed and it is

equal to the speed of light i.e. c. The frequency of radiation f is related to velocity of light as,
f = c / .
Where is wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation.
Hence from equation (1)
So we have seen that wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to

the forbidden energy gap. In normal silicon, germanium semiconductor this forbidden energy
gaps between condition and valence band are such that entire radiation of electromagnetic
wave during recombination is in the form of inferred radiation. The wavelengths of the
inferred are out of our visible range so we cannot see it. Inferred electromagnetic radiation is
nothing but heat. This is because, silicon and germanium semiconductor are not direct gap
semiconductor rather these are indirect gap semiconductor. In indirect gap semiconductor the
maximum energy level of valence band and minimum energy level of conduction band do not
occur at same momenta of electrons. Hence during recombination of electrons and holes that
is migration of electrons from conduction band to valence band the momentum of electrons
HITS-COE 40 (2013-2017)
would be changed. The photons originated from these electrons will be mostly utilized for the
electron momentum. In direct gap semiconductor the maximum of valence band and
minimum of conduction band occur at same electron momenta. Hence, there will be no
change of momentum of electrons during migration from conduction band to valence band so
the photons originated due that migration have not to provide momentum to electrons. As a
result, the photons are emitted from the surface of semiconductor crystal. There are some
special types of specially alloyed direct energy gap semiconductors whose energy gap
between condition and valence band are such that the electromagnetic radiation emitted
during recombination has wavelengths within our visible range. That means in these special
semiconductors when recombination between electrons and holes occur, there will be
emissions of light. This is how a light emitting diode works.
5.2 USES OF AN LED:

Power sources:
The currentvoltage characteristic of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the current is
dependent exponentially on the voltage. This means that a small change in voltage can cause
a large change in current. If the applied voltage exceeds the LED's forward voltage drop by a
small amount, the current rating may be exceeded by a large amount, potentially damaging or
destroying the LED. The typical solution is to use constant-current power supplies to keep the
current below the LED's maximum current rating. Since most common power sources
(batteries, mains) are constant-voltage sources, most LED fixtures must include a power
converter, at least a current-limiting resistor. However, the high resistance of three-volt coin
cells combined with the high differential resistance of nitride-based LEDs makes it possible
to power such an LED from such a coin cell without an external resistor.
Electrical polarity
As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material. In the reverse bias no
current flows and LED is not blinking if a small voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If
the reverse voltage grows large enough to exceed the breakdown voltage, a large current
flows and the LED may be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid
damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.
5.3 APPLICATIONS OF AN LED:
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to
convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects.
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to
incident light, instead of emitting light.
HITS-COE 41 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-6
HITS-COE 42 (2013-2017)
RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. Resistors may be used to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, may
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit
current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines
among other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time
or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a
volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.
Fig6.1: (a) Resistor (b)variable resistor (c) potentiometer
Fig6.2: IEC Resistor Symbol
HITS-COE 43 (2013-2017)
6.1 OPERATION OF A RESISTOR:

Ohms law:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:
V=I/R
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 10-3 ), kilohm (1
k = 103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
Power dissipation:
At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is

calculated as:
P= I2R= IV= V2/R

Where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing through
it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat
which must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature rises excessively.
Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-
state electronic systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually absorb
much less than a watt of electrical power and require little attention to their power rating.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power

supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power
resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or
greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, colour
codes, and external packages.
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the
resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible
change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power
dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit
board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail
(open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.
HITS-COE 44 (2013-2017)
Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors
may be specified with higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service.
All resistors have a maximum voltage rating; this may limit the power dissipation for higher
resistance values.
Non ideal properties:
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or
pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue.The temperature coefficient of
the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on
the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size
of the device and the position of its leads which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed
the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of
concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically
larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid
to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working
voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the
resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.
HITS-COE 45 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-7
HITS-COE 46 (2013-2017)
CAPACITORS:
Fig7.1: Capacitor Fig7.2:Symbol of a Capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors
can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The non-
conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly
used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide
layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q
to collect on one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has
been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a
displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is

defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V
between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per
volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10-12 F) to about 1 mF (10-3
F).
HITS-COE 47 (2013-2017)
The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between
them, the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the
breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
7.1 OPERATION OF A CAPACITOR:

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from
any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their
facing surfaces and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
C=Q/V
Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for
a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large
capacitance.
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
C= dQ/dV
HITS-COE 48 (2013-2017)
Non ideal behaviour:
Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in a number of ways. Some of these,
such as leakage current and parasitic effects are linear, or can be assumed to be linear, and
can be dealt with by adding virtual components to the equivalent circuit of the capacitor. The
usual methods of network analysis can then be applied. In other cases, such as with
breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and normal (i.e., linear) network analysis cannot
be used; the effect must be dealt with separately. There is yet another group, which may be
linear but invalidate the assumption in the analysis that capacitance is a constant. Such an
example is temperature dependence. Finally, combined parasitic effects such as inherent
inductance, resistance, or dielectric losses can exhibit non-uniform behaviour at variable
frequencies of operation.
Capacitance instability:
The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors,
this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric, ambient operating and
storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a
smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie
point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes
over time. Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic
capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per
C. It can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the
temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be positive or negative, sometimes
even amongst different samples of the same type. In other words, the spread in the range of
temperature coefficients can encompass zero.
Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can
absorb sound waves resulting in a micro phonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing
the capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate
piezoelectricity. The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications,
potentially causing feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse micro phonic effect, the
varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a
speaker. This can generate audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the
electrolyte, if any.
Dielectric absorption:
Capacitors made with any type of dielectric material will show some level of "dielectric
absorption" or "soakage". On discharging a capacitor and disconnecting it, after a short time
it may develop a voltage due to hysteresis in the dielectric. This effect can be objectionable in
HITS-COE 49 (2013-2017)
applications such as precision sample and hold circuits or timing circuits. The level of
absorption depends on many factors, from design considerations to charging time, since the
absorption is a time-dependent process. However, the primary factor is the type of dielectric
material. Capacitors such as tantalum electrolytic or polysulfide film exhibit very high
absorption, while polystyrene or Teflon allow very small levels of absorption. In some
capacitors where dangerous voltages and energies exist, such as in flashtubes, television sets,
and defibrillators, the dielectric absorption can recharge the capacitor to hazardous voltages
after it has been shorted or discharged. Any capacitor containing over 10 joules of energy is
generally considered hazardous, while 50 joules or higher is potentially lethal. A capacitor
may regain anywhere from 0.01 to 20% of its original charge over a period of several
minutes, allowing a seemingly safe capacitor to become surprisingly dangerous.
Hazards and safety:
The hazards posed by a capacitor are usually determined, foremost, by the amount of energy
stored, which is the cause of things like electrical burns or heart fibrillation. Factors such as
voltage and chassis material are of secondary consideration, which are more related to how
easily a shock can be initiated rather than how much damage can occur.
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can
cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For
example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable-camera flash unit, powered
by a 1.5 volt AA battery, has a capacitor which may contain over 15 joules of energy and be
charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for
electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors,
for instance using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to
dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-
voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially
dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption or from transient voltages the capacitor may
pick up from static charges or passing weather events.
Some old, large oil-filled paper or plastic film capacitors contain polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors
containing PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-
filled paper capacitors are found in very old (pre-1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other
applications.
Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their
rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures
may create arcing that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or
even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat,
especially in the centre of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor
banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy
stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can
HITS-COE 50 (2013-2017)
generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and
preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.
High-voltage capacitors can benefit from a pre-charge to limit in-rush currents at power-up of
high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuits. This will extend the life of the component and
may mitigate high-voltage hazards.
HITS-COE 51 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-8
HITS-COE 52 (2013-2017)
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION & IMPLEMENTATION
SOFTWARE COMPONENTS:
1. Keil Vision5
2. Proteus 8.1
8.1 KEIL:
KEIL IDE is basically an assembler and a compiler or whatever you name it. You can write
either an Assembly or C language code and KEIL will take care of the rest for you.
Furthermore, it supports many of the AT89S52 variants that you will face.
After successful download and install, you may have problem getting familiar with it if you're
using it for the very first time but don't worry because I am here to give you a graphical
tutorial on how to use it for writing your program, compiling it, and finally generating the
HEX file.
Whats new in Vision5?
Vision4 adds many new features to the editor like text templates, quick function navigation,
and syntax colouring with brace highlighting configuration wizard for dialogue based startup
and debugger setup.
Step 1 - Open Keil IDE installed previously on your PC.
HITS-COE 53 (2013-2017)
Step 2 - Create a New Project from Project -> New -> Vision Project.
Step 3 - IDE will tell you to save the project and give it a name. Do it according to your
convenience. Now keil will ask you to choose your target device. Choose your device
AT89S52.
HITS-COE 54 (2013-2017)
Step 4 - A window will open up asking for add up some start up files. Press NO.
Step 5 - Now make a new empty file.
Step 6 - Type in your source code in that empty file and save this file as main.c
45
HITS-COE 55 (2013-2017)
Step 7 - Add the main source file to your project by right clicking on left side bar over
"Source Group1"
Step 8 - Make sure that main C source file is now added in your project.
Step 9 - By default keil compiler do not generate intel hex file on source compilation.
So we need to configure it to produce Hex file as output.
HITS-COE 56 (2013-2017)
HITS-COE 57 (2013-2017)
Step 10 - Now you are ready to compile source and generate the hex file.
HITS-COE 58 (2013-2017)
Now you can find the generated Hex file for the project in the same directory as in project
lies.
8.2 PROTEUS:
Proteus is a design software developed by Labcenter Electronics for electronic circuit
simulation, schematic capture and PCB design. Its simplicity and user friendly design made it
popular among electronics hobbyists. Proteus is commonly used for digital simulations such
as microcontrollers and microprocessors. It can simulate LED, LDR, USB Communication.
With Proteus you can:
Alter your hardware by rewiring the circuit diagram, varying component values for
resistors, capacitors etc.
Removing or making new components to the design.
You can change your firmware in the IDE of your choice and, once compiled, test the
new code on the new system at the press of a button.
Reprogramming microcontroller: In practical there is limitation to flash the memory
of microcontroller but in Proteus you can burn program unlimited times.
Attain confident that your program will work for real world applications.
This brings you total freedom to experiment with diverse ideas and to discover the optimal
design solution for our project. The schematic serves as a virtual prototype for the firmware
and its quick and easy to make changes to either.
Step 1: Create a new project
Click New Project button.
HITS-COE 59 (2013-2017)
Step 2: Draw the circuit diagram
Now click Schematic Capture button, you will be directed to schematic panel.
Step 3: Add components to work space
Click P button followed by Component button under Devices for picking components
Step4:
Choose your component by simply typing the name at Keyword box. After selecting item
click OK.
HITS-COE 60 (2013-2017)
The selected components will listed under Devices.
Step 5: Now draw the circuit diagram as shown below.
HITS-COE 61 (2013-2017)
Step 6: Click Terminal mode button to get different terminals.
Double click on the AT89S52, the Edit component wizard will open. Set the frequency as
same that you did for generating .HEX file.
Step 7: Load .HEX file to the schematic diagram. After setting frequency click browse button
to load the .HEX file.
HITS-COE 62 (2013-2017)
Choose your .HEX file
Finally click OK. Now everything ready to go.
Step 8: Lets run simulation. Click the Run Simulation button at bottom left corner and
observe your simulation.
HITS-COE 63 (2013-2017)
Now you have successfully simulated your project.
HITS-COE 64 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-9
HITS-COE 65 (2013-2017)
RESULTS
The system was designed by using the AT89S52 and tested by using Keil software in Proteus
environment and the following results were obtained:
Fuel is saved to about 70% compared to normal timer based traffic control.
Traffic can be cleared without any irregularities.
Effective time management.
HITS-COE 66 (2013-2017)
CHAPTER-10
HITS-COE 67 (2013-2017)
FUTURE SCOPE & CONCLUSION

To reduce the congestion and unwanted time delay in traffic, an advanced system is
required. One such advanced technology is automatic signalling using IR sensors. The
sensors help in keeping count of vehicles entering roads and subsequently allot time delay
thereby giving accurate priority to each road for the time being. With this technique we have
entered a new era of automatic traffic signal control.
We have implemented Density Based Traffic Signal System using microcontroller and IR
sensors. This system can also be used to control the change of traffic lights at intersection
points giving high priority to emergency vehicles. Furthermore this System can also provide
smart traffic routing that chooses the shortest routes having the least congestions based upon
IR received signals at various signals along a route.
Thus from above theory we can conclude that using the method of density based control of
traffic lights we can save a considerable amount of time and also we can prevent excessive
traffic jams thus leading to smooth traffic flow.
Presently in India we are following time based control of traffic signals and we are
experiencing a heavy traffic jams all over which in turn consumes lot of time and fuel. We
hope these advanced methods will be adopted so that the limitations can be overcomee and
enhance the design.
In future this system can be used to inform people about different places traffic condition.
data transfer between the microcontroller and computer can also be done through tele- phone
network , data call activated SIM This technique allows the operator to gather the recorded
data from a far end to his home computer without going there. Traffic lights can be increased
to N number and traffic light control can be done for whole city by sitting on a single place.
Advanced Digital Signal Processing stand-alone chips could be utilized to increase the speed,
increase the memory size with reduced area, miniaturization in multimedia applications.
HITS-COE 68 (2013-2017)
REFERENCES
[1] Vivek, Tyagi, Senior Member IEEE, Shivakumar Kalyanaraman, Fellow, IEEE, and
Raghuram Krishnapuram, Fellow, IEEE Vehicular Traffic Density State Estimation Based
On Cumulative Road Acoustics in IEEE Transaction on Intelligent Transportation
System.Vol.23. No.3 September 2012.
[2] MD.Hazrat ALI, Syuhei KUROKAWA, et al,Autonomous Road Surveillance System

proposed Model For Vehicle Detection and Traffic Signal Control in Procedia Computer
Science 19(2013).
[3] R. WEIL, J. WOOTTON AND A. GARCIA-ORTIZ Traffic Incident Detection Sensor

and Algorithms Mathl.Comput.Modeling Vol.27.
[4] Jain R.P, Embedded C, Tata McGrawhill. 4th Edition 2011.
[5] Ray.A.K, Bhurchandani K.M, Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals, 2nd Ed., Tata
McGrawhill 2016.
HITS-COE 69 (2013-2017)
HITS-COE 70 (2013-2017)

Density Based Traffic Signal System Using Ir Sensors: Chapter-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Density Based Traffic Signal System Using Ir Sensors: Chapter-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DENSITY BASED TRAFFIC SIGNAL SYSTEM USING IR SENSORS

Fig1.1: IR Transmitter and Receiver Model

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 COMMON FEATURES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Readymade computer boards:

ASIC and FPGA solutions:

2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of an Embedded System

Fig3.1: Block Diagram of Density Based Traffic Signal System Using

3.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.2:Schematic Diagram of Density Based Traffic Signal System

3.3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

3.3.1 AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER:

The advantages of built-in peripheral devices are as follows:

Built in peripherals have smaller access times hence speed is more.

Features of AT89S52 Microcontroller:

The features of AT89S52 family are as follows:

4096 bytes on-chip program memory.

3.3.2 PIN CONFIGURATION OF AT89S52:

Fig 3.3: Pin Configuration of AT89S52

3.3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION OF AT89S52:

Fig 3.4: Block Diagram and Description of AT89S52

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MEMORIES:

Internal RAM Organization:

AT89S52 Register Banks (working registers):

Each register can be addressed by name or by its RAM address.

RS1 RS0 Bank Selection

Table 3.1: Register Bank

Bit/Byte Addressable: The AT89S52 provides 16 bytes of a bit-addressable area. It occupies

Symbol Position Alternate Use

RD P3.7 External memory read signal.

WR P3.6 External memory write signal.

T1 P3.5 External timer 1 input.

T0 P3.4 External timer 0 input

INT1 P3.3 External interrupt 1 input.

INT0 P3.2 External interrupt 0 input.

TXD P3.1 Serial data output.

RXD P3.0 Serial data input .

Table 3.2: Structure of Port-3

I/O BIT MANIPULATION PROGRAMMING:

On reset, all ports are configured as an input port.

TH1 TH0 TL0

Timer Control (TCON) register

Timer Mode (TMOD) register

Structure of TMOD Register:

Fig 3.5: Structure of TMOD Register

Structure of TCON Register:

Fig 3.6: Structure of TCON Register

BIT Symbol Functions

7 TF1 Timer1 over flow flag. Set when timer

6 TR1 Timer 1 run control bit. Set to 1 by

5 TF0 Timer 0 over flow flag. Same as TF1.

4 TR0 Timer 0 run control bit. Same as TR1.

3 IE1 External interrupt 1 Edge flag. Not

2 IT1 External interrupt1 signal type control

Enable external interrupt 1 to be triggered by

To 0 by program to enable a low level signal

1 IE0 External interrupt 0 Edge flag. Not related to timer

0 IT0 External interrupt 0 signal type control bit.

Table3.3:Elements of TCON Register

Mode 1: It is a 16-bit timer; therefore it allows values from 0000 to FFFFH to

Mode 2: It is an 8 bit timer that allows only values of 00 to FFH to be loaded

Register SCON controls serial data communication.