RATIFICATION PAGE

Complete report of Human Anatomy and Physiology with title

Anatomical Position of Human Body, arranged by:

name : Bertha Tandi

reg.Number : 141 444 2010
class : ICP B Biology
group : V (Five)

has been checked and accepted by Assistant and Assistant Coordinator, so this
report were accepted.

Makassar, April 4th 2017

Assistant Coordinator, Assistant,

A Citra Pratiwi, S.Pd, M.Ed Muhammad Nur Arsyad. S.Pd

Known by,
Lecturer of Responsibility

Dr. Drs. A. Mushawwir Taiyeb, M.Kes.

ID: 19644016 198803 1 002
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background

The study of vertebrate anatomy is an interesting and valid field of study

for gaining insight into the structure and function of vertebrates. It provides us
with knowledge of the structures of different organisms and the great variety of
form among vertebrates such as It allows us to examine how the form of these
structures is related to their function and thus how morphology is suited to a
particular mode of life. The characteristics or features of vertebrates preserve
information on their ancestry: The features are modified and passed on through
the course of generations, and we may use such knowledge to discover the
genealogical relationships among vertebrates.
Comparative anatomical studies help us to understand how the major
transitions in vertebrate design might have occurred. Soft tissues do not
fossilize, meaning that (with rare exceptions) only transformations of the hard
parts of the vertebrate body are preserved in the fossil record. For other parts of
the body, we must rely on a sequence of living forms. There are problems with
this approach, but if we begin with a robust phylogenetic hypothesis and keep
in mind that the living members of some groups are highly derived, then we
may be confident in this method as a reasonable approach for deducing the
major steps in the evolution of different vertebrate groups.
Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment
and appendages (arms, legs, tentacles, etc.) can change position with respect to
the main body, it is important that positional descriptive terms refer to the
organism when it is in its standard anatomical position. Thus, all descriptions
are oriented to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the
organism in question has appendages in another position, a straight position is
assumed when describing the proximo-distal axis. This helps avoid confusion
in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.
B. Purpose
The Purpose of this observation is to determine the anatomical position
in humans.
C. Benefit
Students can find out, recognize and understand the parts of their body
in the direction to her field section
 CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Anatomists have a nice set of uniformly understood terms describing just that.
These will be necessary for the exercise professional to learn. They are arranged
in opposing functional pairs as follows:
a. Front/ Back Anterior: A structure that lies in front of another structure The
toes, for example, are anterior to the heels.
b. Posterior: A structure located behind another structure Example: The
erector spinae, the long muscle group running vertically along the back, is
posterior to the abdominal cavity.
c. Near/ Far Proximal: Usually associated with the extremities but relevant to
all structures, proximal describes a structure as being closer to the center
of the body or to the beginning of the extremity than another structure.
Example: The knee is proximal to the foot.
d. Distal: The opposite of proximal, distal is a structure farther from center
or from the beginning of the extremity than another structure Example:
The hand is distal to the elbow.
e. Top/ Bottom Superior: A structure that is higher than another structure
Example: The head is superior to the pelvis for example. Inferior: A
structure that is lower than another . Example: The chin is inferior to the
nose.
f. Middle/ Side or Inner /Outer Medial: A structure is closer to the cardinal
sagittal plane (center) than another structure. Example: The sternum
(breastbone) is medial to both shoulders. Example 2: The spinal column is
medial to the ribs.
g. Lateral: A structure that lies farther away from the cardinal sagittal plane
than another structure Example: The shoulders are lateral to the sternum
(Gilgore, 2009).
The 3 Cardinal Planes: Sagittal, Frontal, and Transverse Now that we have a
starting point, we can take a few more steps toward describing human movement.
Anatomists use the convention of anatomical planes ro describe the locations of
body parts on various sections the body. Most anatomy texts may only passingly
refer to anatomical planes because they expect the reader to be familiar with the
cardinal (important) planes, sagittal, frontal, and transverse (figure 1). The
Sagittal Plane divides the body into right-hand and left-hand sides as it passes
front (toe side) to back (heel side). The Frontal Plane divides the body into front
and back halves as it passes side to side (shoulder to shoulder). The Transverse
Plane divides the body into top and bottom (at the waist) as it passes
perpendicular to the long axis of the body (the intersection of the Sagittal and
Frontal planes). These three cardinal planes intersect at the bodys theoretical
center of gravity or center of mass. This intersection was first reported by
Christian Wilhelm Braune in the late 1800s, when plane terminology was first
used to describe the cuts made in a dissection. Planes are also useful because they
allow us to describe the orientation (Gilgore, 2009).

Figure 1
The cardinal planes. (A) Frontal, (B) Sagittal, and (C) Transverse.

Bone motion estimation by means of photogrammetric, non-invasive

methods can be severely corrupted by experimental errors. The largest fraction of
such errors is associated with the relative movement between externally located
markers and the underlying bone, due to the interposition of both passive and
active soft tissues. The errors affecting the estimates of anatomical landmarks
trajectories in the laboratory frame can be considerably reduced by following the
Calibrated Anatomical System Technique protocol which entails: (i) a static
calibration of the anatomical landmarks in a technical reference frame defined by
the cluster of skin markers, and (ii) the use of of a rigid model of the cluster
(Cappelllo, 1997).

The cross-sectional area of the knee-extensor muscles was determined from

the image obtained by computer-based planimetry. The subjects' height and
weight were measured. An estimate of body fat content was obtained from
measurements of skinfold thicknesses and used to calculate lean body mass
(Maughan, 1983). The quantitative description of joint mechanics during
movement requires the reconstruction of the position and orientation of selected
anatomical axes with respect to a laboratory reference frame. These anatomical
axes are identified through an ad hoc anatomical calibration procedure and their
position and orientation are reconstructed relative to bone-embedded frames
normally derived from photogrammetric marker positions and used to describe
movement. The repeatability of anatomical calibration, both within and between
subjects, is crucial for kinematic and kinetic end results (Donati, 2008). the
reconstruction of the position and orientation of the human pelvis and the lower
limb bones in space during the execution of locomotion and physical exercises
using a stereo photogrammetric system. The intention is to produce a means of
quantitative description of joint kinematics and dynamics for both research and
application. Anatomical landmarks and bone-embedded anatomical reference
systems are defined. (Cappozzo, 1995).

A cross section of a banana,for example, looks like a circle and gives no

indication of thewhole bananas crescent shape. Likewise, sectioning the bodyor
an organ along different planes often results in very differentviews. For example,a
transverse section of the body trunk atthe level of the kidneys would showkidney
structure in crosssection very nicely. A frontal section of the body trunk
wouldshow a different view of kidney anatomy, and a midsagittal sectionwould
 miss the kidneys completely. With experience, youwill gradually learn to relate
two-dimensional sections to three dimensional shapes(Marieb: 2013).
CHAPTER III
OBSERVATION METHOD

A. Time and Place

Day / Date : Wednesday, April th, 2016
Time : 13.30 pm 15.00 pm
Place : Biology Laboratory 3 rd floor at Mathematic and Science
Faculty, Makassar State University
B. Tools and Materials
1. Tools
a. Pen
b. Ruler
c. Eraser
2. Materials
a. Probandus
b. Figure direction the human body section
c. Paper
C. Work Procedure
1. Prepare all the tools and materials to be used
2. Viewing images of the human body slice directio and then choose one as
probandus
3. Viewing areas of the body in an upright position
4. Drawing probandus body position on the field observation
 CHAPTER IV
OBSERVATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Observation result
B. Discussion

From the observation, we had known that the body was divided
by imaginary line, or sectioned, alonga flat surface called a plane.
There are 3 type of plane: sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes,
which lie atright angles to one another. A section is named forthe
plane along which it is cut.
a. A median sagittal plane is a vertical plane thatdivides the body
into equal right and left parts. A sagittal plane thatlies exactly in
the midlinean imaginary vertical line that divides the body into
equal left and right sides. If the sagittal plane does not pass
through the midline but instead divides the body or an organ into
unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane
b. Frontal/coronal planes, like sagittal planes, lie vertically.
Frontalplanes, however, divide the body into anterior (front) and
posterior (back) parts.
c. Transverseor horizontal, planeruns horizontally fromright to left,
dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.
Of course, many different transverse planes exist,at every
possible level from head to foot.
The result from bodies dividing are the directional terms used to describe
the relationship of one part of the body to another can be grouped into pairs
that have opposite meanings or to describe the position of one structurerelative
to another.
 Term Definition Example
Superior (cranial) Toward the head end or
upperpart of a structure The head is superior
orthe body;above to the abdomen.

Inferior (caudal) Away from the head end

or toward the lower part The navel is inferior to
of a structure or the the chin
body; below

Ventral (anterior) Toward or at the front of The breastbone

the body; in front of is anterior to
thespine.
Dorsal (posterior) Toward or at the back of The heart is
the posterior to the breastbone.
body; behind

Medial Toward or at the midline The heart is medial to the

of the arm.
body; on the inner side
of
Lateral Away from the midline The arms are
of the lateral to the chest.
body; on the outer side
of
 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclussion
After doing this observation, we can conclude it that the body actually
divided into 3 imaginary sections generally, called plane such as median
sagittal plane, frontal/coronal plane, and transverse plane. Thus had been
done because of decrease the ambigousness to locate various body structures,
anatomists use specific directionalterms, words that describe the position of
one body partrelative to another
B. Suggestion
The suggestion for this observation is guidebook for this unit not really
complete because just indicate about anatomical location (region) and
anatomical direction, nothing about anatomical movement, such as flexi-
extension, elevation-depression, and etc. So, better if added about anatomical
movement.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cappozzo A., Catani F., Croce Della., Dkk. 1995 Position and orientation in space
of bones during movement: anatomical frame definition and
determination. Clinical Biomechanics. Volume 10, Issue 4, June 1995,
Pages 171

Donati Marco., Camomilla Valentina., Vannozzi Giuseppe., Dkk. 2008 .

Anatomical frame identification and reconstruction for repeatable lower
limb joint kinematics estimates. Journal of Biomechanics. Volume 41,
Issue 10, 19 July 2008, Pages 22192226

Lecture team. 2016. Human Anatomy and Physiology Guide Book. Biology
Departement Faculty of Mathematic and Science State University of
Makassar

Maughan Marieb, Elain N [et.al].2013. Human Anatomy& Physiology. Ninth

Edition. United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.

R J., Watson J S and Weir J . 1983. Strength and cross-sectional area of human
skeletal muscle. The Journal Physiology. May; 338: 3749.