49surface Hydrology PDF

Arbeitsbereich Wasserbau
Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. Pasche
Master Program Environmental Engineering
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Summer semester 2002/2003
Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Importance of Freshwater
The quantity of water available to the Earth is constant, water is only flowing through
different phases of the hydrologic cycle and its physical conditions are changing. The
following changes are to be considered:
- Arial and temporal changes of water quantity

- Arial and temporal changes of water quality
On the other side, the water demand is growing as a consequence of the following
trends:
- continuous population growth (app. 6 billion people)
- increase of the specific water consumption due to the higher life quality
- increase of consumption by progressing global industrialisation.
The consequence: from 1900 till now the domestic water consumption has grown
more than 10 times. The water consumption for industry has almost doubled. Beside
the withdrawal due to consumption, the water losses have been increased due to the
irrigation and higher evaporation form water storage (1.800 km/a)
As the water demand and its availability are not distributed evenly over time and
area, it is necessary to transfer water and provide it for the following purposes.
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Surface Hydrology-Introduction
- Nourishment
- Industry
- Food Industry
- Energy source
1.2 Water cycle and Water balance
Water cycle (also knows as the hydrologic cycle) is the idealised form of water
movement and its recycling on the earth.
Water is constantly being cycled between the atmosphere, the ocean and land. The
power of the sun together with the gravitation is driving this cycle and is responsible
for continuous changes of the physical conditions of water as well as . The water
cycle is composed of the following processes:
- Evaporation from oceans and surface
- Advection of the water vapour
- Condensation and precipitation
- Back flow of the precipitation as surface and underground discharge
Water balance equation is expressed as:
N = A + V +/- DS
Where is:
N: Mean precipitation height of the catchment area [mm]

A: Mean discharge [mm]
V: Evaporation [mm]
DS: Storage change in the catchment [mm]
Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1 Hydrologic Cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)
1.3 Tasks of the Hydrology and Water Management
Definition Hydrology is considered as a natural science because it is concerned

with the class of natural phenomena governed by general laws.
Hydrology is science that treats the waters on the Earth, their
occurrence above, on and beneath the surface, circulation and
distribution, their chemical and physical properties and their reaction
with the environment including their relation to living things.
It is of essential importance to understand water circulation
processes and interrelations between them, as well as our own
impact on water use in order to achieve a sustainable balance
between protecting ecosystems and meeting human needs As
hydrology deals with those processes, is of the great importance for
Water Resources Engineering and sustainable management.
Definition Water Resources Engineering (Water Management) is the

determined order of all human effects on the aboveground and
underground water regarding quality, quantity and biology (DIN
4049). Water Resources Engineering deals with the water use by
humans as well as with the water protection. Further, it can be
divided into Qualitative and Quantitative WRE. This course
predominantly deals with the Quantitative WER. The following
tasks are to be considered in the Water Management:
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- monitoring of quantity and quality of the water

- yearbooks
- water quality reports
- setting up statistics
- derivation of calculation parameters
- estimation of frequency
- forecasting of discharge water level and quality to the purpose of the flood
protection and the risk estimation
- by regression analyses
- by process modelling
- Management of Reservoirs for the water supply to the flood protection and for
power production
- Assessment of the available water
- Design of the reservoirs
- Presentation of case scenarios
- Operation and monitoring the of the systems using graphical tools
(cumulative line method or mathematical models e.g. rainfall runoff models)
- Storm water management on spot and streets runoff
- determination of the discharges parameters

- setting up drainage concepts
- monitoring and operation of drainage mechanisms
Integral approach in river basin management. Additionally, setting up water saving

concepts, in which the water use is regulated, e.g.:
- quantity and quality of the wastewater discharge
- water withdrawals
- flood protection measures
- definition of official and natural flood areas (boundaries)
- agricultural use of water depending on type and extent of use
- usage of pesticide and nitrates in agriculture
- irrigation
- setting up the concepts for erosion protection of surfaces and water courses
Generally, different managerial tools are used for setting up the concepts in river
basin management (e.g. river basin models, material transfer models).
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1.4 Importance of modelling in Water Management
In order to accomplish the tasks of Water Management described in the section 1.3,
mathematical models are widely used.
One differentiates between stochastic models (inductive) ,that only take into account
the random aspect of natural phenomena and deterministic models (deductive) that
assume that all physical, chemical, and biological parameters of a watershed are
known. They can be further subdivided according to their characteristics
(STDTER):
Block model: input and output values are determined only by measuring data and
expressed in mathematical algorithms.
Detailed model: based on the physical interrelations between initial conditions and
output values.(e.g. rainfall runoff models).
Unstructured model: Catchment are is not divided into subcatchments.
Structured model: Catchment area is divided into subcatchments. Output parameters

are calculated separately for each of those subcatchment.
Short term model: the simulation of rainfall runoff processes is limited to flood
simulation.
Long term simulation: Rainfall runoff model are conceptualised for the calculation
over longer period (water balance models, low water models)
The above mentioned models are used in Water Management in order to solve the
following problems:
a) Rainfall runoff model (short term simulation)

- design of dams and flood control storage (retention basins)
b) Operational models (block model, water balance model)
- Intake for potable water from retention basins
- Intake from rivers
- Optimisation of operation of a dam
c) Long term simulation model (continuity models, water balance models)

those models describe the overall water balance of a selected catchment. They are
suitable for the following tasks:
- low-water analysis
- high- water analysis
- change of the water regime by groundwater use
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- change of the water regime by agriculture (sealing of the surfaces)

- effects of the retention and climate changes on the discharge in the waters
Beside the quantitative models, the mass transfer models are also used. They quantify
the mass flux through the water body.
One differentiates:
- erosion models: calculate the planar soil erosion, e.g. on

agricultural area.
- mass transport models: calculate diffusive nitrate and phosphorus mass

transport in the catchment area
- hydromorphological calculate sediment transport in a water body.

models:
Those models are used in order to quantify the impact of the diffuse mass transport to
the waters and to assess the effectiveness of the applied sanitation measures.
This course predominantly deals with the rainfall runoff models, their scope of
application, and especially their contribution to efficient flood management as well as
their applicability for the low water calculations.
Regarding flood management, the following tasks are to be considered by Water
Resources Authorities:
Securing Flood Protection in Urban Areas

- No increase of peak flood flow
- Preservation o flow capacity
- Determination of inundation areas
- Resistance to flooding
Modern flood management implies Landuse and River Management and favours
natural retention against technical flood protection
In order to achieve high level of flood protection, it is necessary to have reliable and
thorough hydrologic data.
- Determination of flood probability

- Determination of flow from storm water network
- Determination of flood stages
- Determination of inundation areas
Better understanding of flood management measures for:
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- Efficiency of retention measures in watershed area

- Unpavement of sealed urban areas
- Retention by detention ponds
- Extensive use of arable land
- Efficiency of retention measures along the river

- Restoration of natural rivers
- Restoration of natural flood plains
- Flood retention reservoirs
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SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Chapter 2- Hydrologic Cycle

2.1 General considerations
The hydrologic cycle is the most fundamental principle of hydrology. It is the

idealised form of water circulation and its recycling on earth.
Water cycle is continuous process by which water is transported from the oceans to
the atmosphere to land and back to the sea. Because the total quantity of water
available to the earth is finite, hydrologic system can be looked upon as closed. In
that system, the processes, such as, evaporation, advection of the water vapour,
formation of precipitation and back flow as surface and groundwater discharge, are in
equilibrium. This is expressed in the following balance equation:
N = A + V +/- DS
Where is:
N: average height of precipitation in the catchment [mm]

A: average height of runoff (discharge) [mm]
V: Evaporation [mm]
DS: changes of storage in the catchment [mm]
Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
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Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle
Figure 2.1 Hydrologic cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)
The concept, that the water cycle is a closed system, is the simplification of the real
processes in the nature. The hydrologic cycle is made up of many different factors, as
a result, it can become quite complicated when trying to analyse the relationships
between those factors. A complete mathematical description of the hydrological
processes is one of the most difficult tasks in engineering and natural sciences and
has not been completely solved yet. It comprises the setting up of a integral model
system, in which the components such as global climate model, surface runoff model
and groundwater model of saturated and unsaturated soil layers are coupled together.
Considering the fact, that in each of those model components, there are still
unexplained physical processes and lots of natural processes are the small-scale ones,
this simplification of the hydrologic cycle becomes reasonable.
Further, a closed mathematical model that describes the water cycle is set and it is
composed of relevant physical processes in the nature. The processes over the see
surface are not considered. Furthermore, processes like vapour advection or
condensation are also excluded. Those phenomena are meteorological and their
simulation in Hydrology is not of great importance. But, the important for this
simulation is temporal and arial distribution of the precipitation over the surface. This
information is provided by the weather service or any other meteorological
institution.
Finally, considering those modifications and simplification of the real system, one
can distinguish the following processes relevant for the simulation in hydrology:
They are listed in Table 1.
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Table 1. Processes of the Hydrologic Cycle
Rainfall formation
Surface Snow storage/ ablation, - Vertical processes

layer
Interception
Surface discharge Horizontal process
Infiltration
Transpiration and Evaporation

Unsaturated soil
layer Soil/ groundwater storage Vertical processes
(zone of aeration) Interflow/groundwater
seepage
Percolation (Groundwater
recharge)
Groundwater discharge
Saturated soil layer Horizontal process
Basic flow
Water course Flood wave Horizontal process
As it is shown in the Table above, one can distinguish two types of processes:
horizontal and vertical.
2.2 Precipitation (rainfall)
During the precipitation event, 2 types of processes are predominantly occurring over
the surface. Concerning the state of water one can distinguish the following forms of
precipitation. They are given in Table 2.
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Table 2. Different forms of Precipitation
Form
Type of formation
liquid solid
Drizzle Snow
(drops cca 0,5mm) Snow grains
Direct Snow pellets
condensation or sublimation in the Rainfall Graupel
atmosphere ( precipitation from clouds, Hail (1-6 mm)
rainfall) Hail (ice balls size
5-50mm)
Ice
needles(1.5mm)
Indirect
condensation or sublimation of water Dew Frost
vapour close to the surface Hoar
( precipitation as condensation) Glazed frost
In comparison to the other meteorological parameters such as temperature or solar

radiation that are relatively constant, precipitation often varies in space and time.
Convective precipitation is the most heterogeneous and is typical of the tropics. It is

formed when the air is heated near ground which then expands and rises. It cools as
rises and becomes saturated. An example is a summer thunderstorm, that is very
intensive and limited in space (they appear locally).
Cyclonic precipitation is considered as long-lasting precipitation It is formed when

cold air mass meets warm air mass. Warm air is less dense and is forced upward
resulting in cooling and precipitation. Cyclonic precipitation can be classified as
frontal and non frontal.
Cold advancing fronts move fast bringing intense localised storms. Warm advancing
fronts move more slowly creating disperse and less intense precipitation.
Those kind of precipitation are evenly distributed in space. In case of the cold front,
the area under the precipitation event reaches 150 km and in case of warm front 650
km.
Orographic precipitation, is formed by mechanical lifting of moist air over natural

barriers such as mountain ranges. It has different intensity and prolongation,
depending on the changes in topography. One can distinguish the following intensity
grades and respectively the type of the precipitation:
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Intensity in
Description
in < 2,5 mm/h Poor rain
2,5 < in < 7,5 Moderate rain
7,5< in Heavy rain
According to the weather service Offenbach, one rain is considered to be heavy if the
following condition is fulfilled:
N 5 t - ( t / 24)2
Where is:
N = rainfall height in mm
t = duration of the rainfall event in min
There is a very important dependence between the intensity and duration of a

precipitation event. The shorter duration of the precipitation event, the more intensive
it is. Contrary, long lasting rainfall has very low intensity.
In order to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall, the network of
gauging station is established. However, they provide only information about the
height of precipitation at fixed points. In order to achieve accurate estimation of the
spatial distribution of rainfall, it is necessary to use interpolation methods, for
example, the Thiessen* method that is considered as the most important in
engineering praxis. THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD assigns weight of station
proportional to representative polygon area analogically to Delauny- Triangolation.
The method implies the following steps:

1. points are plotted on map
2. adjoining stations are connected with the lines
3. perpendicular bisectors on lines are constructed
4. polygon formed by bisectors gives area (planimeter) are associated with central
location
5. rainfall value for gauge is multiplied by area
6. all values from (5) are summed and divided by total basin area
An example of spatial precipitation distribution according to Theissen method can be

appreciated in Figure 2.1.
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Figure 2.2 Tyssen method
Another example of Thiesssen method is given in Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3 example of Thiessen method

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Although widely used in engineering praxis, this method has its shortcomings.
In order to overcome them, more accurate methods are used, in which the whole are
is rastered and each of those rasters is calculated according to the quadrant method.
For each of the four quadrants is the nearest gauging station determined and the
precipitation at the raster point is weighted according to the following relation:
4
hNj = w ij hNi
i =1
where is:
w ij = weight of the gauge station regarding the raster point j
hNj = precipitation height at the raster point j
hNi = measured precipitation heights at the gauging station i
In order to achieve a homogenous field, it is necessary to calculate the weight w ij as

spatial distance according to the following formula:
di
w ij = 1 - 4
di
i =1
If the weather conditions differ considerably between gauging station and raster point
(e.g. river, mountains) or there are significant topographic changes between them, it
is necessary to consider those differences using correction parameters and applying
one of the convenient methods (e.g. Kringing-method).
Still in the testing phase, are the methods that measure arial and temporal
precipitation continuum e.g. precipitation radar.
Finally, DWD weather forecast service of Germany and Europe provide with the
information about the area with the rainfall for 48 hours in advance.
The quantitative distribution of this forecast quality value is, however, interesting
only for water management purposes.
2.3 Interception
Precipitation that is falling on the surface , is partly retained by the canopy. This
storage of water above the ground surface, mostly in vegetation is called interception.
First of all, the leaves are becoming wet as fine drops are collecting on their surface
and in the end, the intercepted water is drained from the leaves. The intercepted water
can be drained in different ways. It can drip down from the leaves or can be drained
along the stem of the plant. Parallel to this drainage process, part of the intercepted
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water is returning back to the atmosphere (interception evaporation). In the beginning

this process is not intensive.
Before the precipitation really reaches the ground, it is further partly retained by near
ground plants and leaves. This process is similar to the interception of bigger
vegetation species.
Interception plays an important role in the calculation of water balances in hydrology.

Almost one third of the precipitation can be retained as interception and than
evaporate.
The storage capacity and consequently the interception capacity, heavily depends on
the vegetation cover. The most important vegetation parameters that shape the
interception are specific area under vegetation cover, lifestage of the plants and the
characteristics of the land. Interception is highly seasonal dependent (seasonal
landuse).
For the maximal interception capacity, the following values are considered :
Deciduous without leaves till 1mm

with leaves till 2mm
Conifers till 9mm
For the calculation purposes of accurate mathematical models, three main

components of canopy interception can be identified
1. throughfall
2. stemflow
3. canopy storage
that part of the precipitation that doesn't reach the ground, because it evaporates from
the canopy (canopy interception loss- e.g. MEUSER, 1989) and from near-ground
plants and leaf (interception loss) or, to a lesser extent, is absorbed by plants.
Under still conditions throughfall and stemflow do not begin until the storage
capacity of the canopy is completely full. Once storage capacity is exceeded, then
additional water made available cannot be retained, and gravitational effects prevail.
Under windy conditions the branches are shaken and drip (throughfall) is enhanced.
This renders the mass of water storage variable. After the gust of wind there is some
additional storage capacity available, so the drip rate decreases temporarily.
The main processes related to interception are given in Figure 2.4.
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Figure 2.4 Downward losses
Where
Pa Actual precipitation
TF Throughfall
SF - Stemflow
I- Interception
E - Evaporation
Since the necessary data for this differential approach is usually not available,
Interception loss is usually calculated according to the treshhold value method. In this
method, the whole vegetation cover is considered as a storage and the following
continuity equation is obtained:
dIc ( t ) '
= in ( t ) - ETa ( t ) - in ( t )
dt
Where is:
Ic ( t ) = actual content of the interception storage mm
in' ( t ) = intensity of the precipitation on the soil mm/h
ETa ( t ) = actual evapotranspiration rate from the interception storage mm/h
in ( t ) = intensity of the rainfall that reaches soil mm/h
2.4 Snow-hydrological processes
The snow is a form of precipitation and it is formed if the air in a cloud is below
freezing. The longer temperature stays below zero (expressed as mean daily
temperature), the thicker the snow cover is(accumulation phase).
If the temperature rises over freezing point, warm air compresses the snow cover and
increases its compactness. It is about the same effect that is caused by rain.
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Maximal compactness is achieved (cca 45%), if it is not possible to increase density

of the snowpack any more. The excessive amount of water, in form of thawed snow,
penetrates the ground (ablation).
When the temperatures are above zero and there is no snow cover, the rainfall reaches
the groundwater storage without time delay. Those snow melt processes can be
mathematically described by the Snow-Compaction-Method. This method is based
on the physical processes during the snow melting, while the water loss through the
evaporation is neglected as the order of those values is too small (0,1 -0,8 mm/d). In
this method, the influence of wind speed, humidity and temperature corrections,
depending on the elevation is considered through averaged parameters.
2.4.1 Accumulation
The increase in the snow depth Dl occurs when the precipitation occurs by the
temperatures below zero. As temperature values, the mean daily temperatures are
considered.
The snow depth resulting from the precipitation is calculated by the absolute amount
of precipitation and the water content of snow according to the following equation:
Dl( t ) = P( t ) W A / 100
where is:
P(t) : precipitation [mm] and
WA : Initial water content in snow [%].
2.4.2 Compression
The compression of the snowpack occurs when the temperatures are above zero.
It is assumed that the melt rate and free water from precipitation cause the
compression (i.e. reduction of the snow height) and higher compactness.
Procentual height reduction of the snowpack can be calculated according to the
following empirical equation (BERTLE, 1966):
PD = 147,4 - 0,4774 PW
where is:
PD : snow height in % of the initial height [%] and
PW : accumulated water of the water equivalent of the dry snow (initial water
content) [%].
Considering the above mentioned relation, the compaction Dh is calculated as
following:
Dh = h A PD / 100 = h A 1/ 100 (147,4 - 0,474 PW )

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where is:
hA : initial snow height [mm] and

Dh : compression of the snow pack [mm].
The indication of accumulated water PW requires the estimation of the potential snow
melt rate. It can be quantified according to the Temperature-Factor-Method. In this
method, the snow melt rate is divided into the temperature dependent and the
temperature independent part.
The temperature dependent part is proportional to air temperature and the temperature
independent part is represented by a constant. This constant is to be estimated based
on the average rates of the absorption of the snow pack ,wind speed, relative
humidity and the cloudiness.
Further, it is necessary to consider the heat flux that reaches the snow cover by
precipitation. This dependencies is shown in the following equation(MEUSER 1989)
i s ( t ) = a u + a T T( t ) + 0,0125 iP ( t ) T( t )
where is:
is : potential snow melt rate [mm/h],

au : temperature independent melt rate [mm/h],
aT : temperature dependent melt rate [mm/h/oC], with the plausibility area
[mm/h/oC],
T : positive air temperature (Consideration: precipitation temperature is
equivalent to the air temperature) [oC] and
iP(t) : precipitation intensity [mm/h].
Accumulated snow water content PW is dependent on the snow melt rate, according to
the following equation:
W ( t ) + P( t )
PW (t) =
Wr (t )
where is:
W(t) = absolute water content in the snow pack [mm],
Dt = time between the simulations [h] and
Wr ( t ) = W ( t ) - i s ( t ) Dt
Wr(t) = water content reduced by portion of melted snow
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2.4.3 Ablation
Snow ablation usually refers to removal by melting.

Water removal out of a snowpack occurs if compactness Pw(t) is higher that maximal
compactness Pmax of a snowpack. This water removal can be calculated as following:
i A ( t ) = ( W ( t ) - h Pmax / 100) / Dt , falls W ( t ) > h Pmax
where is:
iA : water removal in [mm/h],
Pmax : maximal snow compactness [%] (i.d.R. 45%) and
H : snow depth [mm].
This amount of water that is removed from the snowpack is used as output load for
the soil water. For example, if the snow depth is 0 and the temperature is above 0,
there is no storage in snow storage.
2.5 Evapotranspiration
The physics of the evaporation process is based on the process of providing sufficient
energy for breaking the bonds between water molecules. Supplying the system with
heat, causes water molecules to become increasingly moveable which results in
increase in distance between them. The higher temperature is ,the more water
molecules escape the surface into the lower layers of the air. The physical cause for
this phenomenon is Brownian movement.
Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a
gaseous state.
For changing the aggregate state from liquid to gaseous, it is necessary to provide
higher amount of energy (2450 J/g) then for the melting process (340 J/g).
There are two processes considered for evapotranspiration: evaporation and
transpiration. Evaporation is loss of water from a wet surface through its conversation
into its gaseous state. Surface can be bare soil (soil evaporation), open water
(including river, lakes and oceans) or intercepted water held upon plant surfaces
(interception evaporation).
Transpiration comprises water taken up by plants from soil which is then moved up
to leaves and lost through biological processes in vegetation (DIN 4049,1994).
The sum of soil, interception and open water evaporation and transpiration is called
evapotranspiration.
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One should distinguish between maximal(potential) and actual evapotranspiration.
Maximal (potential) evapotranspiration ETp is by definition the rate of

evapotranspiration from an extended surface of an 8 - 15 cm tall green grass cover,
actually growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water (DIN
4049,1994). This maximal evapotranspiation is also called reference
evapotranspiation.
The actual evapotranspiration ETa is by definition the rate of the evapotranspiration

from a surface under field conditions and with limited water supply. Under those
conditions, the actual evapotranspiration is much less then the potential, especially if
the soil water storage capacity is limited.
In order to illustrate the ratio and the contribution of the above mentioned processes,
an example for Germany is given. The evaporation of free water bodies is 2.2%,
Interception 16.0% and transpiration 72,6% of the total evapotranspiration.
According to KELLER,1979 the amount of total evapotranspiration to the amount of
precipitation is 64%.
At the global scale, evapotranspiraton and precipitation are principal elements of the
hydrologic cycle.
Rate of evapotranspiration depends on the different parameters (arial and temporal
variable). Those parameters are defined considering atmosphere, soil and type of
vegetation cover.
While it is possible to assess accurately those parameters for open water and
atmosphere, it is very difficult to quantify forces in soil and vegetation cover.
In soil, for example, they depend on radius in capillaries and in vegetation, this
process is regulated through small pores on the leaves (stomata).
Soil, plant and atmosphere form parts of a continuos flow in which water moves at
varying rates. In soil, water moves under the influence of moisture gradient toward
the roots of the plant. It is then absorbed and travels up the plant stem to the plant
leaves from where it is finally vaporised.
Plants can control transpiration by varying the opening of stomata. In that way they
can prevent dehydration.
2.5.1 Methods to determine evapotranspiration
Despite the crucial importance of evapotranspiration in hydrological cycle, it is very

difficult to measure it and quantify.
In order to assess evapotranspiration, the following methods are applied:
- direct methods
- indirect methods
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- computational methods
Direct measuring of evapotranspiration is not possible, as such a method has to

manage turbulent mass transport of water vapour, which technically has not been
solved yet. Measuring techniques, such as evaporimeter, are although considered as
direct methods, can give only reference values. In this method, evapotranspiration is
calculated from water balance equation, where the other elements (variables) of the
equation are measured.
Indirect methods are based on the interrelation between directly measured

meteorological parameters and water vapour transport or heat flow of the evaporation
process in air layer close to the surface.
As the measuring methods that are mentioned above are very complex, computational
methods, are developed. Computational methods calculate evapotranspiration using
energy budget equation and aerodynamic principles.
2.5.1.1 Direct Measuring
The results obtained by the instruments for direct measuring of evapotranspiraton

(Evaporimeter) do not coincide with the real potential or actual values as those results
depend on the type of the instrument and local conditions (place the equipment is
located). It is however possible to calculate reference values using correction factors
and formulas.
There are two types of instruments
- atmometer
- atmograph
Atmometer: with daily readout and atmograph with continual registration are
equipped with standardised glass cylinder (PICHE atmometer) with inner diameter of
11mm and outer of 14mm. This atmometer uses a filter paper disc or fleece paper as
the evaporating element. It is pressed against the bottom opening on the device with a
spring clip. The amount of water evaporated through the paper is read at the
graduated tube reservoir (in ml) and this value is to be corrected as a function of the
filter paper size.
Due to the different physical conditions the rate of evaporation of the PICHE
evaporimeter is higher than actual evaporation of free water or bare soil surface.
Therefore this conversion is necessary.
Evaporation pans
Evaporation pans are open vessels, that are filled with water. Because of its simplicity
it is probably the instrument used most widely to estimate potential evaporation. The
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values for water loss obtained for an evaporation pan are used as reference values for
water bodies or potential evapotranspiration (ET0).
Although this method is very simple and widely used it has shortcomings which are
to be considered. The evaporation from a pan can differ significantly from that from
an adjacent water body or land covered with vegetation. Therefore it is necessary to
accommodate these differences using empirical pan coefficients. Those coefficients
vary significantly with siting and pan design as well as with climatic factors.
The most widely used instrument is Class-A-Pan introduced by U.S. Weather Bureau.
It consists of the following parts:
- cylindrical container with inner diameter of 1.207mm and 255mm depth placed on
a slatted wooden frame so that the top rim is about 10cm from the ground.
- mechanism for reading off the water level
- swimming minimum/maximum thermometer
- instrument for wind speed measuring (anemometer), 50cm over the ground
- rain gage
Raft evaporation tanks
The methods that are explained so far, give us reference or approximate values of
evaporation over land.
The measurement of the evaporation over free water is done using raft constructions,
which serve as carriers for one or more evaporation tanks immersed into the water.
Those tanks are of different size, between 0.2 m and 3 min area, and 40-60cm deep.
As material brass tank with copper bottom, white-enamelled or with silver, bronze
painted sheet iron, is used.
The results obtained during those measurements should also been corrected. This
correction is between 3-5%
Lysimeter
Lysimeter is an instrument for determination of the water balance of a soil volume,

with known dimensions, characteristics and vegetation growing on it. One
differentiates between weighing and non weighing lysimeters. In case of weighing
lysimeters, which measure the weight in regular time intervals (e.g. daily), the change
in water storage is determined by weight difference:
W = (WE - WA)
Further, the equation for the actual evaporation (Eta) in function of drainage from the
soil volume (SW) and precipitation (p in 1m height) is derived from water balance
equation:
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P - SW - DW
ETa =
Dt
Not weighing lysimeter(drainage gauges-measurers) are suitable for determination of

the average values of evaporation over a longer period of years, calculated as a
difference between precipitation and drainage, as in this case the water content of the
soil is balanced and it is not necessary to measure it.
When using big lysimeters e.g. drainage gaugers in the forest area, it is necessary to
provide the natural conditions in the vessel. It is achieved by filling the lysimeter with
soil in layers as they are stratified in the natural compression.
Determination of water content in the soil
Evaporation of bare soil, if the groundwater is far enough from the sample area, can
be determined by termin measurements of water content in soil W. There is a variety
of practical methods for those measurements of soil moisture, from which the
following ones are most widely in use:
1. gravimertical methods:
soil sample is extracted and in the water content is determinated in the lab by
measuring and drying the sample. When converting the water content into soil
moisture value, the compaction of the soil layers is to be considered. Shortcoming of
this method is contained in the fact that the natural soil profile is disturbed
(disrupted). The following methods are overcoming this deficiency.
2. tensiometer
this device measures the pressure potential or matrix potential of the at various
depths. This is the force with which water is held in the soil. Pressure potential or
tension (which is the positive value of pressure potential) is a measure of this force.
It is then possible to express the soil moisture based on the curve water pressure-
water content (pF-Curve).
3. neutron scattering
in this method, the gradient of deceleration of neutrons is measured. This deceleration
of neutrons in proportional to the soil moisture.
4. Time-Domain-Reflectometry (TDR)- Method

TDR measures the propagation of an electromagnetic pulse along the transmission
lines (wave guides). By measuring the travel time, the velocity and hence the
apparent dielectric constant of the soil can be estimated. This then allows the water
content of the soil to be determined. This method is limited only to loose rocks. In
- 16 -
order to determinate the evaporation of the soil, it is necessary to consider following

cases:
If the horizon between increasing water percolation and drainage in deeper soil layers
(watershed) is below the soil root layer, the evaporation can be determined according
to the following equation:
P - DW
ETa =
Dt
If the water shed is in the root layer, the plants take up a certain amount of water as
well as a part of ground water discharge
Therefore, total evaporation can be calculated according to the following formula:
P - (DWo + DWu ) - SW
ETa =
Dt
where: Wo: change in water content above the watershed

Wu: change in water content below the watershed
In order to determine SW it is necessary to determine permeability of an unsaturated

soil layer and afterwards the drainage(infiltration) according to Darcy law.
5. Turbulence-Correlation method (Eddy Flux)
Near the surface, turbulent eddies within the body of the moving air cause
movements of the evaporated water. Vertical movement of water vapour can be
calculated from the temporal averaging of the products of the fluctuations.
For determination of the fluctuations, different measuring instruments are used (e.g.
ultrasonic anemometer for wind velocity, LYMAN alpha or infrared hygrometer for
humidity.
2.5.1.2 Indirect methods
- gradient measurements in the near the surface air layer
The assumption for this method is that evaporation causes horizontal and vertical
turbulent exchange. It causes the flow of water vapour, heat and impuls and can be
calculated applying diffusion equation.
6. Energy Balance (Budget) Method
According to this method, it is possible to calculate evaporation as

- 17 -
-LE = Rn + G + H
where:
LE = latent heat flux out
Rn = Solar energy
G = sensible heat flux into ground (QW)
H = sensible heat flux
Evaporation height(E) can be calculated as :
E = LE / L
L = specific heat flux (245 J/cm/mm at 20 C atmosf. temperature)
The individual components of the energy balance equation are determined by the
following measuring methods:
7. Solar radiation
It is measured directly by special radiation balance measures with range of 1,5-
2,0m. Those devices measure the difference between upwards and downwards
oriented radiation from short and long wave radiation. Alternatively, radiation can
be determined as a difference between other wave lengths.
Measurements with pyranometer (Global radiation)

Shortwave solar radiation and sky (diffuse) radiation is detected on the horisontal
sensor surface with the termosensitive element.
Alternatively, it is possible to measure relative sunshine duration S/S0, where the
sunshine duration is registered by the instrument called sushine autograph. It
consists of a glass bowl with special effect, so that the sunshine is registered on
the adhesive tape.
- Heat Flux G
It is determined with so called Heat Flux Plates under closed conditions, or by
the gradients of the soil temperature applying the heat conduction equation.
- - perceptible heat flow
with application of the fluctuation method, wind and temperature components
under dissolution of their turbulent fluctuation sizes are measured and set in
correlation to the perceptible heat flow.
2.5.1.3 Calculation of evaporation
The following methods are considered:
- 18 -
- Aerodynamic method (Dalton-process)

- Energy balance methods
- Combination of the above mentioned processes
2.5.2 Determination of potential evapotranspiration of an area with vegetation cover
In most cases, only total evaporation from an area plus transpiration (from
vegetation) is of real interest. Penman- Monteith Model is a method that combines
energy budget and mass transport for determining the evapotranspiration. It assumes
that the heat flux into and out of the soil is small enough to be neglected and that the
plants are taking the whole available energy for evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration is limited by two antagonistic conditions: regarding small pores
on leaves-stomata and aerodinamic conditions.
If those conditions are known, it is possible to determine potential evapotranspiration
ET0 according to DVWK, booklet 238 as grass reference evapotranspiration
according to FAO-Standard:
RN - G 3,75
s +g V2 (e s (T ) - e )
ET0 = L T + 273
s + g (1 + 0,34 V2 )
with the following terms (according to DVWK-bulletin 238/1996):
ET0 mm Grass-/Reference evapotranspiration (FAO-Standard)

s hPa/K Slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve for water
RN W Net solar radiation
m2
G W Heat flux between soil and atmosphere
m2
L Heat required for evaporation of 1mm water
T C Air temperature
V2 m Wind speed, at 2m above the ground
s
g hPa Psychrometric constant (= 0,65 hPa/K)
K
With the following consideration:
L = (249,8 - 0,242 *T) [J / (cm ( mm)]
- 19 -
In this equation, G can be neglected and g is a constant (g = 0,655 [hPa/K]).

Therefore, the equation for saturation vapour pressure eS(T) gives:
7,48T

e s (T ) = 6,11 10 273 + T
Further, it allows the slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve for water to be
calculated as follows:
4284
s = e S (T )
(243,12 + T )2
Net solar radiation RN can be calculated as follows:
4
R N = (1 - a ) RG - V (T + 273,15 ) 0,1 + 0,9
S
(
0,34 - 0,044 e 0,5
S0
)

where is V = 0,49 ( 10-6 [(J : cm k4)]

g Joule Stefan-Bolzmann-Constant
m 2K 4
a diml. Albedo for grass and agricultural used land
S h Sunshine duration
S0 h Astronomic possible sunshine duration
RG W Global solar radiation
m2
R0 W Extraterrestrial radiation
m2
z diml. Function considering the selected day in year
j Grad Latitude
Where the global radiation is calculated in the following way:

R G = R 0 0,19 + 0,55
S
(
. 0,34 - 0,044 e 0,5
S0
)

If the measurements of solar radiation are available, it is possible to use it directly in

the following way:
- 20 -
S
R G = R 0 0,19 + 0,55
S 0
Extraterrestrial radiation can be calculated as follows:
R0 = 245 [9,9 + 7,08 sinz + 0,18 (j-51) (sinz-1)]
Where z is function that considers the day in year JT =

z = 0,0172 JT - 1,39
If there is no available measuring data for sunshine duration, it is possible to calculate

it according to the following formula:
R
S = S 0 1,82 G - 0,35 with S = 0 for S < 0
R0
Finally, it is necessary to determine the astronomic possible duration of sunshine. It

can be done according to the following equation:
j - 51
S 0 = 12,3 + sin V 4,3 +
6
This theoretical analysis clearly shows that , just by measuring air temperature,
sunshine duration, wind speed and relative moisture as daily values it is possible to
determine evapotranspiration. The calculated value for reference evapotranspiration
ET0 is corrected with the correction factor Kc and converted into canopy specific
potential (reference) evapotranspiration ETpfl.
ETpfl = Kc ET0
Factor Kc can be found in Table 6.2 in DVWK-bulletin 238/1996. In order to

consider forest conditions additional correction factor for higher values of
interception evaporation of 1,1 is considered. (see DVWK-bulletin 238/1996).
Additionally, it is necessary to set the rooting depth as deep or shallow, depending on
the age and type of forest.
The important difference between the evaporation from open water and from
vegetation covers is that in open water it is not determinated by the water regime of
the plants. However, the heat transport occurs also in water body and has to be
considered for the balance equation.
The evaporation from open water can be determinated according to Daltons law.
Basic formula for this procedure is:
- 21 -
EW = f(v) (es(Tw0) - e) in [mm/d]
Where is TW0 [C] the temperature of water surface and f(v) wind function
expressed in the following way:
f(v) = a + b vc
Constants a and b (according to Richter, see DVWK-bulletin 238/1996) are

calculated depending on the wind speed. Temperature of the water surface is rarely
measured. It is usually calculated as a function of the of the measured mean air
temperatures T [C] in the following way:
TW0 = p T* + q (for the period without ice April - December)
Where is:
1 n +m
*
T = T (n+m)
n+m 1
and T* [C] mean at temperature of the day n and number of days before the day n-
m, that is calculated as follows:
m = 1,04 z + 4,0
and depends on the water depth z [m]
For winter months January till March it can be calculated as:
TW0 = 0,98 T* - 0,12
where m is set to constant = 10
Finally, T* is given as follows:

1 1+11*
T = T (11)
11 1
Empirical constants p and q can be found in the Table 5.2 of DVWK-bulletin
238/1996
2.5.3 Determination of the actual evapotranspiration
The potential evaporation of the vegetation cover ETpfl and the soil water tension (
reduction of soil moisture in root layer) is to be considered. WENDLING proposes
the following balance equation
- 22 -
EVA = P(t) - (P(t) - ETpfl) Ri
Where is:
P(t) mm Precipitation
Ri diml. Reduction function
Reduction factor Ri is calculated as follows:
WP WE
1-
BF( t ) ETP
Ri = + 0,1
WP WE ETpfl
1-
FK WE
Where is:
WP % Mean wilting point in effective root layer
WE dm Effective root depth
BF(t) mm Soil moisture in the effective root layer in period t
FK % Mean field capacity in the effective root layer
ETP mm/d Mean long-term value of ETpfl in the vegetation period
Further, according to WENDLING (DVWK-bulletin283/196) it gives:

Ri = 1, P(t) > ETpfl
Ri = 1, Ri > 1,0
Ri = 0, Ri > 0,0
- 23 -
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Chapter 3- Modelling of the soil moisture regime
3.1 Hydrologic processes in the unsaturated soil layer
Interception splits precipitation into that delivered to the land and water surfaces and
that caught on the canopy and returned to the atmosphere by evaporation.
Water delivered to the land surface may run off directly, as overland flow or infiltrate
the soil. To which extent the infiltration in the soil occurs, depends on the physical
characteristics of the upper soil layer as well as on the actual soil moisture.
Reliable quantification of the process of water distribution in the soil, requires soil
moisture modelling. It implies calculation of the actual soil moisture BF(t) using
continuity equation for the unsaturated soil layer.
Elements of the vertical water flow can be appreciated in Figure 3.1. In Figure 3.2,
different types of soil layer are given.
-1-
Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime
Figure 3.1 Vertical profile soil-vegetation-atmosphere with water balance components (source DVWK)
Figure 3.2 Distribution of the soil layers
For the purposes of mathematical modelling the soil is divided into layers with
homogeneous structure- lamellas (as shown in Figure 3.3).
-2-
Figure 3.3 Functional dependence between Infiltration (Inf), Evapotranspiration (Eva), Percolation (Perk)
and Interflow (Intf) to soil moisture
Thus, the quantity equation gives:
dBFi (t )
= Inf i (t ) - ( Perci (t ) + Intf i (t )) - Evai (t ) + CU (t )
dt
where is:
BF : Available water (for plants) [mm],
Inf : Infiltration [mm/h],
Perk : Percolation [mm/h],
Eva : actual Evapotranspitration [mm/h]
Intf : Interflow [mm/h].
CU : Capillary uprise [mm/h]
Analysing this equation, it becomes clear that the soil moisture can be determined
from inflow components Infiltration rate (Inf) and capillary uprise (CU) as well as
from Percolation (Perc) and Evapotranspiration (Eva).
Before each of those components is thoroughly analysed it is necessary to give an
introduction to soil characteristics and soil water.
3.1.1 Soil moisture
Definition: Soil moisture is the water content that can be removed via drying the soil
sample at 105 C in the oven.
Seasonal differences in water inflows and losses in soil are summarised under the
term soil moisture regime.
The amount of rainfall that infiltrates into the soil, percolates only partly to
groundwater. The rest remains in the unsaturated soil layer i.e remains above the
groundwater level. In the case of saturated soil layer, water fills all available pore
space in that layer.
Important parameters considering the extent to which the water is attached to the soil
particles and size of pores are :Wilting point (WP), Field capacity (FC), available
field capacity (aFC), air capacity (AC), total pore volume (TPV) and maximal water
capacity (BFMAX). They are defined according to the Bodenkundlicher
Kartieranleitung, Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1982 They are also called soil water
constants and have been introduced to facilitate comparisons between different
hydrological status of different soils.
Field Capacity (FC):

It is defined as the amount of water that remains 2-3 days after the saturation of
a soil with water (after gravity movement of water has largely ceased). As a
-3-
rule, soil moisture tension of 101.8 and 102.5 mbar occurs in soil. It varies
considerably depending on the clay and silt content, soil texture, content of
organic matter, humus form, coherency of soil and ion characteristics in soil
colloids.
Field capacity rate depending on soil texture is as follows:
Sand>Loam>Silt>Clay>Peat
- Permanent Wilting Point (WP)

Permanent wilting point (PWP) is the lowest amount of water that is hold in the
soil and which plants are unable to use. Soil water that is incorporated into soil
structure with higher soil moisture tension than 104.2 mbar is not useful for
majority of the plants through root system. The remained soil moisture is
considered as dead water.
- Available Field Capacity (aFC):

Available Field Capacity is the difference between Field Capacity (FC) and
wilting point of a soil. It is considered as water available for plants to extract
from the soil moisture zone. According to the definition of WP and FC, the
values for the soil moisture tension (SMT) are between 101.8 and 104.2 .
- Air Capacity (AC):

It specifies the size of the drained macro-pore space. The water percolating in
the soil has flown downwards and is not available for the plants any more. It
coincides with the size of the pore space that is filled with air at the field
capacity conditions.
- Total Pore Volume (TVP):

The amount of all cavities in soil expressed in Volume-%
- Maximal water capacity BFMAX:

Maximal water content of soil (by total water saturation). If it is expressed in
Volume-% it coincides with the total pore volume (TVP).
According to BEAR, the following soil water types are considered in the unsaturated
soil layer. (see Figure 3.4, BEAR).
- Hygroscopic water
Hygroscopic water is held in the soil between air dry and oven dry. Unavailable water
remains when soil is drier than wilting point. Unavailable water is soil water
held so firmly to soil particles by adsorptive soil forces that it cannot be
extracted by plants. Neither evaporation nor percolation into deeper soil layer
is possible.
-4-
- Capillary water
Soil moisture in this zone is between Wilting Point (WP) and Field Capacity
(FK). This water is available for plants and transpiration also occures in this
zone. The capillar forces are held by formation of menisci at the contact points
with the mineral particles, so that neither percolation into deeper soil layers nor
discharge between different soil layers is possible.
- Gravitational water (excess soil water)
This zone is above the Field Capacity. Gravitational water drains or percolates
readily by gravitational force. Since drainage takes time, part of the excess
water may be used by plants before it moves out of the root zone.
Alternatively, this water flows horizontally forming interflow.
Distribution of those zones depending on the soil moisture can be appreciated in

Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4 Porosity according to Bear
Within those soil moisture zones, it is possible to simplify the dependencies of the
Infiltration, Pecolation, Transpiration and Interflow rates and present them as linear
functions of soil moisture. It can be appreciated in Figure 3.5.
-5-
Figure 3.5 : Infiltration (Inf), Evapotranspiration (Eva), Percolation (Perk) and Interflow (Intf) expresses
as linear function of soil moisture
For setting up this mathematical model, the conditional equations for Infiltration,
Percolation, Evapotranspiration and Interflow are obtained.
They vary between Wilting Point (WP) and Field Capacity (FK) as well as between
Field Capacity (FK) and maximal soil saturation (BFMAX).
3.1.2 Infiltration
Water that falls on the ground in form of precipitation, can either infiltrate or runs off
as overland flow. Infiltration rates mostly depend on the soil type and surface
structure. In case of sealed areas, almost 100% of the rainfall is converted into
overland flow and no infiltration occurs. In case of natural areas, this rate depends
predominantly on the soil structure. It is further shaped by pore volume in the soil. It
is possible to distinguish between 2 types of pores:
- Macro(equivalent radius > 3mm)
- Micro (capillary system)
Different pore types and their spatial distribution in the soil is illustrated in Figure
3.6.
Figure 3.6 Pore distribution in the soil

-6-
Macro pores are of importance for the infiltration process as water percolates 100-
400 times faster through macro pores than through the micro ones. The macro pores
are created by plant roots, channels and paths of the soil fauna (e.g. mice, moles) soil
aggregation and the soil cultivation. The most important factor that shapes soil
porosity created by fauna are earth worms, that make uniform vertical pore system.
Beside that, physical soil parameters, such as granulation, particle shape, soil
structure and soil compaction are also of relevance.
As it can be deduced from the figure 3.5, CIN determines the rate of infiltration. The
higher values for CIN are, the smaller portion of precipitation is converted into
overland flow.
Due to the large number of relevant parameters for infiltration ,an accurate
determination of the infiltration capacity (CIN) is possible only by performing field
tests.
Approximatively, it is possible to estimate the infiltration capacity from soil type,
effective compaction according to Bodenkundlicher Kartieranleitung, Arbeitsgruppe
Boden, 1982 and hydraulic conductivity obtained for soil saturation conditions kF
and presuming loose soil (Ld 1-2)
CIN= k F,1 / 2
Real infiltration is determined as function of the soil structure, slope inclination and
actual water content
In the zone of Wilting point, this value coincides with the infiltration capacity.
It is linear till it reaches the point of maximal soil capacity.
CEX parameter shows the rate of ex filtration capacity (to the layers laying below the
observed one).
Concerning the values for soil moisture portions corrected for Wilting point, potential
Infiltration of the soil Infp, the following conditional equation is obtained:
BFMAXi - BFi ( t )
Infpi ( t ) = CINi
BFMAXi - WP
The actual infiltration Inf depends on the intensity of the rainfall and percolation rate
of the soil layers.
for soil layer i=1:

Inf 1 (t ) = Infp1 (t ) if i N ,eff (t ) > Infp1 (t )
Inf1 (t ) = i N ,eff (t ) if i N ,eff (t ) Infp1 (t )
-7-
for soil layer i>1:

Inf i (t ) = Infp i (t ) if Perk i -1 (t ) > Infp i (t )
Inf i (t ) = Perki -1 (t ) if Perki -1 (t ) Infpi (t )
3.1.3 Percolation
Percolation is water trickling downward through the cracks and pores in soil and
subsurface material, similar to the infiltration process. However, it reaches maximum
at the field capacity conditions. Percolation capacity heavily depends on the soil
structure and texture, air capacity and soil compactness. It can be estimated by
hydraulic conductivity and for higher compactness of the soil, this equation gives:
CEX= k F,4 / 5
Considering those assumptions, potential percolation Percp from soil lamella i can be
calculated as follows:
0, if BFi < FCi
Percpi (t ) = ( BFi ( t ) - FKi )
CEX i ( BFMAX i - FKi , if BFi FCi
Potential transpiration ETpl should be reduced to actual transpiration ETa where the
water tension (limitation of available soil moisture in effective rooting depth) is to be
considered. According to WENDLING, this balance equation is expressed as follows:
EVA = P(t) - (P(t) - ETpfl) Ri

It calculates actual transpiration as function of actual soil moisture and vegetation
specific transpiration parameters as daily value continuum.
Where is:
P(t) mm Precipitation
Ri diml. Reduction function
Determination of the reduction function Ri can be calculated as follows:
WP DWT
1-
BF( t ) ETP
Ri = + 0,1
WP ETpfl
1-
FK
Where is:
WP % Mean wilting point in the effective root layer
-8-
DWT dm Effective root layer

BF(t) mm Soil moisture in effective root layer at the tine point t
FK % Average field capacity in the effective root layer
ETP mm/d Average value of ETpfl over longer period of years in
vegetation period
And further, according to Wendling (DVWK-bulletin 283/196) :

Ri = 1 for P(t) > ETpfl
Ri = 1 for Ri > 1,0
Ri = 0 for Ri > 0,0
3.1.5 Capillary Uprise
Capillary uprise from ground water in the effective root layer close to the
groundwater horizon (level) can be of great importance for water balance assessment.
It can be calculated based on the water conductivity and suction power (force) and is
expressed as Capillary Uprise (CU). It varies as a function of the depth of the
groundwater level (GW) below the lower bound of the effective root layer and the
soil characteristic. For sand it the capillary upise reaches 3mm/d if the groundwater
level is 5dm below the lower boundary of the effective root zone. If this distance is
8dm, capillary uprise is only 0.2mm/d. In order to estimate the capillary uprise rates,
die Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung and DVWK bulletin 238 are used.
3.1.6 Interflow
That part of the precipitation which infiltrates the surface soil and moves laterally
through the upper soil horizons above the water table toward surface waters. Also
called subsurface runoff (see baseflow).
The interflow Intf from the soil lamella i can be calculated as difference between
potential percolation Percp and actual Percolation Perc.
Intfi ( t ) = Perkp i ( t ) - Perk i ( t )
In order to consider this lateral movement of water in the soil, this value is multiplied
with the ordinate of the time-area function, that discharges in the time interval t.
QIntfi ( t ) = 1/ 3,6 A i Intfi ( t )
-9-
where is
Intfi : Interflow through the lamella i [mm/h],
QIntfi : Interflow through the lamella i [m3/s] and
Ai: contact surface part [km2], that in the time interval t discharges to the
lamella i
The remaining portion of the interflow contributes to the increase of the soil moisture
of the lamellas above the observed lamella i.
At the lower boundary it is necessary to correct the value for the soil moisture as
there are no chargeable lamellas bellow it:
BFMAX i , if BFi (t ) + (1 - Ai ) Intf i (t ) > BFMAX i

BFi (t ) :=
BFi (t ) + (1 - Ai ) Intf i (t ), if BFi (t ) + (1 - Ai ) Intf i (t ) BFMAX i
If the first condition is fulfilled, then is:
BFi ( t ) + (1 - A i ) Intfi ( t ) - BFMAX i
returned to lamella i-1.
3.2 Mathematical solution to soil water equation
The continuity equation for inhomogeneous, linear differential equation in ist general
form is expressed as:
dBF( t )
+ C 2 BF( t ) = C1
dt
Constants C1 and C2 are calculated in dependence of the Infiltration, Percolation,
Evapotranspiration and Interflow.
- 10 -
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Chapter 4- Processes of discharge concentration

1. General Information
The discharge formation can be mathematically described as predominantly vertical

process and therefore, the catchment area is divided into individual homogeneous
vertical layers (columns). The next step of the rainfall runoff modelling would be the
mathematical definition of the runoff formation (discharge concentration). For this
modelling, the physical process is considered that transforms the effective
precipitation of a catchment area into a discharge hydrograph at the outlet node of
this catchment area.
In one detailed rainfall runoff model, each discharge component is separately
considered and afterwards linearly superpositioned.
In principle, it is possible to describe accurately the process of the discharge
concentration applying the partial differential equations. But the closed solution to
this equation is only rudimental due to the high numerical complexity of the system.
For example, in the SHE-Model (Systme hydrologique europienne) for the
individual components such as groundwater, interflow and surface runoff the system
of the differential equations is solved and the interaction between those components
is implemented in form of the boundary conditions.
For the surface runoff is, for example, applied the 2 dimensional depth-averaged
shallow water equations for quasi laminar flow. In order to obtain the numerical
solution to those equations, the whole catchment is sub divided into raster elements
and for example, applying the finite element method, it is solved for all raster cells.
-1-
The wide application of this hydrodynamic model for description of the rainfall
runoff processes has its shortcomings, predominantly related to:
- thorough data as basis for the model is usually not available
- technology is not completely developed
- the results that are obtained through this method are not significantly better than
the ones obtained applying other methods
The last point underlines the fact that this method as well as the other ones fail to a
certain extent in describing accurately the basic mechanisms of the runoff formation.
It is obvious that it is necessary to apply more detailed numerical decomposition and
more accurate spatial data.
Both of those requirements is not possible to achieve in the foreseeable future.
Therefore, for the calculation of the runoff formation , the so called hydrologic
model approaches will dominate. They assume that the discharge concentration can
be decomposed into translation and retention process, where both of them can be
linearly superposed.
The translation refers to the process of the temporal delay of the water. In a
translation model outflow is delayed for
q (t) = p (t - tL )
Applying this translation model, it is possible to describe time delay of the runoff
(discharge) streamlines in the water network and subcatchments.
Lines of the same translation time, that correspond to the flow duration of a water
particle from one point of the catchment area to the outlet node is referred to as
isochrone.
Beside that, the discharge depends on the retention characteristics. Thus, the
discharge concentration is also influenced by the storage capacity of the catchment
and not only by the translation process. The retention capacity depends on the soil
type and cover as well as on the slope of the terrain between 0,7 and 8,0 mm and
represents considerable amount of water that should not be neglected especially in
flat catchment areas. It particularly influences the shape of the rising limb of
hydrograph.
In the following text, the concept of translation and retention will be introduced.
2. Translation model
In translation model, the concentration time to the outlet node for discrete segments
of the catchment area is determined. Relating those segments to the flow time, the
time-are function is obtained. Multiplied by the discharge height of 1mm this diagram
corresponds to the rising limb of the hydrograph for an effective precipitation of a
millimetre exclusive of translation. It is also referred to as Unit Hydrograph. One
-2-
can say the unit hydrograph represents direct runoff at the outlet of a basin resulting
from one unit of precipitation (of 1mm) excess over the basin.
If the time steps are discretised, the unit hydrograph can be mathematically expressed
in the following way:
i i -1
A(iDt) - A[(i - 1) Dt]
h =1 k =1
Ut (i Dt ) =
Dt A e
where:
A(i D t) = Segments that are discharging at the time i D t

Ae = Catchment area
Dt = Time interval
u(i D t) = Ordinate of the unit hydrograph at time i D t
For runoff from plain surfaces, the time-area function is rectangle.

If duration of the rainfall is equal to the concentration time of the catchment tc , the
hydrograf is in form of isosceles triangle.
Nowadays, the concepts for flood protection that are used in water management in
urban areas are based on this principle. Natural catchments are considerably
inhomogeneous in terms of translation, as the relief in such areas substantially varies.
For calculation of the concentration time, lot of more or less empirical formulas are in
use. For the scope of this course, the approach based on the kinematic wave is
applied.
0,6
L
t c = 9,2184 i eff - 0,4 I so
- 0,33
k St
where:
tc = Concentration time
L= Flow path
kSt = Strickler-constant
ieff = Intensity of the effective rainfall
Iso = Average gradient (terrain)
This formula also considers the average slope of the terrain and surface roughness. If
the terrain is considerably heterogeneous , this formula gives only the approximative
value. In this case it would be more accurate to divide the catchment into the
segments with homogenous gradient and roughness and the concentration time is
calculated as the sum of those individual segments, as follows:
-3-
n
s
tc = i
v
i =1 i
where
si = Length of the segment i
n= Number of segments to the outlet
vi = Mean flow velocity in segment i
Mean flow velocity can be calculated assuming the quasi-stationary flow for
discharge and applying universal flow laws. The Gauckler-Manning-Strickler law is
commonly in use.
v i = k St,i hi2 / 3 I1so/ 2,i

where
kSt = Strickler-coefficient
hi = Flow depth
For the empirical parameter and adopted flow depth h, some data is taken from the
literature.
According to Pasche/Schrder and the research and analysis of the hydrologic data
using GIS 1994, the following values are obtained.
Agricultural crop land kSt = 4,5 m 1/3s 1

(arable):
Grassland kSt = 4,5 m 1/3s 1
(meadows):
Forest kSt = 5,5 m 1/3s 1
Water depth h= 0,03m
If the catchment area is heterogenous, neither flow paths nor concentration time is
possible to calculate manually due to the complexity of such a system.
This fact opens room for application of Geographic Information System (GIS).
It the basic data for the catchment is available, it is possible to automatise the
generation of the time-area function for each catchment type and structure. Further,
based on the unit hydrograph derived from the time-area function, it is possible to
calculate the discharge for any effective rainfall with the intensity ieff(t) for each
catchment, as follows:
t
Q ( t ) = c A( t - t ) i eff ( t ) dt
0
-4-
Again, if the constant discharge is discretised over time with the time step Dt , than
the equation above can be transformed as following.
k
Q (i Dt ) = c A(iDt - (i - 1)Dt ) ieff (ii Dt )
i =1
1
c=
3,6 Dt
It is important to mention that for this approach, the retention effects on discharge
flow are not considered. Therefore, it is applicable only in small catchments with
high sealing rate.
3. Retention model
In hydrology, the retention model is usually simplified. A very simple and widely
used model is linear-reservoir. According to this approach, the outflow from the
retention is directly proportional to the reservoir content.
V (t ) = k Qout (t )
where
V (t) = Reservoir content at time t

Qout(t) = Outflow from reservoir at time t
k= Retention constant
Further, considering the continuity equation i.e.

Inflow = Outflow + Change of the storage,
the equation above gives:
k dQout (t )
Qin (t ) = Qout (t ) +
dt
where
Qin(t) = reservoir inflow in time t
General solution to the equation gives:

t
1
Qout (t ) = Qout (t 0 ) e -(t -t0 ) k +
t =t 0
Qz (t ) e -( t -t ) / k dt
k
for Qout(to) = 0 and to = 0 this equation is as follows:
t
1
Qout (t ) = Qin (t ) e -( t -t ) / k dt
0
k
-5-
If Qin( t ) is the inflow and Qout(t) outflow, considering the equation above it is to
conclude that, the outflow is derived directly from the inflow and multiplied by a unit
flow. The unit flow reflects the transmission characteristics and thus the retention
features of the catchment.
1
UR ( t - t ) = e - ( t - t ) / k
k
This unit hydrograph corresponds to the discharge hydrograph , with evenly

distributed precipitation of N=1mm. If the duration of the precipitation t 0 , the
Instantaneous Unit-Hydrograph (IUH) is obtained.
Again, if the continuos discharge flow is discretised over time and the intensity of the
effective rainfall in time Dt is multiplied by the total catchment area:
Qin (t ) = ieff (iDt ) Ae

the following summation formula for the discharge flow due to the retention gives:
n
Q a (n Dt ) =A e i eff (iDt ) uR [n D t - (i - 1) Dt ]Dt
i =1
where:
1 -[n D t - (i - 1) D t ]/ k
u [n Dt - (i - 1) D t ] = e
k
According to this equation, the discharge at time n Dt is obtained through the

superposition of all catchment responses that are developed from one inflow
generated during the effective rainfall within the time period t = 0 to t = n Dt .
Individual responses are product of the effective intensity at time D t and the axis t =t
(folding) of the Unit Hydrograph.
1
The retention constant, with unit can be directly determined from the recession
h
limb of the hydrograph.
t 2 - t1
k=
ln Q A (1) - ln Q A (2)
4. Combination of translation and reservoir models
As it was already induced, discharge concentration in a catchment area is subject to

translation as well as to the retention. Combination of these two different physical
approaches can be mathematically described.
The time-area function is through a linear reservoir led to the outlet of the catchment
i.e. the time-are function is folded by the instantaneous unit hydrograph.
-6-
t
u TR ( t - t ) = u T ( t ) uR ( t - t ) dt
0
where is:
A (t)
uT (t) =
Ae
Another possibility to describe accurately the discharge concentration is to introduce
the system of the reservoir chain. The translation of the catchment is considered by
the number of the reservoirs n. The outflow from the n reservoir of the linear
reservoir chain as reaction to the inflow of 1mm rainfall gives:
n -1
1 t
u sk ( t ) = e-t / k
k (n - 1)! k
-7-
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Chapter 5- Subsurface runoff (Interflow and groundwater runoff)
In addition to the runoff processes on the surface, the subsurface runoff processes are
also to be considered. The ones relevant for the water balance assessment are
interflow that occurs in the upper soil layer, and groundwater outflow and base flow.
The subsurface runoff is delayed comparing to the surface runoff and in the
hydrology is modelled independently.
5.1 Interflow
In soil water regime modelling, an unsaturated layer is divided into horizontal

lamellas depending on the hydro-geologic characteristics. For setting up the concept
of the interflow the following assumptions are to be considered:
- in lamella i interflow occurs only if the lamella below the lamella i is already
saturated
- boundary between lamellas is inclined.
In the soil water regime modelling, the soil water is balanced for each hydrotop.(see
semi-distributed model).
The discharge, however, regards the entire subcatchment area, which consists of n
Hydrotops.
The interflow rate Intfij from each Hydrotop and each lamella is aggregated to a total
discharge QIntf within the subcatchment area:
n m
QIntfi ( t ) = 1 / 3,6 A j Intfij ( t )
j =1 i =1
-1-
Surface Hydrology-Subsurface runoff
where is:
Aj area [km2] of the Hydrotop j
Interflow behaves similar to the surface runoff in terms of Translation and Retention
effects. Thus, it is possible to draw the stream lines of the interflow applying the
isochrone method as following:
n
Qa (n Dt ) = QIntf (iDt ) uTR [n D t - (i - 1) Dt ] Dt
i =1
n A(iDt ) 1 - [n D t - (i - 1) D t ] / k
u TR [n Dt ] = e
i =1 A e k
However, it is to be considered that subsurface translation and retention occur to

much larger extent than in case of surface runoff.
So, the time-area function A(t) and retention constant k that are assessed for the
surface runoff are not the same ones that are to be used for the subsurface runoff.
They should be derived considering the physico geographical and geological
conditions of the soil.
In principle, the derivation of the time-area function (t) for subsurface runoff is much
more difficult than from the surface due to the complexity of the media.
It is often the case that the time-area function for the surface runoff is also taken for
the Interflow and simply multiplied by a constant and in that way linearly
transformed.
Better and at the same time physically based approach assumes that the flow
velocities of the Interflow are behaving proportional to the Darcys law:
v Intf = k f IG
where is:
kf = permeability coefficient for the saturated soil [m/s] and
IG = mean gradient of the terrain along the longest flow path [-].
Physical processes are also simplified in this method, as the parameter is averaged for
the whole catchment and kf value of the saturated soil layer is taken also for the
unsaturated layer. As it is assumed that the flow velocity is constant in the whole
catchment area, the time-area function becomes a direct function of the areas with the
same flow path, as following:
-2-
m m
A(nDt ) = DA[nDt ] - DA[(n - 1)Dt ]
i =1 i =1
where is:
DA[nDt ] = total area of the subcatcment with the same flow path
s[nDt ] = nDt v Intf
In order to estimate the retention constants k there is no approved method yet.

Therefore, it should be done by calibration from the rising limb of a flood
hydrograph, whereby the considered times t1 and t2 should lie on the recession limb
of the flood hydrograph.
t 2 - t1
k=
ln Q A (1) - ln Q A (2)
5.2 Discharge concentration in aquifer (groundwater flow)
The water that percolates from the last soil lamella into deeper layers represents the
ground-water formation, which flows to the ground-water reservoir. The calculations
of the ground-water reservoir is performed integrally for the total catchment area.
All hydrotps with recharge to the groundwater reservoir are aggregated.
One can distinguish 3 different types of the groundwater reservoir (GWR):
- upper GWR
- lower GWR
- carst or deep GWR
Upper and Lower GWR are illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Cross section GWR -river
-3-
Upper and lower GWR can be considered together as they differ from each other by
the height of the groundwater level in the reservoir. But, the deep GWR should be
considered as an independent element.
Upper GWR is in direct contact with the channel. Outflow of this reservoir flows to
the channel. Infiltration from the channel to the upper GWR is not considered.
On the other side, the discharge from the lower GWR flows to the GWR of the
adjacent catchment. It is possible that max 3 catchments receive the discharge from
the one catchment, only the weighting of those inflows can be different. It is to
mention that the capillary uprise from the GWR is neglected in the model. The deep
GWR is, as already adduced, an independent element that drains into a recepient. The
location where it occurs can be chosen arbitrary.
GWR receives the inflow from the soil water as well as from the GWR of the
adjacent catchments. Inflow is proportionally divided into GWR and deep GWR, as
follows:
1
Qinf; H (t ) = AH Perc H (t )
3 .6
QGW inf (t ) = QGWNGzu (t ) + (1 - ITRH ) Qinf;H (t )
QTGW inf (t ) =
Hydrotop
ITR H Qin , H (t )
where:
QGWNGin : Inflow to the groundwater reservoir (GWR) from the adjacent
(GWR) [m3/s],
AH : Hydrotop area [km2],
PercH(t) : Percolating water from the soil water storage [mm/h],
QGWinf(t) : Inflow to the GWR (from above and below) [m3/s],
QGWTinf(t) : Inflow to the deep GWS (characteristical for carst areas) [m3/s]
ITRH : weighting factor [-] depending on the Hydrotop.
Theoretical background for the concept is the continuity equation of the inflow,
outflow and changes in the storage. Inflow is composed of the discharge of the
adjacent element (GWR) and does not depend on the actual water content in the
reservoir. On the other side, the outflow from the observed GWR depends on the
water quantity in it.
The outflows from the GWR are, for example, in the program package BCENA
iterratively calculated, according to the following equation:
dV (t )
= Qin(t ) - Qout (t ) (Balance equation)
dt
dV (t ) Q (t )
= k out (Linear reservoir)
dt dt
where is:
-4-
V(t) : actual water content in the reservoir [m3],

Qin(t) : Inflows to the GWR [m3/s],
Qout(t): Outflows from the GWR [m3/s]
k : retention constant of the linear reservoir [s].
In its developed form, the balance equation gives:
it is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Water balance for the catchment area 2
5.2.1 Discharge from the Upper and Lower GWR
In the model BCENA, upper and lower GWR are joined and considered as one unit.
According to the model concept, it is considered that the channel runs over the water
table of the lower GWR.
Thus only an exchange of water of the ground-water reservoir and the channel is
possible starting from a certain water level height in the GWR.
The range of the GWR without contacts to the channel is referred to as lower GWR
and the one overlying the channel bad is called upper GWR. The program BCENA
enables indication of the lower (hGu) and upper height (hGo), for the definition of the
size of the two reservoirs.
If the isotropic i.e. homogeneous aquifer is presupposed, that is characterised by very
poor spatial variability, that the reservoir volume can be determined depending on the
-5-
groundwater level. An additional assumption is that the groundwater level is uniform

for the subcatchment.
V (t ) = GWR(t ) Pors A 10 6
where is
V(t) :actual water content of the reservoir[m],
GWR(t) :water height in the reservoir element (m),
Pors :porosity of the aquifer[-]
A :area of the catchment (km).
Figure 5.4 Upper and lower groundwater reservoir
Considering the concept of the model, the following cases are possible concerning the
groundwater level and its relation to the hGu and hGo. (refer to Fig 5.4)
1. .case: GWR(t) < hGu

Groundwater height is below the lower groundwater level. Thus, the total water
volume is assigned to the lower groundwater reservoir. It can be described as follows:
VGWlo (t ) = GWR(t ) Asc PORS 10 6

VGWup (t ) = 0
2. case: hGu GWR(t ) hGo

The groundwater level is between hGu and hGo
(GWR - HGU ) 6
VGWlo (t ) = GWR(t ) - 0,5 Asc PORS 10
HGO - HGU
GWR - HGU
(GWR - HGU ) Asc PORS 10
6
VGWup (t ) = 0,5
HGO - HGU
3. case: GWR(t) > hGo
Groundwater level is above the upper height. The volume of the lower groundwater
reservoir is not increasing.
-6-
VGWup (t ) = (GWR(t ) - 0,5 (HGO - HGU )) PORS A 10 6

1
VGWlo (t ) = (HGO + HGU ) ATE PORS 10 6
2
The outflows from the upper and lower GWR depend on the actual water content in
the reservoir according to the linear reservoir concept and considering the
corresponding retention constants RetBas and RetGW.
5.2.2 Deep groundwater outflow
Deep groundwater outflow can be calculated from the system of the differential
equations that has already been introduced. Additionally, the retention constant for
the deep groundwater reservoir RetTGW, is introduced.
This outflow can be assigned to any node, not necessarily to the outlet node. Further,
it is possible to construct the net independent from the one for the surface runoff and
can for example, simulate the flow paths in carst areas.
-7-
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Chapter 6- Flood wave formation in the channel

In the hydrologic cycle the following components are of relevance for the modelling:
surface runoff (overland flow), interflow and basic flow. Additionally, the flow in
channel is considered as a part of the inflow:
Qin (t ) = QSurface (t ) + QInterflow (t ) + QBasis (t ) + QChannel (t ) (1)
For flood wave propagation in natural channels, two important phenomena should be
considered: attenuation of the peak flow and time lag that leads to the modification of
the discharge hydrograph. Figure 6.1 shows the transformation of the flood wave.
This discharge hydrograph is modified if the water section flows through retention.
Figure 6.1 Inflow/Outflow hydrograph of a flood wave
-1-
Surface Hydrology-Flood wave formation in channel
The computation methods that are applied to describe the processes in the water
course, are summarised under the name Food Routing. Flow routing may be
classified as either hydrologic (lumped) or hydraulic (distributed).
The hydraulic computation methods employ both, the equation of continuity and the
equation of motion (momentum conservation).
They model the integral movement process of the water in the channel, but in
engineering practice one and two-dimensional models are commonly in use.
In the rainfall runoff models are currently in use only hydrologic methods. They do
not deal with the overall motion process, but they concentrate of the water strand and
treat it as a linear reservoir of the volume V(t) that is changing with the outflow
Qout(t) as follows:
dV (t ) = k dQout (t ) (2)
Thus, those methods determine only the resulting process that is generated as a
reaction to the inflow.
6.1 Flood Routing applying the linear reservoir model

Generally, flood routing is a mathematical method used to predict the temporal and
spatial variation of a flood wave, at one ore more points along a water course (river or
channel). The watercourse may be a river, stream, reservoir, estuary, canal, drainage
ditch or storm sewer.
In case of a stationary discharge flow, there is a clear connection between the water
depth h and discharge Q for each water section.
Q = f (h) (3)
To each water strand corresponds only one volume, and therefore it is possible to
define a unique relation between volume and discharge:
Q = f (V ) (4)
Further, for the stationary flow of the linear reservoir model, it becomes:
dV (h) = K (h) dQout (h) (5)
In the equation above, the parameter k(h) represents the time necessary for water to
flow through the channel subsection.
-2-
Different analysis of the river courses showed that the parameter k changes
insignificantly over the discharge range, so that it can be considered as a constant.
K(h) = k = const. (6)
With this assumption, the conditions for applying the liner reservoir concept are
fulfilled, as the outflow is linearly related to the storage. The integration of this
equation over the water depth gives:
1
Qout = (V - V0 ) (7)
k
where, V0 is the volume that remains in the scours of the river bed in dry season. This
volume is not of importance and can be neglected.
Again, the continuity equation is applied:
Qin dt - Qa dt = dV , (8)
where Qin is the inflow, Qout is the outflow and dV represents the changes in the
storage.
Inserting the Eq (7) in the Eq (8), the following is obtained:
dV 1
+ V = Qz (9)
dt k
For the special case, that is Qin = 0 , the equation can be modified as follows:
dV 1
= - dt (10)
V k
Integrating this equation (0,t) it gives:

t
ln V = - + C (11)
k
And in its exponential form

t
-
V = C e k
(12)
For t=0 is V= V0 so that the equation becomes:

t
-
V = V0 e k
(13)
-3-
If one replaces V with Qout k and V0 with Qout (t 0 = 0) k , the following is obtained:
t
-
Qout = Qout (t 0 ) e k
(14)
In the second step, the special case Qin = 0 is introduced to the general solution
Qin 0 , in the Eq 12. The first derivation of this equation is as follows:
t t
dV dC - k 1 -
= e -C e k (15)
dt dt k
Introduced in the Eq 9, this equation gives:

t t t
dC 1 - k 1 - 1 -
e - C e k + C e k = Qz (16)
dt k k k
or
t
dC
= Qin e k (17)
dt
t
Integrating this equation over time and replacing the constant C with V e k (Eq 12),
leads to:
t t t
-
V = e (V0 + Qin (t ) e dt )
k k
(18)
0
Again, if V is replaced with Qa k , and V0 with Qa (t 0 = 0) k , the following is obtained.
t t t t
- 1 -k
Qout (t ) = Qout 0 e k
+ e Qin (t ) e k dt ) (19)
k 0
According to the result of the derivation, the temporal discharge variation consists of:
- discharge due to taking the water form the reservoir that is available at time t=0
- discharge as consequence of the inflow
Since closed-form solutions to the complete hydraulic routing differential equations

do not exist, it is solved by discretising inflow hydrograph over time, with intervals
Dt and with the assumption Qin=const in those time intervals. Now, it is possible to
write the equation above as a summation in the following way:
-
nDt
1 -
nDt
n mDt

Qout (nDt ) = Qout (t = 0) e + e in Q ( mDt ) e Dt (20)
k k k
k m =1
or:
-4-
n 1
Qout (nDt ) = Qout (t = 0) e - nDt / k + Qin (mDt ) e -( n -m ) Dt / k Dt (21)
m=1 k
where, Qin (nDt ) is the inflow and Qout (nDt ) is the result and this transmission
characteristics can be described in terms of impulse response function as follows:
1 -( n-m ) Dt / k
u[(n - m) Dt ] = e (22)
k
It formally coincides with the Unit Hydrograph, that is already introduced in the
Chapter 5, when explaining the processes of the discharge concentration.
So, the wave transformation in channel is the process analog to the discharge
concentration on the surface.
6.2 The method of Kalinin-Miljukov

In the previous text the stationary state flow for discharge was assumed. However,
this assumption is hardly applicable to the flood wave situation, as the storm state in a
flood wave is always instationary, that is indicated as temporal change of the mean
velocity v and water depth h along the channel as follows:
dv
0
dt
dh
0
dt
The results derived for the stationary state, applied for the instationary (unsteady)
storm is not fully correct, since in the case of instationary flow, there is no unique
volume/discharge relation.
Differently from the stationary state, discharge depends not only on the water level
but also on the slope. It can be denoted as following:
Q = f (h, I)
Q = f ( V , I)
Consequently, for each section of the channel, exists a so called Hysteresis curve, that
means: storage versus outflow is not a single valued function. (Fig 6.2)
-5-
Figure 6.2a Hysteresis curve
Figure 6.2 b: Hysteresis curve
As it depends on the flood wave propagation (transformation), can not be a priori

determined. Considering the Hysteresis curve (6.2), to each discharge Qout (t1 ) it is
possible to assign 3 different water depths; on the rising and falling limb of the
instationary flow and the one for the case of the stationary (steady) flow.
Kalinin Miljukov, however, showed that it is possible to define an unique function
between discharge and volume in spite of the dependency on the slope if the channel
is represented by a cascade of n linear reservoirs with the length L (characteristic
section). The unsteady flow in those sections can be approximated by a quasi-
stationary flow.
For one single reservoir is assumed that the time required for the increase of the
discharge volume DQ from the inflow side l to the outflow side r corresponds to the
flow time in the stationary storm state.
Further, it is coupled with the assumption of a weak instationary flow, so that the
discharge increase DQ becomes so small and its flattening can be neglected.
The replenishment of this additional water volume DV occurs with the increase DQ.
The time required for this process can be estimated according to the linear reservoir
method as following:
-6-
DV
k inst = (23)
DQ
Assuming little changes in the inflow, then the time k inst corresponds to the flow time
of the flood wave peak.
Further, an unique discharge curve for the characteristic channel reach is obtained, if
we consider the characteristic of the Hysteresis curve that the time lag Dt of discharge
on the rising as well as on the recession limb of the flood, can be observed on the
gauge.
If the discharges of the cross section r are assigned to the water levels in the cross
section m, it becomes:
lm = v Dt , (24)
so that the discharges of the stationary discharge curve at the crossection m can be
assigned to the corresponding instationary ones at the cross section r.
The length of the characteristic section is:
L = 2lm (25)
is calculated by the discharge volume and the characteristics of the water course.
Further, the instationary discharge Q in the cross section r is divided into a stationary
and the additional discharge:
Qinst = Qstat + Qd (26)
In the same way, discharge volumes and water surface slope can be divided:
Vinst = Vstat + Vd (27)

Iinst = Istat + Id (28)
Kalinin-Miljukov Method is based on the considerations of the validity of the linear

reservoir assumption also for the unsteady flow:
d( Vstat + Vd ) = k d(Qstat + Qd )
bzw. (29)
dVd = kdQd
Further, assuming that the flow resistance coefficients of the instationary storm
correspond to the same ones for the stationary flow for the same water depth, and that
-7-
energy line is parallel to the water surface line, it is possible to compute the discharge
Q applying the Darcy Weisbach law.
8g
Qinst = A r ( rhy ,r )1 / 2 (Iinst )1 / 2 (30)
lr
In the cross section r, the following relation of the instationary storm state to the
stationary flow with the same hydraulic radius resp. water depth, can be concluded:
Qinst I
= inst (31)
Q stat Istat
Applying the Eq 28, the instationary water table slope can be transformed as
following:
I 1 I
Iinst = Istat + Id = Istat 1 + d = Istat (1 + d ) (32)
Istat 2 Istat
Placing this expression in the Eq 31, the following is obtained:
1 I
Qinst = Qstat ,r (1 + d ) (33)
2 Istat
Further considering Eq 26 and 33, it becomes:
1 I
Qd = Q stat ,r d (34)
2 Istat
Qd corresponds to the additional volume Vd, that can be represented only by small
increase/decrease of the water level by multiplying the water level with the stationary
discharge Qstat and the mean depth of the additional water level hd.
Vd = Qstat hd (35)
Further, if it is assumed that the slope is constant, along the characteristic section, it
becomes:
Vd = Qstat Id L / 2 (36)
If the Eq 34 and 36 are differentiated over Id, it gives.
dVd = Qstat L / 2 dId (37)

-8-
and
1 Qstat ,r
dQd = dId (38)
2 Istat
Inserting the Eq 37 and 38 into Eq. 29, it becomes:
1 Qstat ,r
dId = k Qstat L / 2 dId (39)
2 Istat
1 dVd
Transforming and inserting the = , finally gives conditional equation for the
k dQd
characteristic channel section L:
dVd
Qstat ,r
dQd
L = 2l = (40)
I stat Qstat
This equation can be applied to channels with any cross section. It can be simplified
if the changes of the volume predominantly depend on the water level.
dVd = Qstat dhd ,m (41)
In this case, the Eq 40 becomes:
Qstat dhd ,m
L = 2l = (42)
I stat dQstat
By very small changes of the profile along the channel reach, the changes of the
water level in the balance point m can be approximated by the one of the crossection
r.
Qstat dhd ,r
L = 2l = (43)
I stat dQstat
6.3 Application of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method to a large channel reach
Until now, only the channel reaches with the limited length L were considered, where
the length L was derived from the hysteresis curve and from the linear reservoir
method.
It means, that if we consider a channel strand with the length LG, applying the
Kalinin-Miljukov method, it has to be divided into n equal sections with the length L.
-9-
Each section represents one independent reservoir, and the Eq 22 describes the wave
formation for it. The outflow from the reservoir n is the inflow to the reservoir n-1.
Qin (n - 1) = Qout (n) (44)
where the numbering of this reservoir chain starts on the lower boundary of the total
channel length LG and is proceeded against the flow direction.
Inserting the Eq 44 into Eq 22, it becomes:
n 1
Q a ,n-1 (nDt ) = Q a ,n (mDt ) e -( n-m ) Dt / k Dt (45)
m=1 k
The total channel reach can be understood as a unit, if the reservoir chain represented
as a summation of those individual reservoirs. It is expressed as follows:
Dt 1
Qa (nDt ) = Qz (nDt ) ( )n-1 e -nDt / k , (46)
k (n - 1)! k
where the number of reservoirs is calculated in the following way:

L
n= G
L
- 10 -
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Chapter 7- Application aspects of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method
7.1 Basic Equations for the discharge calculation in channel
According to the Kalinin-Miljukov method, the integral channel reach is subdivided

into individual sections of the length L. Each of those sections is represented by a
linear reservoir cascade with n single reservoirs.
In principle, this reservoir chain can be successively calculated from the beginning of
the section to the lower boundary (run out) for the individual reservoir using the
following equation:
n
Qout , j -1 (nDt ) = Q j (mDt ) u j [n - m + 1)Dt Dt
m =1
where,
1 -( n-m+1) Dt / k
u j [(n - m + 1)Dt ] = e
kj
j =1,2,....nS index of the single reservoir, starting from the lowest one
nS = total number of the reservoirs in one subsection
As the intermediate results are usually not of relevance, the superpositioned reservoir
equation is used.
-1-
Qout (nDt ) = Qin (nDt ) u[(n - m + 1)Dt ]

where is
Dt 1 -
u[(n - m + 1)Dt] = ( )n S 1 e - (n - m +1)Dt / k
k(nS - 1)! k
In these equations, the retention constant k corresponds to the flow time t in a single
reservoir j. It is assumed, that each single reservoir of the cascade has the same
hydrologic characteristics.
The total number of the reservoirs nS can be calculated according to Kalinin/Miljukov
method, considering the characteristic length L, as follows:
LG
nS =
L
where:
Q stat dh d,m
L=
Istat dQ stat
To bear in mind: The above shown conditional equation for L is derived considering
the simplification, that the changes of the reservoir volume V is predominantly
function of the water depth h. If it is not the case, it is necessary to apply the extended
form of the equation:
dVd
Qstat
dQd
L=
Istat Qstat
Further, applying the Kalinin/Miljukov method, the retention constant k is to be
determined. It is done assuming that the flow of a flood wave is a weak instationary
process. In that case, the flow time tF corresponds to the following expression:
dVd Q j (h) Dh
tF = k j = =
dQd DQ
where Q j (h) = L b(h) (with the water depth h corresponding water level
surface)
7.2 Extending the basic equation for channel flow for the characteristic profile
Most of the water courses, overflow its banks by flooding. As a consequence, an

extended channel profile is formed, that consists of the left and right flood planes and
the main (dominant) channel.
-2-
The extended profile is shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Flood cross section
Where is:
Flood Plain: The flat area of land adjacent to a stream that is formed by current flood
processes.
Bankfull Stage: The stage at which water starts to flow over the flood plain; the
elevation of the water surface at bankfull discharge.
At the very beginning of the overflow in the river, the water surface changes, more or
less discontinuely.
The h-Q-Function shows no linearity in case of those discharges. In this case, it is not
necessary to apply the extended form of the equation for L, instead of the linear
chain, the parallel reservoir cascade is used.
n
Q a (nDt ) = Q z (m Dt ) u[(n - m + 1)Dt ] Dt
m =1
where is
u[(n - m + 1)Dt ] = a u1[(n - m + 1)Dt ] + (1 - a) u 2 [(n - m + 1)Dt ]
and
Dt1 n S,1 -1 - (n - m +1)Dt / k 1
u1[(n - m + 1)Dt ] = ) ( e
k 1(nS,1 - 1)! k 1
Dt 1 n -1
u 2 [(n - m + 1)Dt ] = ( ) S,2 e - (n - m +1)Dt / k 2
k 2 (nS,2 - 1)! k 2
The first reservoir cascade represents the discharge into the main channel and the
second cascade, the discharge to the foreshore (flood plain). The parameter a
corresponds to the discharge distribution between flood plains and the main channel
Q fp
a = 1-
Qtot
where: Qtot = Qchannel + Q fp (Total flow in the channel)

Qfp : total discharge from the flood plain [m/s],
Qchannel : discharge from the channel [m/s]
-3-
7.3 Determination of the parameters for the Kalinin/Miljukov method
The empirical parameters of the Kalinin/Miljukov method require lots of data as well
as the execution of the complex hydraulic calculations, since neither h-Q-relation of
the subsection (from measurements) nor the discharge distribution between flood
plain and the main channel is available.
As basic data, the channel and profile data are considered. They have to be located on
the places that can relevantly describe the processes in retention.
In general, calculation of the hydrologic Flood Routing does not require so dense
profile distribution that is necessary for computation of the water table, since for the
weak non uniform flow conditions, the h-Q-B relations is sufficiently accurate
described by stationary-uniform flow calculations for the Kalinin-Miljukov method.
Therefore, every 500 m of the channel and valley profiles are required.
It is often the case that the Flood Routing analysis is followed by the water table
calculation in order to assess the influence of the flood volume, determined by the
Flood Routing method, to the water course. In order to accomplish that, the channel
and valley profiles are required, only in this case the density of the profiles has to be
considerably higher, since the irregularity of the flow can not be neglected.
Therefore, the distance between 2 profiles should not exceed 50-100m.
When defining the profiles for the water table calculation, it is possible to use the
ones already used for the Flood Routing Method.
In principle, two different approaches are possible:
1. Determination of the parameters using the mean profile
Within the subsection of the channel, for which the Flood Routing calculation is
performed, all profiles that are in this subsection are pondered(integrated) and one
mean profile is defined.
For this profile, the stationary-uniform flow is assumed (IE = IWsp = ISo) and the h-Q
relation as well as V-Q relation is calculated. Finally, the parameters nS and k are
derived, both for the flood plains and for the main channel, as well as distribution
factor a, between the sub cross sections.
The following example illustrates this procedure:
Discharge Channel Flood plain reservoir width height

reservoir
n k n k
[cbm/s] [-] [h] [-] [h] [m] [m+NN]
0,171 30,0 0,002 - - 1,54 173,26
1,729 23,3 0,001 - - 3,08 173,61
5,466 14,7 0,001 - - 4,62 173,96
9,447 12,7 0,001 30,0 0,005 16,11 174,16
31,316 10,1 0,001 27,6 0,001 30,08 174,43
-4-
Sum 90,80 57,60

Mean value ~18 0,001 ~29 0,002
Distribution factor 0,70

2. Determination of the parameters for each profile and afterwards aggregation
For each profile within the subsection of the channel, the relation h-Q as well as V-Q
using the water table calculation method and the corresponding parameters nS and k
as well as a are calculated as mean values of the profile according to the above
shown procedure.
Further, those values for the single profiles, are aggregated to one value that applies
for the whole subsection, as follows:
np
k j lj
j =1
Retention constant: k= np
lj
j =1
np
Number of the reservoirs: nS = nS, j
j =1
np
a j lj
j =1
Distribution factor: a= np
lj
j =1
np
Q
j =1
bankfull , j lj
Bankfull discharge: Q bankfull = np
l
j =1
j
This way of aggregating is not mathematically correct, especially if the geometric

deviations of profiles are considerably high.
If this is not acceptable, it is then necessary to divide the section into subsections
considering the profiles j, j-1and j+1.
-5-
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Linear Reservoir model

-Appendix-
Linear reservoir model represents the catchment area as a reservoir, in which the
inflow in form of precipitation is stored and with time lag discharged. It is also
considered as a black box method, as the processes in the system are not completely
described, but merely the transmission characteristics of the system, especially the
correlation between the input and output, are taken into account.
One can conclude that the linear reservoir is of great importance in hydrological
modelling which purpose is to define the universal relation between rainfall and the
resulting discharge hydrograph for one catchment area.
Q( t ) = f [i( t )]
In the LRM, the overall system is divided into subsystems and the individual
components that are forming the total discharge, such as overland flow, interflow,
seepage and groundwater recharge are considered as linear reservoir and are linearly
superposed.
For the purposes of mathematical formulation of the linear reservoir, the behaviour of
the catchment area is simplified, assuming that the catchment area behaves like a
-1-
Surface Hydrology-Linear Reservoir
container (reservoir) with the linear relation between actual volume in the reservoir
and discharge:
V (t ) = k Q A (t ) (8)
where
V (t) = Volume in Reservoir at time t
QA(t) = Outflow from the reservoir at

time t
k= Retention constant
This is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Linear reservoir and corresponding outflow and volume curve
Further, applying the continuity equation for the reservoir

V (t )
Qin (t ) = Qout (t ) + (9)
dt
the first order differential equation for the linear reservoir is obtained:
k dQout (t )
Qin (t ) = Qout (t ) + (10)
dt
where Qin(t) = reservoir inflow at time t.
This equation can be solved by multiplying both sides by the factor e t / k . It

becomes:
-2-
dQ A ( t ) 1 t / k 1
et / k + e Q A (t ) = e t / k Qz (t ) (11)
dt k k
Applying the product rule this equation can be rewritten as follows:
d 1
( Q A (t ) et / k ) = et / k Qz (t ) (12)
dt k
Integrating this equation in range QA(to=0) and QA(t) it gives:
Q A (t) t 1
d( Q A ( t ) e t / k ) = e t / k Q z ( t )dt
(13)
Q A (0) 0 k
The general solution to this equation is :
t 1
Q A ( t ) e t / k - Q A (0) = e t / k Q z ( t)dt (14)
0 k
and after transformation :

t
-t k 1
Q A ( t ) = Q A (0 ) e + Q z ( t) e -( t - t ) / k dt (15)
k
t =0
For QA(0) = 0 this equation becomes:

t
1
Q A ( t ) = Q z ( t ) e - ( t - t ) / k dt (16)
k
0
If the Qz( t ) is inflow impulse and QA(t) outflow impulse, then according to
the equation above, the outflow impulse is directly derived from the inflow
impulse, multiplying it by a unit impulse.
Transferred to the catchment area, Qout (t ) corresponds to the discharge

hydrograph at outlet node and the Qin(t ) to the precipitation N( t) = A e i( t ) and
the intensity i(t) off the effective rainfall, as following:
t
1
Q A ( t ) = N( t ) e -( t - t ) / k dt (17)
k
0
The system function

-3-
1
u( t - t ) = e -( t - t ) / k (18)
k
represents the transmission characteristics of the catchment. It corresponds to the
discharge hydrograph generated for one catchment for the effective rainfall of
1mm that is spatially and during the time t uniformly distributed over the
catchment and shifted for the (t-t). It is also called the Unit Hydrograph (UH)
t
Q A ( t ) = N( t ) u( t - t)dt (19)
0
This equation is basis for the Linear reservoir model.

If the duration of the rainfall t 0 , Instantaneous Unit-Hydrograph (IUH) is
obtained.
Until now, the continual temporal field was presumed. If time is discretised with
the time steps Dt, the effective rainfall of the m. interval (corr. to the time point
t=(m-1)Dt) becomes:
mDt
N(mDt ) = (m-1)Dt A e i(t)dt = A e i(mDt ) Dt (20)
The time shift between inflow and outflow impulse for the time interval t=nDt is:
t v = t - t = (n - m+1)Dt.
The Unit Hydrograph is discretised over time:

1 (n -m +1)Dt
Dt (n -m)Dt
u[(n - m + 1)Dt ] = u( t v )dt (21)
where t v = t - t = V is the time lag
If the Eq 20 and 21 are inserted the following summation formula is obtained:

n
Q A (nDt ) =Dt A e N(mDt ) u[(n - m + 1) Dt] (22)
m =1
where is
u [(n - m + 1) D t ] = e -[(n -m + 1) D t ]/ k
1
k
-4-
In order to have a better overview of the main properties of a hydrograph, they

are illustrated in following Figure:
(source: Florida International University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering)
-5-
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Importance of Freshwater

1.2 Water cycle and Water balance
1.3 Tasks of the Hydrology and Water Management
1.4 Importance of modelling in Water Management
Chapter 2: Hydrologic Cycle
2.1 General considerations

2.2 Precipitation (rainfall)
2.3 Interception
2.4 Snow-hydrological processes
2.4.1 Accumulation
2.4.2 Compression
2.4.3 Ablation
2.5 Evapotranspiration
2.5.1 Methods to determine evapotranspiration
2.5.2 Determination of potential evapotranspiration of an area with vegetation cover
Chapter 3: Modelling of the soil moisture regime
3.1 Hydrologic processes in the unsaturated soil layer

3.1.1 Soil moisture
3.1.2 Infiltration
3.1.3 Percolation
3.1.5 Capillary Uprise
3.1.6 Interflow
3.2 Mathematical solution to soil water equation
Chapter 4: Processes of discharge concentration
4.1. General Information

4.2. Translation model
4.3. Retention model
4.4. Combination of translation and reservoir model
Chapter 5: Subsurface runoff (Interflow and groundwater runoff)

5.1 Interflow
5.2 Discharge concentration in aquifer (groundwater flow)
5.2.1 Discharge from the Upper and Lower GWR
5.2.2 Deep groundwater outflow
Chapter 6: Flood wave formation in the channel
6.1 Flood Routing applying the linear reservoir model

6.2 The method of Kalinin-Miljukov
6.3 Application of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method to a large channel reach
Chapter 7: Application aspects of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method
7.1 Basic Equations for the discharge calculation in channel

7.2 Extending the basic equation for channel flow for the characteristic profile
7.3 Determination of the parameters for the Kalinin/Miljukov method
Appendix: Linear Reservoir Model

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Arbeitsbereich Wasserbau

Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. Pasche

Master Program Environmental Engineering

Summer semester 2002/2003

1.1 Importance of Freshwater

- Arial and temporal changes of water quantity

1.2 Water cycle and Water balance

Water balance equation is expressed as:

N: Mean precipitation height of the catchment area [mm]

Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Hydrologic Cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)

1.3 Tasks of the Hydrology and Water Management

Definition Hydrology is considered as a natural science because it is concerned

Definition Water Resources Engineering (Water Management) is the

- monitoring of quantity and quality of the water

- Storm water management on spot and streets runoff

- determination of the discharges parameters

Integral approach in river basin management. Additionally, setting up water saving

1.4 Importance of modelling in Water Management

Unstructured model: Catchment are is not divided into subcatchments.

Structured model: Catchment area is divided into subcatchments. Output parameters

a) Rainfall runoff model (short term simulation)

c) Long term simulation model (continuity models, water balance models)

- change of the water regime by agriculture (sealing of the surfaces)

- erosion models: calculate the planar soil erosion, e.g. on

- mass transport models: calculate diffusive nitrate and phosphorus mass

- hydromorphological calculate sediment transport in a water body.

Securing Flood Protection in Urban Areas

- Determination of flood probability

Better understanding of flood management measures for:

- Efficiency of retention measures in watershed area

- Efficiency of retention measures along the river

Master Program Environmental Engineering

Summer semester 2002/2003

Chapter 2- Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is the most fundamental principle of hydrology. It is the

N: average height of precipitation in the catchment [mm]

Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Hydrologic cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)

They are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Processes of the Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Snow storage/ ablation, - Vertical processes

Surface discharge Horizontal process

Transpiration and Evaporation

Water course Flood wave Horizontal process

2.2 Precipitation (rainfall)

Table 2. Different forms of Precipitation

In comparison to the other meteorological parameters such as temperature or solar

Convective precipitation is the most heterogeneous and is typical of the tropics. It is

Cyclonic precipitation is considered as long-lasting precipitation It is formed when

Orographic precipitation, is formed by mechanical lifting of moist air over natural

2,5 < in < 7,5 Moderate rain

7,5< in Heavy rain

There is a very important dependence between the intensity and duration of a

The method implies the following steps:

An example of spatial precipitation distribution according to Theissen method can be

Figure 2.2 Tyssen method

Another example of Thiesssen method is given in Figure 2.2