GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

A. Definition of Gas Chromatography

A gas chromatograph (GC) is an analytical instrument that measures the content of

various components in a sample. The analysis performed by a gas chromatograph is called gas
chromatography.

Gas chromatographic mobile phase and stationary phase including:

The mobile phase is a gas and dissolved substances separate as a vapor. Separation is
achieved by partitioning the sample between the gas phase moves
The stationary phase is a liquid with a high boiling point (non-volatile) bound to the solid
supporting

B. Types Of Gas Chromatography

Gas Chromatography (GC) is a commonly used analytic technique in many research and
industrial laboratories for quality control as well as identification and quantitation of compounds
in a mixture. GC is also a frequently used technique in many environmental and forensic
laboratories because it allows for the detection of very small quantities. A broad variety of
samples can be analyzed as long as the compounds are sufficiently thermally stable and
reasonably volatile. Two types of gas chromatography are encountered: gas-solid
chromatography (GSC) and gas-liquid chromatography (GLC).

Gas-solid chromatography is based upon a solid stationary phase on which retention of

analytes is the consequence of physical adsorption. Gas-liquid chromatography is useful for
separating ions or molecules that are dissolved in a solvent. If the sample solution is in contact
with a second solid or liquid phase, the different solutes will interact with the other phase to
differing degrees due to differences in adsorption, ion-exchange, partitioning or size. These
differences allow the mixture components to be separated from each other by using these
differences to determine the transit time of the solutes through a column.

C. Principle Of Gas Chromatography

Principle of gas chromatography: The sample solution injected into the instrument enters
a gas stream which transports the sample into a separation tube known as the "column." (Helium
or nitrogen is used as the so-called carrier gas.) The various components are separated inside the
column. The detector measures the quantity of the components that exit the column. To measure
a sample with an unknown concentration, a standard sample with known concentration is
injected into the instrument. The standard sample peak retention time (appearance time) and area
are compared to the test sample to calculate the concentration.
D. Instrumental components
1. Carrier gas
The carrier gas must be chemically inert. Commonly used gases include nitrogen,
helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. The choice of carrier gas is often dependant upon the type
of detector which is used. The carrier gas system also contains a molecular sieve to remove
water and other impurities.
2. Sample injection port

For optimum column efficiency, the sample should not be too large, and should be
introduced onto the column as a "plug" of vapour - slow injection of large samples causes
band broadening and loss of resolution. The most common injection method is where a
microsyringe is used to inject sample through a rubber septum into a flash vapouriser port at
the head of the column. The temperature of the sample port is usually about 50C higher than
the boiling point of the least volatile component of the sample. For packed columns, sample
size ranges from tenths of a microliter up to 20 microliters. Capillary columns, on the other
hand, need much less sample, typically around 10-3 mL. For capillary GC, split/splitless
injection is used. Have a look at this diagram of a split/splitless injector;
 The injector can be used in one of two modes; split or splitless. The injector
contains a heated chamber containing a glass liner into which the sample is injected
through the septum. The carrier gas enters the chamber and can leave by three routes
(when the injector is in split mode). The sample vapourises to form a mixture of carrier
gas, vapourised solvent and vapourised solutes. A proportion of this mixture passes onto
the column, but most exits through the split outlet. The septum purge outlet prevents
septum bleed components from entering the column.

3. Columns

There are two general types of column, packed and capillary (also known as open
tubular). Packed columns contain a finely divided, inert, solid support material (commonly
based on diatomaceous earth) coated with liquid stationary phase. Most packed columns are
1.5 - 10m in length and have an internal diameter of 2 - 4mm.

Capillary columns have an internal diameter of a few tenths of a millimeter. They can
be one of two types; wall-coated open tubular (WCOT) or support-coated open tubular
(SCOT). Wall-coated columns consist of a capillary tube whose walls are coated with liquid
stationary phase. In support-coated columns, the inner wall of the capillary is lined with a
thin layer of support material such as diatomaceous earth, onto which the stationary phase
has been adsorbed. SCOT columns are generally less efficient than WCOT columns. Both
types of capillary column are more efficient than packed columns.

In 1979, a new type of WCOT column was devised - the Fused Silica Open Tubular
(FSOT) column;

These have much thinner walls than the glass capillary columns, and are given
strength by the polyimide coating. These columns are flexible and can be wound into coils.
They have the advantages of physical strength, flexibility and low reactivity.

4. Column temperature

For precise work, column temperature must be controlled to within tenths of a degree.
The optimum column temperature is dependant upon the boiling point of the sample. As a
rule of thumb, a temperature slightly above the average boiling point of the sample results in
an elution time of 2 - 30 minutes. Minimal temperatures give good resolution, but increase
elution times. If a sample has a wide boiling range, then temperature programming can be
useful. The column temperature is increased (either continuously or in steps) as separation
proceeds.

5. Detectors

There are many detectors which can be used in gas chromatography. Different
detectors will give different types of selectivity. A non-selective detector responds to all
 compounds except the carrier gas, a selective detector responds to a range of compounds
with a common physical or chemical property and a specific detector responds to a single
chemical compound. Detectors can also be grouped into concentration dependant detectors
and mass flow dependant detectors. The signal from a concentration dependant detector is
related to the concentration of solute in the detector, and does not usually destroy the sample
Dilution of with make-up gas will lower the detectors response. Mass flow dependant
detectors usually destroy the sample, and the signal is related to the rate at which solute
molecules enter the detector. The response of a mass flow dependant detector is unaffected
by make-up gas. Have a look at this tabular summary of common GC detectors:

Support Dynamic
Detector Type Selectivity Detectability
gases range
Flame
Hydrogen
ionization Mass flow Most organic cpds. 100 pg 107
and air
(FID)
Thermal
conductivity Concentration Reference Universal 1 ng 107
(TCD)
Halides, nitrates, nitriles,
Electron
Concentration Make-up peroxides, anhydrides, 50 fg 105
capture (ECD)
organometallics
Nitrogen- Hydrogen
Mass flow Nitrogen, phosphorus 10 pg 106
phosphorus and air
Hydrogen
Flame Sulphur, phosphorus, tin,
and air
photometric Mass flow boron, arsenic, germanium, 100 pg 103
possibly
(FPD) selenium, chromium
oxygen
Aliphatics, aromatics,
Photo- ketones, esters, aldehydes,
ionization Concentration Make-up amines, heterocyclics, 2 pg 107
(PID) organosulphurs, some
organometallics
 Hall
Hydrogen, Halide, nitrogen,
electrolytic Mass flow
oxygen nitrosamine, sulphur
conductivity

The effluent from the column is mixed with hydrogen and air, and ignited. Organic
compounds burning in the flame produce ions and electrons which can conduct electricity
through the flame. A large electrical potential is applied at the burner tip, and a collector
electrode is located above the flame. The current resulting from the pyrolysis of any organic
compounds is measured. FIDs are mass sensitive rather than concentration sensitive; this
gives the advantage that changes in mobile phase flow rate do not affect the detector's
response. The FID is a useful general detector for the analysis of organic compounds; it has
high sensitivity, a large linear response range, and low noise. It is also robust and easy to use,
but unfortunately, it destroys the sample.

E. Disadvantages & Advantages of an Gas Chromatography

1. Advantages
This method has a high resolution power compared to other methods.
This method has high sensitivity when used with thermal detectors.
This technique gives relatively good accuracy and precision.
Separation and analysis of sample very quickly.
Sample with less quantity is also separated.
2. Disadvantages
 Only volatile samples or the sample which can be made volatile are separated by this
method.
During injection of the gaseous sample proper attention is required.
The sample of gas which is about to inject must be thermally stable so that it does not
get degraded when heated.

F. Samples Can Be Analyzed By GC

1. Natural Gas Products
2. Purity Solvent
3. Fatty acid
4. Pesticide residues
5. Air pollution
6. Alcohol
7. Steroids
8. Essential oil
9. Flavor
10. Cannabis (marijuana)

HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

(HPLC)

A. Definition Of High Performance Liquid Chromatography

Chromatography is an analytical technique based on the separation of molecules due to
differences in their structure and/or composition. In general, chromatography involves moving a
sample through the system over a stationary phase. The molecules in the sample will have
different affinities and interactions with the stationary support, leading to separation of
molecules. Sample components that display stronger interactions with the stationary phase will
move more slowly through the column than components with weaker interactions. Different
compounds can be separated from each other as they move through the column.
 Chromatographic separations can be carried out using a variety of stationary phases,
including immobilized silica on glass plates (thin-layer chromatography), volatile gases (gas
chromatography), paper (paper chromatography) and liquids (liquid chromatography).
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of liquid chromatography
used to separate and quantify compounds that have been dissolved in solution. HPLC is used to
determine the amount of a specific compound in a solution. For example, HPLC can be used to
determine the amount of morphine in a compounded solution. In HPLC and liquid
chromatography, where the sample solution is in contact with a second solid or liquid phase, the
different solutes in the sample solution will interact with the stationary phase as described. The
differences in interaction with the column can help separate different sample components from
each other.
B. Principle of HPLC
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is basically a highly improved
form of column liquid chromatography. Instead of a solvent being allowed to drip through a
column under gravity, it is forced through under high pressures of up to 400 atmospheres.
That makes it much faster. All chromatographic separations, including HPLC operate under
the same basic principle; separation of a sample into its constituent parts because of the
difference in the relative affinities of different molecules for the mobile phase and the
stationary phase used in the separation.

C. Types of HPLC
 There are following variants of HPLC, depending upon the phase system (stationary)
in the process :

1. Normal Phase HPLC:

This method separates analytes on the basis of polarity. NP-HPLC uses polar
stationary phase and non-polar mobile phase. Therefore, the stationary phase is usually
silica and typical mobile phases are hexane, methylene chloride, chloroform, diethyl
ether, and mixtures of these. Polar samples are thus retained on the polar surface of the
column packing longer than less polar materials.

2. Reverse Phase HPLC:

The stationary phase is nonpolar (hydrophobic) in nature, while the mobile phase
is a polar liquid, such as mixtures of water and methanol or acetonitrile. It works on the
principle of hydrophobic interactions hence the more nonpolar the material is, the longer
it will be retained.

3. Size-exclusion HPLC:

The column is filled with material having precisely controlled pore sizes, and the
particles are separated according to its their molecular size. Larger molecules are rapidly
washed through the column; smaller molecules penetrate inside the porous of the packing
particles and elute later.

4. Ion-Exchange HPLC:

The stationary phase has an ionically charged surface of opposite charge to the
sample ions. This technique is used almost exclusively with ionic or ionizable samples.
The stronger the charge on the sample, the stronger it will be attracted to the ionic surface
 and thus, the longer it will take to elute. The mobile phase is an aqueous buffer, where
both pH and ionic strength are used to control elution time.

D. Instrumentation of HPLC

As shown in the schematic diagram in Figure above, HPLC instrumentation

includes a pump, injector, column, detector and integrator or acquisition and display system.
The heart of the system is the column where separation occurs.

1. Solvent Resorvoir :

Mobile phase contents are contained in a glass resorvoir. The mobile phase, or
solvent, in HPLC is usually a mixture of polar and non-polar liquid components whose
respective concentrations are varied depending on the composition of the sample.

2. Pump :

A pump aspirates the mobile phase from the solvent resorvoir and forces it
through the systems column and detector. Depending on a number of factors including
column dimensions, particle size of the stationary phase, the flow rate and composition of
 the mobile phase, operating pressures of up to 42000 kPa (about 6000 psi) can be
generated.

3. Sample Injector :

The injector can be a single injection or an automated injection system. An

injector for an HPLC system should provide injection of the liquid sample within the
range of 0.1-100 mL of volume with high reproducibility and under high pressure (up to
4000 psi).

4. Columns :

Columns are usually made of polished stainless steel, are between 50 and 300 mm
long and have an internal diameter of between 2 and 5 mm. They are commonly filled
with a stationary phase with a particle size of 310 m. Columns with internal diameters
of less than 2 mm are often referred to as microbore columns. Ideally the temperature of
the mobile phase and the column should be kept constant during an analysis.

5. Detector :

The HPLC detector, located at the end of the column detect the analytes as they
elute from the chromatographic column. Commonly used detectors are UV-spectroscopy,
fluorescence, mass-spectrometric and electrochemical detectors.

6. Data Collection Devices :

Signals from the detector may be collected on chart recorders or electronic

integrators that vary in complexity and in their ability to process, store and reprocess
chromatographic data. The computer integrates the response of the detector to each
component and places it into a chromatograph that is easy to read and interpret.

E. Applications of HPLC
 The information that can be obtained by HPLC includes resolution, identification and
quantification of a compound. It also aids in chemical separation and purification. The other
applications of HPLC include :

Pharmaceutical Applications

1. To control drug stability.

2. Tablet dissolution study of pharmaceutical dosages form.

3. Pharmaceutical quality control.

Environmental Applications

1. Detection of phenolic compounds in drinking water.

2. Bio-monitoring of pollutants.

Applications in Forensics

1. Quantification of drugs in biological samples.

2. Identification of steroids in blood, urine etc.

3. Forensic analysis of textile dyes.

4. Determination of cocaine and other drugs of abuse in blood, urine etc.

Food and Flavour

1. Measurement of Quality of soft drinks and water.

2. Sugar analysis in fruit juices.

3. Analysis of polycyclic compounds in vegetables.

4. Preservative analysis.
 Applications in Clinical Tests

1. Urine analysis, antibiotics analysis in blood.

2. Analysis of bilirubin, biliverdin in hepatic disorders.

3. Detection of endogenous Neuropeptides in extracellular fluid of brain etc.