span ( ) ={0 }

S 1= {( 1,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) } span ( S 1 )=R 2 i. e xy plane

S 2= {( 1,1 ) } span ( S2 ) ={( x , y)x= y }.

if V = { 0 } ,then dimV =0

S 1 S2 span( S 1) span( S 2)
Similar matrices have same eigenvalues but different eigenvectors
1 1 1
AX =XB=P AP= B P =P A

B P1 X=P1 AX =P1 X = P1 X

P1 X is the eigen vector of B whereas X is eigen vector of A for the same eigenvalue

n distinct eigenvalues diagonalizable .

But converse need not be true

I =identity diagonalizable but doesnot have n distinct eigenvalues

[ L ] =H , where H is Householde r ' s

 T
H=I 2 u u

where uis the unit normal the givenline

i+2 j 1 T
u= = [ 1 5 ]
5 5

..

..

H=I 2 u uT

where uis the unit normal the given plane

.

.
 can be considered as a linear tranformation AB ( x )= AB x

v AB v= AB ( y )=A ( B ( y ) ) A

v =A ( B ( y ) ) v is the image of B ( y ) under the mapping A v A

A B A

rank ( AB )=dim ( AB ) dim ( A )=rank A rank ( AB ) rank A

rank ( AB ) rank ( A )

rank ( AB )=rank ( BT AT ) rank BT =rank B

A B A ,general

if Bis onto AB= A .

..

rowsp ( A T ) =colsp ( A )

rank ( AT )=dim ( rowsp ( AT ) ) =dim ( colsp ( A ) )=rank A

hence rank A T =rank A .

1
f ( x )= , 0< x <1
x

, hence continuous
' 1
as f ( x )= 2 x 0 f is differentiable 0,1
x

1
f ( x )= isquotient of two continuous functionsdenominator does not vanish .
x

1
f ( x )= is not uniformly continuous
x

1 1 1 2
x= y= ,take = n >1
n n+1 2

|x y|< but |f ( x ) f ( y )|> .

Darboux theorem

if f is differentiable ,then f ' satisfies intermediate value property (IVP)

derivatives cannot have a jump discontinuity ,

i. e . , a discontinuity whichthe onesided limits exist but are different .

..

pointwise limit of a bounded sequence <f n> need not be bounded

{
f n ( x )= x ;|x| n
0 ;|x|>n
 f n ( x )|x| n f n is bounded

f n ( x )=x , n |x|(m depends on x pointwise convergence)

f n f ( x )=x pointwise

f ( x )=x , x R is not bounded .

uniformlimit of a bounded sequence < f n >is bounded

as f n is bounded |f n ( x )| M

|f ( x )|=|f ( x )f n ( x ) + f n ( x )| f n ( x ) f ( x )+|f n ( x )|< + M

Ker F= {0 } i .e F is nonsingular F is one one

..

.

..
.

Krishna series page 20

are basic feasible solutions

cannot be basic feasible solution as it fails to be non-

negative

same eigenvalues (with same algebraic multiplicity) A and B need not be

similar.

( A ) =V =solution space of the homogenous system

 4
find a basis of ( A ) , whose dimension isnr=41=3, note : R n=4 .

2 x 1x 2 +3 x 3+ 0 x 4 =0

x2=2, x3=0, x4=0 ; x1=1 u1 =(1, 2, 0, 0)

x2=0, x3=2, x4=0 ; x1= -3 u2 =(-3, 0, 2, 0)

x2=0, x3=0, x4=1 ; x1=0 u3 =(0, 0, 0, 1)

they are linearly independent

(A )=colsp ( A )

A= [u 1 u2 u 3 ] 4 3

as u1 ,u 2u3 span colsp( A).

Ker B= { x R 4|B x=0}, Ker B=V

V = { x R 4|[ 213 0 ] x=0 }

hence B=[ 213 0 ] 1 4

..

A ( 1,0 )=( 0, 1 ) A ( 0, 1 )=(1,0 )

[
A= 0 1
1 0 ]
B ( 1, 0 )= (1, 0 )B ( 0, 1 )=( 0,1 )

B= [ 1 0
0 1 ]

T ( 1, 0 )=( cos ,sin )T ( 0, 1 )=(sin , cos )

Thomas 855

..
 [ ]
0 1 1
[ ]
[ T ]= 0 1
0 0
,[ T ] = 0 0 1
0 0 0

..

 [ ]
[ T ] = 0 1 i. e
0 0

T : R2 R2 s .t T ( x , y )=( y ,0)

ker T ={ ( x ,0 )| x R }=T

2
ker T + T ={ ( x ,0 )| x R } R .

 if T :V W is onto ,then

1. T =W

2. ( S T )= S

..

Usually transportation problem is a minimization problem, where the

objective is to minimize the transportation cost.

When the objective is to maximize then

subtract each element of the transportation matrix by the largest element.



4 x 1

4 2 3

x 3 x
x : epsilon cannot be assigned as they form a closed loop with other assigned
cells

..

is uniformly continuous
1
step 1 :f ( x )=x sin isuniformly continuous on [ 0,1 ]
x

at x=0

s .t lim f ( x )=f ( 0 )=0

x 0

x f ( x ) x , by squeeze theorem lim f ( x )=0

x 0

hence f i s continuous at x=0

 ( 0,1 ] x 0

1
g ( x ) = f ( x )=sin x are bothcontinuous
x

1
hence fog ( x )=sin is continuous
x

1
hence x sin is contiuous as it is product of continuous funtions
x

Hence f is continuous[ 0,1 ]

as f is boundedcontinuous on a closed interval [ 0,1 ] f is uniformly continuous

[ 0,1 ]

ST f isuniformly continous on [ 0, )

1 f isuniformly continuous on [ 0,1 ]

2 show that f is uniformly continous on [ 1, )

use bounded derivative uniformly continuous .

 for x [ 1, ]

| x| | 1x cos 1x| 2 as x 1 1x 1
|f ' ( x )| sin 1 +

f has bounded derivative on f is uniformly continous on .

..

f has bounded derivative |f ' ( x )| M x

' f ( x ) f ( y ) '
by Lagrang e s =f (c)
x y

| |
f ( x )f ( y )
x y
M |f ( x )f ( y )| M |x y|

Thisis the definition of Lipschitz continuity .

i. e if f ' ( x ) isbounded then f ( x ) is a Lipschitzian function .

Since Lipschitzian functions are uniformly continuous ,

then f (x) isuniformly continuous provided f '(x )is bounded . .

..

or

|f ( x )f ( y )| M |x y|<

if |x y|< = .
M

..

for x 0 , g ( x ) is continous as it is productcomposition of continuous functions

g is continuous x 0

at x=0 ,x 2 g ( x ) x 2

by squeeze theorem,x 2x 2 0 as x 0
 lim g ( x ) =0=g ( 0 ) g is continous at x=0 also
x 0

g ( x ) is continuous on R

..

g ( x ) is continuous on [ 0,1 ] g is uniformly continous on [ 0,1 ]

show g is uniformly continuous on [ 1, )

1 1
g' ( x )=2 x sin cos
x x

| 1
x
1
x | | |
1
g ' ( x ) 2 x sin cos 2 x . +1 3
x

1 1 1 1
for large x small sin cos 1
x x x x

'
g is bounded g isuniformly continuous .

uniform continuity need not imply differentiability

' '
but f ( x ) doesnot at 0f ( x ) is not bounded [ 0, ] .

note :| x y|| x+ y|

2
| x y| =| x y|| x y|| x y|| x+ y|=|x y|< =2
 | x y|< when| x y|< .

Second method:

[ 0,1 ] , f i s continuous , hence uniformly continuous

'
[ 1, ] , f is bounded f is Lipschitz f isuniformly continous .

d (x)
f n ( x )= where d ( x ) is Dirichle t ' s function
n

{
d ( x ) = 1 when x is rational
0 when x is irrational is discontinuous everywhere

each f n is discontinuous as d ( x ) is discontinous

1
f n ( x ) f uniformly as M n= 0 as n .
n

but f ( x )=0is continuous .

 a
g ( x ) =f ( x ) x 2
2

then g ( x+ y )=g ( x ) + g ( y ) g ( x )=x g(1).

..

Example of a function which is derivable but its derivative is not

derivable

1
f ( x )=x 2 sin , is derivable
x

1 1
but f ' ( x )=2 x sin cos is not derivable
x x

'
as it is not continuous at x =0, lim f ( x ) doesnot
x 0

differentiabili ty continuity

converse is not true as f ( x )=| x|is continous at x =0 but not differentiable .



T is a linear operator on V such that T 2 T + I =0 , show that T isinvertible

simply show ker T = { 0 }

let x ker T T ( x ) =0

T =T 2 + I T ( x )=T 2 ( x ) + I ( x ) T 2 ( x ) + x=0

T 2 ( x )=x

T ( T ( x ) )=x

T ( 0 )=x

x=0

ker T = { 0 } .

.
.

3
lim =0 given >0, m N s . t
n 1+n
 3
< ; n>m
1+ n

|f n ( x )f ( x )|< ; n> m.

use Dinis Theorem

fn f pointwise
each fn is continuous and f is continuous
fn is monotonic

fn is monotonically increasing

to s.t fn is bounded above

squaring both sides

fn is monotonically increasing and bounded above , hence convergent

(pointwise)

to find the limit

lim f n ( x )=l
n
 l= x+ l l=
1
2
1

+ + x=f (x)
4

and f(x) is continuous.

by Dinis theorem : fn converges to f uniformly

..

L1
[ s
( s2 +a ) 2 2 ] =
1
2a
( t sin at )

L1
[ s2
( s2 +a ) 2 2 ] =
1
2a
( sin at+ at cos at )

L1
[ 2
1
( s +a ) 2 2 ] =
1
2 a3
( sin atat cos at )

..

find basis for T ( 1,2,1 )( 0,3,3 )

if ( a , b , c ) ImT , then

( a , b , c )= ( 1,2,1 )+ ( 0,3,3 )

a= ,

b=2 +3 ,
 c= 3

b+ c= b+c=a .

..

composition of continuous functionsis continous

composition of differentiable functions isdifferentiable

composition of integrable functions need not be integrable .

{
f ( x )= 0,x=0 can also be takeninstead of 0< x 1
1,x 0

both f and g are integrable, but

which is Dirichlets function, is not integrable

Both f g are integrable f g need not be integrable

but if f iscontinuous , g is integrable f g is integrable ( C I )

is Rintegrable
f cont f

f n> gn > converges uniformly but f n g n >doesnot converge uniformly

 1
f n=gn=x + .
n

f ( x )=lim f n ( x )=x

Mn
{ 1
} 1
= n 0 as n
n

hence f n >converges f uniformly

| 2
n
1
|1
x + 2 =2+ 2 2, putting x=n
n n

|f n g n ( x )f ( x ) g ( x )| 2 when x=n

f n gn >doesnot converge pointwise at x=n

hence f n g n> doesnot convergeuniformly

f n ( x ) >converges uniformly but f 'n ( x )> doesnot converge uniformly

sin nx
f n ( x )= 0uniformly
n

f 'n ( x )= n cos nx ; f ' ( x )=0

|f 'n ( 0 )f ' ( 0 )|= n as n

f 'n ( x ) doesnot converge pointwise at x=0

 '
hence f n ( x ) cannot converge uniformly .

..

for n>m

m1

|x nx m| 1 |x 2x 1|
 m1

|x x | 0 as m (0< < 1)
1 2 1

by definition of limit , given >0, M such than

m1
|x x |< , m> M
1 2 1

|x nx m|< , n>m> M

Hence< x n >satifies cauchy criterion.

..

f is twice differentiableat a iff both f f ' are differentiable at a

f ' ' f f ' are derivable

f ' ' f f ' are continuous .

f be continuous

f ( a )< s< f ( b )

x such that a< x<b f ( x )=s

..

ABBA have same eigenvalues

case1 if =0 is eigen value of AB det ( AB ) =0 det ( BA )=det ( AB )=0

 as det ( BA )=0 0 isan eigen value of BA

case 2 if 0 is eigenvalue of AB nonzero eigenvector X s . t ABX =X

BA BX= BX BAY =Y , where BX=Y

hence is an eigenvalue of BA .

Rank of a Skew-Symmetric Matrix is always even.

Rank of a skew-symmetric matrix is atleast 2.

[ ]
0 c d
c 0 e
d e 0

the smallest minor with non-zero determinant

| |
0 c =c 2 0
c 0

hence rank is atleast 2.

..

[ ST ] =[ S ] [ T ] i.e

[ S T ] =[ S ] [ T ]

composition of two linear transformations is again linear.

( A B ) A

ker B ker A B .
..

sin ( 2 )

n1 n
cos +cos( + )+ cos ( + 2 ) +. .upto n terms=
(
cos +
2 ) ( )
sin
2

| |
b b

f ( x)dx |f ( x )| dx
a a

1 0
if A is diagonalizable S1 AS=D where D=
( 0 2 )
1
A=SD S

e A=S e D S1 .

1
e =
D
( e
0 e
0
2 )

ker A ker BA

A : R3 R2
3=dim ( ker A ) +dim ( A )

dim ( ker A )=3dim ( A ) 32=1

dim ( ker BA ) dim ( ker A ) 1

ker BA {0 }

BA is not one one BA cannot be invertible

PS :dim { 0 } is defined be 0.

L= { L ( A )| A V }= {12 ( A + A )|A V }={set of 4 4 symmetric matrices }

T

dim L=4+3+ 2+ 1=10

note : A +A T is symmetric

Ker L consists of 4 4 skewsymmetric matrices (try for 2 x 2 case)

,.

2
|sin x| 1 |sin x| |sin x| sin 2 x sin x.

x
sin
x
2
sin x

x

Diagonalise RHS matrix

 RHS is diagonal LHS must be diagonal

S1 A k S is diagonal iff S1 AS

S1 ( A 24 A +4 I ) S is diagonal S1 AS is diagonal .

Hence S1 AS isdiagonal .

x 1=1,3x 2=5,1

and
1
S AS , thenfind A

apply log test

 un
lim n log =l
n u n+1

if l>1 un is convergent ( this includes l=+ case also )

if l<1 un is divergent( this includes l= case also).

..

second log test

un
lim (n log 1)logn=l
n un+1

replace a by x

1
first apply logarithm test . when x= ; logarithm test fails
e

thenapply second logarithmtest .

ey
f ( y )= y
y

'
st f ( y ) ismonotonically decreasing , show f ( y ) 0

1
z= y y log z= y log y z ' =( 1+ log y )
z
 z ' =z ( 1+log y ) z ' = y y (1+log y ).

by cauchys nth root test

this is equivalent to
y n

dx log x = ey y dy ne whichis convergent by root test

()
2 ( log x ) log2 1

put log x= y .

ey
f ( y )= y
is monotonically decreasing as f ' ( y ) 0.
y

 2
define T : Pn ( F ) F

s .t T ( f ( x ) )=( f ( 1 ) , f ' ( 2 ) )

ker T =U

2
T is onto as ( a , b )=T ( ab+bx ) T =F

{let ( a , b ) =T ( f ( x ) )=( f ( 1 ) , f ' ( 2 ) )

let f ( x )= p+qx q=b p=ab }

dim T =2 .

..

solution 1:

[ ST ] =[ S ] [ T ] = AB ; ST =S T

but AB is invertible iff AB are invertible

AB is invertible

AB ( AB )1=I A {B ( AB )1 }=I AC=I

( AB )1 AB=I {( AB )1 A } B=I DB=I

if AB are invertible

AB ( B1 A1 )=I AB is invertible
 solution 2

1 if ST are invertible

ST ( x ) =ST ( y ) S ( T ( x ) ) =S ( T ( y ) ) as S is one one

T ( x )=T ( y ) x = y as T is one one

ST isone one

ST :V V

hence ST is onto ST isinvertible

2) if ST isinvertible ST is nonsingular Ker ST ={ 0 }

if x Ker T T ( x )=0 S ( T ( x ) ) =S ( 0 )=0 ST ( x ) =0 x Ker ST

Ker T Ker ST = {0 } Ker T = {0 } T is one one

T :V V , T isonto T is invertible

ST isonto ( ST )=V

( ST ) S V S

but S :V V S V

S=V .

S isonto S is one one

S isinvertible .

..
 u= (1 21 ) v= ( 033 )

non-homogenous equations

x=a

2 x +3 y=b

x3 y =c .

find the condition for this to be consistent.

' 2 n
x p ( x ) p ( x )=a 0+ a2 x + ..+ ( n1 ) an x

2 n
b0 +b 2 x + .+bn x

hence A= {b0 +b 2 x 2+ .+bn x n| b0 , b2 , . , bn R }

Ker A={ k x|k R }

A kerA =P n [ x ]

.
 2

y=en x

y is maximum at x =0 y max =1

M n=1 lim M n 0
n

hence <f n> doesnot converge uniformly f

f n f pointwise

inorder change limit integral, apply Arzel a' s bounded convergence theorem .

.
 1
x n> , where x n= ( rational )
n

y n >, where y n= (irrational )

2
n

g ( x n) =1g ( y n ) =0.

.
 nx x x x
f ( x )=lim f n ( x )= lim =lim = 2 = =sgn ( x )
1+ n2 x 2 n 1 2 x |x|

n n
+x
n2

{
1 when x >0
f ( x )=sgn ( x )= 0 when x=0
1 when x 0

as f ( x ) is not continuous ,< f n ( x ) > cannot converge uniformly

2
f is R integrable f neednot be R integrable

f 3 is R integrable f is R integrable

.
f is R integrable f is bounded

so, if f is not bounded f cannot be R integrable.

However, bounded functions need not be R integrable. (ex. Dirichlets

function)