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Calculations For LV and HV Networks PDF
Calculations For LV and HV Networks PDF
Calculations For LV and HV Networks PDF
Cahier
technique
no. 213
Calculations for
LV and HV networks
B. de Metz-Noblat
"Cahiers Techniques" is a collection of documents intended for engineers
and technicians, people in the industry who are looking for more in-depth
information in order to complement that given in product catalogues.
The latest publications can be downloaded from the Schneider Electric internet
web site.
Code: http://www.schneider-electric.com
Section: Press Visit this section
Foreword
The author disclaims all responsibility subsequent to incorrect use of
information or diagrams reproduced in this document, and cannot be held
responsible for any errors or oversights, or for the consequences of using
information and diagrams contained in this document.
Benot de METZ-NOBLAT
ESE engineer, worked for Saint-Gobain, then started at Merlin Gerin
in 1986.
He is a member of the Electrical Network competence group that
studies electrical phenomena concerning the operation of networks
and their interaction with devices and equipment.
Contents
1 Introduction p. 4
2 Life of an electrical network 2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network p. 5
2.2.Electrical phenomena in networks p. 6
2.3 Types of networks and their operation p. 6
2.4 Necessary calculations p. 6
2.5 Summary table p. 7
3 Study prerequisites 3.1 Method p. 8
3.2 Role of the expert p. 10
4 Electrical-network calculations 4.1 Dependability p. 11
4.2 Steady-state conditions p. 13
4.3 Short-circuit p. 15
4.4 Protection p. 17
4.5 Stability p. 19
4.6 Harmonics p. 21
4.7 Overvoltages p. 23
4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility p. 26
4.9 Measurements for audits p. 28
5 Summary - Main risks for users - Answers provided by studies p. 31
6 Conclusion p. 33
Appendix 1. History p. 34
Appendix 2. Software p. 35
Appendix 3. Necessary data p. 36
Bibliography p. 37
Electrical networks have long been studied to c Electricity is now considered a product like any
ensure effective supply of electricity to processes. other, which implies a need for quality.
The main aspects studied are design, operation and Consumers want access to electrical energy
upgrades. suited to their needs. Given the extremely
Note that, in this document, the term "process" diverse requirements of processes in terms of
refers to all applications of electricity users safety and quality, the electricity supplied must
(commercial, infrastructure, industry, distribution- meet the stipulated specifications.
system manager). At every level in the electrical supply chain
(production, transmission, distribution), energy
Given the recent worldwide context, the importance suppliers must satisfy customers and users in
of electrical network studies is growing continuously. line with personalised contractual clauses.
c Over the past few years, the electrical world and c Environmental protection criteria have become
its organisational modes have undergone rapid obligatory in terms of the selection and
change. consumption of materials (minimum
v With deregulation of the electric market, the environmental impact) and energy (maximum
economic rules have changed. Consumers can take efficiency).
advantage of the competition between suppliers and c More than ever, economic aspects are a
utilities can extend their markets. crucial factor.
v Users are refocusing on their core business and Users must optimise the total cost of ownership
divesting secondary activities such as those (TCO) of the electrical network. The TCO
required to run electrical networks. Examples are includes all expenditures required to use
subcontracting of maintenance or operation of electrical energy, i.e. investments, operation,
installations to specialised service companies. maintenance and the purchase of energy.
v Technological progress has also had a number of To demonstrate the importance of calculations in
effects. engineering studies, this Cahier Technique
First of all, digital electronics and computer networks publication will successively discuss:
have opened new horizons, but also imposed new
v aspects pertaining to the life of an electrical
constraints. They have improved electric system
network;
instrumentation and control, including remote
control, but at the same time have made processes v calculation methods;
more sensitive to energy quality. v the main calculations required according to the
Secondly, the trend toward multiple energy sources type of network and the applications involved.
(combined heat and power - CHP, renewable Note that the calculations presented here
energy) and the widespread use of non-linear loads represent only one element in the overall
can, over time, have major impact on network electrical-engineering process.
architecture and operating modes, due to voltage
disturbances, protection needs and regulations.
t
pa
c life cycle, i.e. the successive phases in the life
i
tic
of an electrical network from its design on
An
Design End
through to upgrades (see Fig. 1 );
ts -
Construction of life
c electrical phenomena encountered in system
Forecas
operation;
c types of networks and their operation, which Network
directly determine the impact of events on
electrical components; Upgrades Process Operation
c finally, the calculations required to develop
economically and technically viable solutions,
and which constitute one of the final selection
criteria of the user.
Maintenance
Class of phenomenon
Discontinuous
Slow
Fast
Stable
Conducted electromagnetic
Radiated electromagnetic
Electrical events
Interruptions and breaks in supply
Voltage sags and
variations
Transient currents
Electromechanical oscillations
Harmonics, flicker
Short-circuits
Overvoltages caused by switching,
arcs and recovery transients
Overvoltages caused
by lightning
Coupling between power and control currents
Type of calculation
Dependability
Dynamic stability
Load flow
Harmonics
Short-circuit, protection, SEA
Switching transients
Atmospheric transients
EMC
3.1 Method
The overall calculation procedure follows a list of the important phenomena for an
standard scientific approach, i.e. simple in its application.
principle, but precise and rigorous in its
c Phenomena and events studied
execution. This section discusses the steps in
This step consists in selecting, on the basis of
the method, then the currently used digital
the above analysis, the phenomena for which
simulation tools.
calculations will be run.
Steps c Quantitative analysis
Figure 3 shows the different steps in calculating Use of the digital quantification tool comprises:
electrical systems. v Modelling
Modelling an electrical network means
c Need representing each element and all the
The overall purpose of calculations is to foresee interconnections between elements by equations
the quantitative behaviour of a real system in expressing the electrical, magnetic and
order to size it, understand its operation or mechanical behaviour. The equations must be
control it. adapted to the phenomena studied.
c Qualitative analysis v Simulation
Preliminary analysis, based on experience and Simulation of an electrical network means
know-how, makes it possible to draft a qualitative simultaneously solving all the equations in the
Need
Real system Quantitative prediction
Qualitative
analysis
Phenomena
Calculation loop Quantitative analysis
and events
= Modelling + simulation
to be studied
Experience
(measurements) Validation loop
Comparison
Fig 4: UMI screen for data entry and the display of the results (source - Schneider Electric).
This Cahier Technique publication covers all c the contribution of the study and its
electrical networks and consequently all deliverables;
applications: c an example of an application drawn from real
c on public, industrial, commercial and studies carried out by Schneider Electric.
residential networks; The overall goal is simply to briefly inform the
c from low to high voltages. reader and the scope of each example is
This section describes the studies listed above, therefore necessarily limited. For more detailed
systematically taking into account the following technical information, consult the bibliography
points: and particularly the Cahier Technique
publications addressing the various points.
c the purpose of the study;
The risks run by users and the answers provided
c the concerned electrical phenomena and their
by the studies are then summarised in the
origin;
following section.
c their effects and the proposed solutions;
4.1 Dependability
Over the course of the years, dependability is a The supply of electrical energy depends
need that has spread to all processes that are essentially on:
vulnerable to energy outages. c the topological structure of the electrical
The notion of dependability is defined by the network for all the possible operating modes and
values for: during their changes in status condition (normal,
c energy availability; downgraded and safe modes);
c the annual rate of outages; c normal operation of the system when the
various operating scenarios run correctly;
c maintainability.
c the organisation of maintenance;
Goals c forecasts concerning accidental disturbances.
The purpose of an operating-dependability study
on network behaviour is to: Effects and solutions
c design the optimum network architecture in Electrically speaking, operating failures in a
view of meeting the energy needs of the loads in network manifest themselves in the manners
the installation, as defined by the continuity of presented below.
service requirements imposed by the process, c Energy outages of the utility. The distribution
through: networks themselves fail or are disturbed (device
v better control over the risks caused by failure, atmospheric disturbances, etc.). The
outages; results are voltage sags and more or less long
v enhancement of the decision-aid criteria in outages for the incoming substations. Depending
order to make a selection between a number of on the network topology and the means
solutions; implemented, these disturbances may be
propagated down to the load level.
c plan for downgraded operating situations,
quantify their probability and define a level of c Insulation faults. The resulting short-circuits
confidence attributed to the supply of electrical provoke for the loads voltage sags or outages
energy. that depend on:
v the protection devices installed and their level
Phenomena and origins of discrimination;
The presence of electrical energy is generally v the "electrical" distance between the load and
characterised by: the fault;
c reliability for a time interval DT, expressed as v the network topology which may offer the
the mean time between failures (MTBF) or the means to reconfigure the system through active
mean time to (the first) failure (MTTF); or passive redundancy.
c availability at time T; c Nuisance tripping which provokes a break in
c the mean time to repair (MTTR) a failure. the supply of power to the downstream loads.
2500 A LV
circuit breakers
Fig. 5: Recommended modifications (in green) carried out on the electrical network of an automobile factory, diagram and results
(source Schneider Electric).
T1 G
RB G2
TRA GE
C1 C2
Q1 Q2
B1 RA MLVS
Q5 Q4 Q3
L5 R3
x2 T Workshop
B5
Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9
Lighting Motor
L6 D7 V8 C9
Fig. 6: Design of a commercial site using the dedicated ECODIAL software, showing the single-line diagram and the power-sum screen
(source Merlin Gerin - Schneider Electric).
4.3 Short-circuit
Operation of an electrical network may result in c resulting in a new balance rendering the
faults in the form of high short-circuit currents system unusable in part or whole, more
producing serious consequences that must be vulnerable and disturbed.
managed as best possible. The origins of short-circuits in networks are
A short-circuit is an accidental contact between accidental disturbances caused by undesired
conductors, determined by: contacts between conductors, dielectric
c its type, which indicates the elements breakdown of insulation due to overvoltages,
involved, i.e. single-phase (between a phase and mechanical events (breaking of cable, falling
earth or neutral), three-phase (between three tree, animal) or human errors. The effects
phases), phase-to-phase clear of earth (between depend on the structure of the network, including
two phases), two-phase-to-earth (between two the SEA, distant sources (distribution network) or
phases and earth), near sources (nearby genset).
c its initiation characteristics, i.e. the waveform Effects and solutions
of the current over time,
Electrically speaking, short-circuits produce a
c its amperage (minimum and maximum values), direct effect in the form of an overcurrent and an
c its duration which is variable because the fault indirect effect in the form of voltage variations.
can be transient or continuous,
c The direct effect is produced on the installation
c its origin, internal (within a device) or external components according to the successive phases
(between connectors). of the initiation of the current:
Goals v peak value of the first half period, which is the
maximum instantaneous peak,
The purpose of studying a network subjected to
v rms value of the AC component,
a short-circuit is to:
v value of the non-periodic (DC) component,
c identify risk situations that can possibly cause: which depends on when the fault occurs and the
v danger for persons, network characteristics. If the value is equal to
v destruction of devices due to electrodynamic zero, the operating mode is said to be
forces, excessive temperature rise and symmetrical, otherwise it is asymmetrical.
overvoltages, The DC component adds to the AC component.
v malfunctions that can result in total loss of the The effects impacting on equipment are:
network due to voltage sags and outages, v the electrodynamic forces exerted on the
busbars and along cables,
c assist in making basic design decisions to limit
v the temperature rise due to the flow of current
the effects of faults, concerning:
in lines and switchgear,
v system earthing arrangements (SEA),
v the operating capability (C+O) of a device on a
v suitable sizing of devices, shorted circuit.
v protection settings, determined on the basis of These effects are managed by selecting
the fault-current calculations. sufficiently sized devices and equipment:
Phenomena and origins v electrodynamic withstand of lines, which
characterises their mechanical strength,
The phenomenon requiring analysis is a sudden
v the current vs. permissible duration
unbalance in the initial steady-state conditions:
characteristics, which represent the thermal
c due to the appearance of high currents and withstand capacity,
voltage drops at the fault points, v the short-circuit breaking and making
c extension of the unbalance to the entire capacities which define the capacity of circuit
network, breakers to handle the forces brought into play.
20
15
10
-5
-10
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480
20 60 100 140 180 220 260 300 340 380 420 460 500
Total current
DC component
Fig. 7: Study on the substation of a power station, simulation of the asymmetrical three-phase short-circuit current
produced by a fault near the generator.
4.4 Protection
An electrical network that malfunctions must not c malfunctions of the electrical network and,
endanger life and property. consequently, of the process.
Network protection is a set of devices that detect These effects can be avoided by:
abnormal situations and react in a reliable,
discriminate and rapid manner. c first, fundamental decisions concerning:
The main malfunctions were described in the v the SEA: isolated (IT), earthed (TT or TN),
previous sections. impedant, compensated,
v the breaking devices: circuit breaker, fuse,
Goals disconnector-fuse, disconnector,
The purpose of calculating the protection system v the discrimination system: current, time,
is to: energy, ZSI, directional, differential,
c identify abnormal operating situations that may c then, by coordinating the protection devices
result in accidents for humans, destruction of based on the results of the short-circuit study
devices or the loss of supply for consumers, (settings of relays and trip units, cascading
c determine the necessary measures to ensure between LV circuit breakers).
the protection of life and property, and the Practically speaking, this means:
availability of electrical energy. These measures v de-energising the faulty section of the network
result in the following necessary operations: as fast as possible,
v definition of the protection system, v maintaining energised the non-faulty sections
v selection, installation and combination of the and, if possible,
breaking and protection devices, v backup protection by the upstream device,
v determining the settings of protection devices. where the general idea behind the protection
settings is to trip for the smallest fault current
Phenomena and origins and not to trip for the highest normal current.
The electrical phenomena that must be studied
The contribution of a study
are those present:
c during operation at power frequency, when The purpose of this study is to ensure correct
operating malfunctions occur affecting the rated operation of the electrical installation, where the
values, e.g. power (overload), current, voltage, major parameters are:
frequency, etc., c faults on the distribution network (phase faults,
c during faults, short-circuits and overvoltages. earth leakage and faults, overloads),
c faults in the machines operating on the site
Protection devices must be suited to:
(rotating machines, computer equipment, etc.),
c normal system operation which may drift
c the operating configurations, i.e. the sources,
toward abnormal conditions (overloads, voltage
loads, emergency modes, future extensions,
sags, etc.),
c foreseeable accidental disturbances, including c the devices in the protection system: sensors,
short-circuits, human errors, relays/trip units, breaking devices,
c network architecture (radial, open or closed c the protection plan and the settings of the
loop). protection devices.
Example
Effects and solutions
This case is drawn from a study on the design of
A faulty protection system is manifested, the network for a petrochemical site.
electrically speaking, by voltage drops
c Purpose of the calculations
throughout the network, overvoltages, overloads,
Select the protection functions for one of the HV/
short-circuit currents, where the main effects are:
LV transformers in the installation and determine
c accidents for persons, the settings for a maximum three-phase short-
c destruction of devices and equipment, circuit on the LV side.
Fig. 8: Discrimination study for a petrochemical site, diagram and types of protection relays selected for a HV/LV
transformer.
t (s)
1000
0
1 1
100
10
2
0.1
4
0 I (A)
0.01
1000 10000 1e+005 1e+006
Fig. 9: Discrimination diagram for protection devices placed upstream and downstream of the transformer.
Utility
C O G1 G2
C O
B1
non-priority priority
2000 2000
1000 1000
sec sec
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The voltage returns to normal. The voltage does not return to normal.
The process is correctly resupplied. The process is not correctly resupplied.
fault fault
1 1
0.95 0.95
0.90 0.90
0.85 0.85
sec sec
0.80 0.80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The pump reaccelerates. The process continues. The pump stalls. The process shuts down.
Fig. 10: Stability study on a heavy-industry production site. Diagram and significant curves following tripping.
4.6 Harmonics
Harmonics concern essentially electrical Phenomena and origins
networks supplying non-linear loads The different electrical phenomena related
representing a high power level with respect to to the presence of harmonics occur
the source and capacitors. throughout the network, via interdependent
All AC networks encounter some distortion of the mechanisms:
current and voltage sinusoidal waveforms due to c generation of harmonic current or voltage
the types of loads and/or the sources. sources by the polluting loads,
Harmonic pollution of a network is quantified by c effects of the pollution in the immediate vicinity
the signal distortion transformed into a spectrum of the polluting sources,
(amplitude and phase) with the fundamental (50 c propagation of the harmonics to the entire
or 60 Hz) and the harmonic orders (successive network with effects produced on all loads,
whole number orders), from which it is possible c composition of the pollution at all points in the
to deduce: network at each instant,
c the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the c possible amplification of the pollution through
current and voltage, which measures the rms resonance (plug circuit) when capacitors are
value of the distortion with respect to the present (long lines, power-factor correction).
fundamental,
Harmonics have a number of causes:
c the laws governing the combination of
harmonic values with respect to the amplitude c normal operation of the network, due to
and phase. process operation and requirements, including
operation of polluting loads at different speeds,
Goals starting or stopping of other loads,
The purpose of studying the response of a c the structure of the electrical network, including
network to harmonics is to: the voltage levels, separation of polluting and
vulnerable loads, the relative power of sources,
c identify risk situations which may cause
polluting loads and capacitors.
malfunctions or temperature rise in certain
devices, premature ageing, electromagnetic or
mechanical disturbances, Effects and solutions
c then determine the precautions required to This pollution is manifested, electrically
control the situations, maintaining pollution at speaking, by the main types of malfunctions
acceptable levels with respect to standards listed below.
(devices, installation, supply). c Direct sources of pollution
These precautions cover: The loads distorting the current represent the
c identification of the polluting loads, vast majority of the devices causing harmonics.
They are said to be "non linear" because the
c estimation of filtering solutions,
current drawn does not have the same waveform
c suitable sizing of installations, as the supply voltage. Each type of load has a
c optimisation of operating architectures. specific harmonic spectrum.
63 kV cable
L = 1000 m
S = 1000 mm2
Harmonic filters
140 MVA
arc furnace
100
20
50
10
5 10 Harmonic 2 4 6 8 Harmonic
order order
Current spectrum of the furnace. Impedance spectrum as seen from the 63 kV busbars.
Fig. 11: Study on harmonics for a steel mill (diagram and spectra).
4.7 Overvoltages
Overvoltages concern all electrical networks, Overvoltages in a network are quantified by the
which however differ in vulnerability according to amplitude and shape of the waveform and by the
their topology, voltage level, types of devices duration of the disturbance:
employed and operating modes. c overvoltage coefficient, ratio between the peak
Operation of AC networks is always subject to amplitude of the voltage and the rms value of the
voltage disturbances in the form of peak voltages operating voltage,
beyond the limits stipulated by standards or c continuous sinusoidal overvoltage (at power
specifications. frequency) for a long duration (over one hour),
Tt Tt Tp T1 Tf
T2 T2 Tt
Shape range f = 50 or 60 Hz 10 < f < 500 Hz 5.000 > Tp > 20 s 20 > T1 > 0,1 s 100 > Tf > 3 ns
(frequency, rising Tt u 3.600 s 3.600 u Tt u 0.03 s 20 ms u T2 300 s u T2 0.3 > f1 > 100 MHz
front, term) 30 > f2 > 300 kHz
3 ms u Tt
Standardised shape f = 50 or 60 Hz 48 i f i 62 Hz Tp = 250 s T1 = 1.2 s (*)
Tt (*) Tt = 60 s T2 = 2.500 s T2 = 50 s
Standardised (*) Short duration Switching Lightning (*)
withstand test power frequency impulse test impulse test
test
(*) to be specified by the relevant product Committee
Example
P3 lightning arrestor
The selected case is drawn from a study on the
design of a HV distribution substation that must
be securely protected against overvoltages Transformer
caused by lightning striking the incoming line.
c Purpose of the calculations
The purpose is to size devices for lightning Risk for:
overvoltages taking into account the
Installed Cable GIS Transformer
recommendations of standard IEC 60071-1 and lighning substation
2 on insulation coordination, which quantifies the arrestors (LIWL* 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV)
risk. The mean time between two destructive
P1 1454 years 425 years 299 years
faults is between 250 and 1 000 years.
P1+ P3 2053 years 812 years 592 years
c Results of the calculations P1+ P2 + P3 10E 9 years 10E 9 years 2.7 10E 6 years
Statistic simulation of lightning impacts on the
(*) LIWL: lightning impulse withstand level.
line using the electrogeometric model indicates
the distribution of the overvoltages propagated in Fig. 13: Study on lightning overvoltages for the design
the substation and is used to deduce the of a HV distribution substation, diagram and risk
probability of the resulting risk (see table in estimates.
Figure 13 ).
Optimum substation protection against lightning,
quantified as per the insulation-coordination
i 50 Hz + harmonics i 50 Hz + harmonics
PEN PEN
MLVS Inverter
TN-C TN-S
AC
DC Ph Acquisition
N system
N
PEN
PE i 50 Hz + harmonics
Fig. 14: EMC study for measurement-acquisition and video systems installed near a test facility, diagram showing
the path of leakage currents and harmonics.
Stmeady-state conditions Operating disturbances (damage to sensitive loads, A check on system sizing in compliance with
See section 4.2 variation in motor torques, mechanical vibrations and standards:
even production shutdowns). c selection of voltage levels in the network structure,
Visual disturbances (flicker). c short-circuit power and voltage tolerances
Abnormal temperature rise in connections and c location and distribution on power-factor correction,
magnetic circuits, resulting in energy losses and c equipment: breaking devices, cable sizes,
possible risk of fire and accelerated ageing. transformer and motor characteristics, etc.
Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement of Calculation of system steady-state conditions (load-
equipment (need to oversize), repairs, production flows) in different operating situations:
shutdown (lost production and process restarts). c distribution of voltages at nodes and of currents in
the connectors, in amplitude and phase,
c voltage drops,
c power flows and the corresponding losses.
Optimisation of energy contracts.
Operating recommendations (selection of transformer
voltage taps, load-shedding and reconnection plan,
start-up of capacitors, etc.).
Updating of network data.
Short-circuit Dangerous touch voltages for persons. Short-circuit currents calculated in compliance with the
See section 4.3 Damage to electrical equipment due to overcurrents installation standards (IEC 60909 and UTE C15105
(temperature rise and fire). guide), required to calculate the protection devices.
Production shutdown. Sizing of devices and equipment (circuit breakers,
fuses, transformers, switchboards, sensors, cables,
Disturbances due to voltage sags (malfunction of wiring systems, earthing circuits) taking into account
sensitive devices). making and breaking capacities as well as short-circuit
Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown, thermal and electrodynamic withstands.
etc.).
Protection Accidents involving persons. A general definition of the protection system and its
See section 4.4 Damage to electrical equipment and machines. principles, e.g. SEA, protection and backup functions,
selected discrimination, coordination between different
Shutdown of unaffected parts of the network. voltage levels.
Production shutdown. Sensor characteristics: location, ratio, accuracy class.
Faulty sections of the network maintained in operation, Breaking-device characteristics: type, location.
resulting in system instability.
Protection-device characteristics: settings of trip units
Process malfunctions leading to production losses and
and relays.
repair costs.
Curves or tables showing effective discrimination
between protection devices.
Overvoltages Operating disturbances (voltage sags and short Definition of the optimum solutions to attenuate the
See section 4.7 outages). problem, based on the selective, simultaneous and
Destruction of equipment due to dielectric breakdown. selective use of several protection systems, e.g.
lightning rods, overhead earth wire, lightning arrestors,
Production shutdown. surge arrestors, spark gap units, varistors, diodes,
Accelerated ageing and temperature rise in equipment choke coils, insertion resistors, synchronisers.
due to non-destructive, but repeated stresses. Sizing and location of the recommended systems.
Malfunctions of sensitive equipment (power Definition of equipment insulation in line with the
electronics, low-current systems). protection systems, selection of dielectric withstand in
Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown, compliance with insulation-coordination standards
etc.). (IEC 60664 for LV and IEC 60071 for HV).
Design of the SEA.
Operating advice.
EMC Damage to electrical and electronic equipment due to An EMC audit (to understand how disturbances occur).
See section 4.8 temperature rise or dielectric breakdown. Assistance in drafting technical specifications for
Malfunctions of electrical components that may impact electrical systems.
on the entire network. Advice on installation configuration, e.g. running of
Malfunctions of process machines. different types of cables, SEA, ECPs, etc.
Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown, Application of EMC standards.
etc.).
Measurements for audits Studies and calculations often require measurements carried out on site, either continuously (e.g. via a
See section 4.9 permanently installed remote-monitoring system) or by temporarily installed measurement devices.
The optimum total cost of ownership (TCO) of a domains (industrial, commercial, residential,
system is the result of the best compromise distribution). They can be used to foresee the
between the service obtained by the user for the electrical phenomena occurring during operation
needs of the process and the total outlay. of systems and to analyse their impact on
For an electrical network, the TCO takes into installation sizing and network operation. They
account the different phases in the life of the also take into account important events and
system, e.g. design, construction, operation, parameters, in both the normal and downgraded
maintenance and upgrades. operating modes.
For this reason, all participants (owners, The various summary tables show the
designers and users) are involved in all phases importance of the necessary means and know-
of the project and the electrical engineering how (see the following appendices as well).
studies constitute an indispensable step in the Finally, the examples provided indicate that the
overall process leading to effective use of relevance of the selected solutions is also the
electrical energy. These studies can also be result of the vast experience gained through a
considered a profitable investment in that the large number of audits. Only very large electrical
efficiency of the installation can be improved. companies (energy distributors or device
This Cahier Technique publication has manufacturers) have the necessary experience.
demonstrated the wide range of calculations N.B. More in-depth information is available in the
required in conducting these studies. collection of Cahier Technique publications
These studies concern all types of networks in dealing specifically with many of the topics
the LV and HV fields, and applications in all covered in this document (see the bibliography).
The physical laws governing the operation of propagation), constitute an artificial network (e.g.
electrical networks were established prior to the tests on protection systems) or a micro-network
generalisation of networks and thus to the need (e.g. tests on dynamic stability).
for calculations. To enhance their capacity and performance
The development over time of the tools used for levels, simulators were equipped with analogue
predictive analysis of the behaviour of electrical simulators having the electronic devices required
networks can be broken down into four to model certain components (e.g. regulators),
overlapping periods. thus creating hybrid simulators.
c Calculations "by hand" from 1925 to 1960 c Digital simulation models since 1970
During this period, the many aspects involved in At the time when optimisation of networks had
the operation of electrical networks were started and major failures of large industrial and
discovered, based on the phenomena observed public-distribution networks occurred, needs in
and measurements made in installations. terms of calculations increased. Digital
Analytical methods were used, based on a priori simulators were the answer with the coming of
ideas concerning the physical phenomena, i.e. the computer age.
solutions were calculated on the basis of v Initially, calculations were run on large
electrical laws, using manual techniques (slide mainframe computers. The programs were
rules and tables), and hypotheses were generally created by large companies for their
confirmed by checking the calculations with the own needs.
measurements made. Predictive extrapolation
was widely used, thanks to nomographs in which v Around 1990, digital simulation and
the major parameters could be varied. In decentralisation spread with the progress
parallel, professional practices based on achieved in PCs. Programs appeared on the
experience were improved. market and, today, users have a wide selection
for a number of applications.
c Physical simulation models from 1950 to 1990 Note. The idea behind a digital simulator is to set
Due to their increasing size and complexity, up a digital model based on the laws governing
networks became true electrical systems with the network, then to simulate operation by
extensive interaction between components. In solving the equations with the suitable program.
addition, the notion of energy quality gradually The major advantage lies in its great flexibility in
appeared. The need for prediction became more handling all types of networks and a wide range
pressing and more general, because it was of phenomena, but it does not operate in real
necessary to foresee the many operating time.
situations, both normal and disturbed, precisely
and dependably. c Digital Case Tools since 1990
Simulators met these requirements fairly well. These software engineering tools represent the
They were laboratory instruments, expensive generalisation of computerised simulation as the
both to purchase and use, and thus limited to the universal means of calculation (virtual networks)
major utilities. The idea behind a simulator is to with comprehensive data bases and real-time
create a scale model of the network, reproducing processing for product development, operator
the behaviour of the system in real time. training, optimised management, etc.
Depending on the planned application, the
simulator can analyse transients (e.g. wave
Type of calculation
Dependability Steady-state Short- Protection Dynamic Harmonics Overvoltages EMC
Type of program conditions circuit stability
Functional analysis c c
FMECA c c
Fault tree c
Markoff graph c
Ptri network c
Load-flow c c c
Load-flow optimisation c
Cable sizing c c
LV cable sizing and c c c
protection
Earthing network c c c c
calculations
Short-circuit c c c
Discrimination c c c
Steady-state stability c c
Dynamic stability c
Motor starting c c c
Harmonics c c c
Current/voltage c c c c c
transients
Lightning protection c c
EMC disturbances c c
EMTP general- c c c c c
purpose software
Data acquisition c c c c c c c
(measurements)
Measurements
This table presents a general overview of the data
Dependability
Short-circuits
Overvoltages
Steady-state
required for the various calculations.
calculation
Harmonics
conditions
Protection
Stability
Type of
EMC
Necessary data
General data c c
v network single-line diagram c c c c c c c
v operating configurations c c c c c c c
v SEAs c c c c c c
For all components c c
v rated voltage and power c c c c c c
v impedances (positive, negative and zero sequence) c c c c
v short-circuit withstand c c
v transient-voltage withstand (switching and lightning) c
v types of protection c c
Sources c c
v voltage and frequency (rated/min./max.) c c c c c c c
v short-circuit power (rated/min./max.) c c c c c
v existing harmonic voltages c
v protection settings c c
Gensets c c
v voltage, power and power factor c c c c c c
v impedances and time constants c c c c
v mechanical characteristics (inertia, number of poles) c
v transfer functions, turbine regulation, excitation c
Lines, cables, busbars, GIS substations c c
v resistance, inductance, capacitance of lines c c c c c
v length, parallel elements, installation methods c c c c c c
v geometric data on pylons and structures c
v characteristics of insulators, spark gap units, etc. c
Transformers c c
v voltages (primary, secondary, tertiary) c c c c c c
v power, type of connection, taps c c c c c c
v short-circuit voltages and losses c c c c c
Passive loads, capacitors, inductors c c
v rated voltage and power c c c c
v power factor c c c c
v type of load (constant impedance, current or power) c c c c
v load and diversity factors c c c c
Active loads c c
v rated voltage and power c c c c c
v power factor c c c c c
v motor characteristics (speed, inertia, slip, Tstart/Tn, Tmax/Tn, c c c c c
Istart/In, etc.)
v characteristics of devices incorporating power electronics (type of c c c c
assembly, etc.)
v load and diversity factors c c c c c
Non-linear loads c c
v U, I (lightning arrestor) characteristics c
v current and voltage harmonic spectra c
Breaking devices c c
v fuse type and rating c c
v circuit-breaker characteristics (making and breaking capacity, c c c c
transient recovery voltage, etc.)
Protection c c
v characteristics of current and voltage sensors c
v protection functions and setting ranges c
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