Learning styles

Learning styles are various approaches or ways of learning. They involve educating methods, particular to an individual
that are presumed to allow that individual to learn best. It is commonly believed that most people favor some particular
method of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli or information.

David Kolb's model

The David A. Kolb styles model is based on the Experiential Learning Theory, as explained in his book Experiential
Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. The ELT model outlines two related toward grasping
experience: Concrete Experience andAbstract Conceptualization, as well as two related approaches toward
transforming experience: Reflective Observation and Active Experimentation. According to Kolb’s model, the ideal
learning process engages all four of these modes in response to situational demands. In order for learning to be
effective, all four of these approaches must be incorporated. As individuals attempt to use all four approaches, however,
they tend to develop strengths in one experience-grasping approach and one experience-transforming approach. The
resulting learning styles are combinations of the individual’s preferred approaches. These learning styles are as follows:

1. Converger;
2. Diverger;
3. Assimilator;
4. Accommodator
Convergers are characterized by abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. They are good at making
practical applications of ideas and using deductive reasoning to solve problems.
Divergers tend toward concrete experience and reflective observation. They are imaginative and are good at coming
up with ideas and seeing things from different perspectives.
Assimilators are characterized by abstract conceptualization and reflective observation. They are capable of creating
theoretical models by means of inductive reasoning.
Accommodators use concrete experience and active experimentation. They are good at actively engaging with the
world and actually doing things instead of merely reading about and studying them
Honey and Mumford’s model
Peter Honey and Alan Mumford adapted David Kolb’s model for use with a population of middle/senior managers in
business. Two adaptations were made to Kolb’s experiential model. Firstly, the stages in the cycle were renamed to
accord with managerial experiences of decision making/problem solving. The Honey & Mumford stages are:

1. Having an experience
2. Reviewing the experience
3. Concluding from the experience
4. Planning the next steps.
Secondly, the styles were directly aligned to the stages in the cycle and
named Activist, Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. These are assumed to be acquired preferences that are adaptable,
either at will or through changed circumstances, rather than being fixed personality characteristics. The Honey &
Mumford Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) is a self-development tool and differs from Kolb’s Learning Style inventory
by inviting managers to complete a checklist of work-related behaviours without directly asking managers how they
learn. Having completed the self-assessment, managers are encouraged to focus on strengthening underutilised styles in
order to become better equipped to learn from a wide range of everyday experiences.
Anthony Gregorc's model
Dennis W. Mills, Ph.D., discusses the work of Anthony F. Gregorc and Kathleen A. Butler in his article entitled “Applying What We
Know: Student Learning Styles”. Gregorc and Butler worked to organize a model describing how the mind works. This model is based
on the existence of perceptions—our evaluation of the world by means of an approach that makes sense to us. These perceptions in
turn are the foundation of our specific learning strengths, or learning styles.
In this model, there are two perceptual qualities 1) concrete and 2) abstract; and two ordering abilities 1) random and 2) sequential.
Concrete perceptions involve registering information through the five senses, while abstract perceptions involve the understanding
of ideas, qualities, and concepts which cannot be seen.
In regard to the two ordering abilities, sequential involves the organization of information in a linear, logical way and random
involves the organization of information in chunks and in no specific order.
Both of the perceptual qualities and both of the ordering abilities are present in each individual, but some qualities and ordering
abilities are more dominant within certain individuals of themself.
There are four combinations of perceptual qualities and ordering abilities based on dominance: 1) Concrete Sequential; 2) Abstract
Random; 3) Abstract Sequential; 4) Concrete Random. Individuals with different combinations learn in a different ways—they have
different strengths, different things make sense to them, different things are difficult for them, and they ask different questions
throughout the learning process.

Sudbury model of democratic education

Sudbury Model democratic schools assert that there are many ways to study and learn. They argue that learning is a process
you do, not a process that is done to you. That is true of everyone; it's basic. The experience of Sudbury model democratic
schools shows that there are many ways to learn without the intervention of teaching, to say, without the intervention of a
teacher being imperative. In the case of reading for instance in the Sudbury model democratic schools, some children learn
from being read to, memorizing the stories and then ultimately reading them. Others learn from cereal boxes, others from
games instructions, others from street signs. Some teach themselves letter sounds, others syllables, others whole words.
Sudbury model democratic schools adduce that in their schools no one child has ever been forced, pushed, urged, cajoled, or
bribed into learning how to read or write; and they have had no dyslexia. None of their graduates are real or functional
illiterates, and no one who meets their older students could ever guess the age at which they first learned to read or write. In
a similar form students learn all the subjects, techniques, and skills in these schools.
Describing current instructional methods as homogenization and lockstep standardization, alternative approaches are
proposed, such as theSudbury Model of Democratic Education schools, an alternative approach in which children, by enjoying
personal freedom thus encouraged to exercise personal responsibility for their actions, learn at their own pace and
style rather than following a compulsory and chronologically-based curriculum. Proponents of unschooling have also claimed
that children raised in this method learn at their own pace and style, and do not suffer from learning disabilities.
Other models
Aiming to explain why aptitude tests, school grades, and classroom performance often fail to identify real ability, Robert J.
Sternberg listed various cognitive dimensions in his book Thinking Styles (1997). Several other models are also often used
when researching learning styles. This includes the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the DISC assessment.
One of the most common and widely-used [17] categorizations of the various types of learning styles is Fleming's VARK model
which expanded upon earlier Neuro-linguistic programming (VARK) models[18]:

1. visual learners;
2. auditory learners;
3. reading/writing-preference learners;
4. kinesthetic learners or tactile learners[1].
Fleming claimed that visual learners have a preference for seeing (think in pictures; visual aids such as overhead slides,
diagrams, handouts, etc.). Auditory learners best learn through listening (lectures, discussions, tapes, etc.). Tactile/kinesthetic
learners prefer to learn via experience—moving, touching, and doing (active exploration of the world; science projects;
experiments, etc.). Its use in pedagogy allows teachers to prepare classes that address each of these areas. Students can also
use the model to identify their learning style and maximize their educational experience by focusing on what benefits them
the most.
Learning Styles

Different people learn using different 'styles.' Some people need to read printed material in order to memorize it,
while others prefer to 'picture' what they are studying by creating images in their mind. You may retain information
more easily if you can associate it with an action or you may feel more comfortable when information is conveyed
through sound, either voice or music.

There are many classifications for the different styles of learning. Some definitions refer to the senses of sight,
hearing, and touch. Learners may have a sight-based style: they memorize best using their eyes, either reading
written material or seeing an action performed. If you have a hearing-based approach, you are more focused when
you hear information. Other learners use movement and the sense of touch to commit to memory and recall
information.
Other theories speak of different kinds of 'intelligence.' Besides those based on the senses, for example, there are an
'interpersonal' intelligence and an 'intra-personal' one. These definitions distinguish between a 'social' kind of learning
and a 'private' style. Interpersonal intelligence favors communication and works best in one-to-one or group
relationships: in this case, you learn best by interacting with other people and could benefit from study groups. On the
other hand, intrapersonal intelligence tends to use introspection and reasoning: you probably learn best alone, find it
easy to concentrate and are attracted to the spiritual side of things.

How do you learn best? You need to answer this question to devise a learning method that works well for you. For
example, think of someone's name. Do you remember reading the name or can you see it 'printed' in your memory?
Do you remember the sound of the name when it was spoken or do you remember the name better if you move your
hand as if you were writing it? If you consider how you like to learn, you can understand how your brain prefers to
receive information and how it can process it more efficiently.

Sight

If you are a 'visual learner,' try to concentrate your practice on the sense of sight. If you remember written
information more easily, try to use printed resources, and create additional texts writing by hand or using a word
processor. Make notes of books, presentations, lectures, mathematical problems, experiments, graphics, etc. Try to
transform whatever material you have into written information. You can first write detailed explanations, and then
review them by writing summaries. Make use of color too. Besides highlighting important information using color
pens, you can use different colors for different subjects (e.g. white paper for maths, yellow paper for history, blue
paper for English, etc.) or types of information (black ink for facts or figures, red ink for problems or questions, blue
ink for points in favor of a theory, green ink for points against a theory, etc.)
If you remember visual information better, try using pictures and videos. Transform what is written or spoken into
visually striking material like graphics, diagrams, and symbols. Create your own images and charts to summarize the
information. Use color and shape. Because you find it easy to create designs and patterns, use your imagination to
create mental pictures of the subject.

Hearing

If you are an 'auditory learner,' try to concentrate your practice on the sense of hearing. Try to use audio material for
your studies, such as books on tape or recordings of classes you attended. Transform written material into sound by
reading the texts aloud and recording yourself. Study by talking aloud too: read and repeat aloud, and speak aloud
when going through a process (e.g. solving a mathematical exercise, carrying out an experiment, writing information,
etc.) It may also be a good idea to partner with a fellow student to promote spoken communication. If you join or
form a study group, you can both speak aloud and listen to others.
If you are sensitive to music, you can also try to incorporate rhythm into your studies. For instance, you can choose a
tune you are familiar with and repeat the information aloud according to the melody.

Touch and Movement

'Kinetics' is the science that studies movement. If you are a 'kinesthetic learner,' you should use movement when you
study. If you are a 'tactile learner,' try to concentrate your practice on the sense of touch. You can 'rework' the
material you have available to transform it into the kind that suits your learning style. Take notes of what you hear,
draw pictures and graphs, re-enact a class, walk when you revise, recite the contents of a book, etc. Use drama and
singing, if you feel comfortable with it. Simply moving your hands may help. Scientific studies have highlighted that
people remember speech better when it is accompanied by gestures. Study outdoors if you can, and do field work. For
instance, you can visit a place that is connected with the subject of your studies. Use a lab, if appropriate, or practice
making things with your hands. You can create a model or devise a game. Think of hands-on activities that fit in with
what you are learning.

Conclusions

• Understand how you learn best. Think of the way you like to receive and manipulate information. Consider how it is
easier for you to understand and memorize. One or more of your senses may be dominant, but there may be other
abilities you have and can use to study effectively.

• An active approach makes your practice more memorable and therefore more effective. Choose the approach with
which you feel more comfortable and that you think can work best given your aptitude.

Seven Principles of Good Practice.

1. Encourages Contact Between Students and Faculty

Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of classes is the most important factor in student motivation and
involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few
faculty members well enhances students' intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own
values and future plans.
2. Develops Reciprocity and Cooperation Among Students
Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort that a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is
collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in
learning. Sharing one's own ideas and responding to others' reactions sharpens thinking and deepens
understanding.
3. Encourages Active Learning
Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes listening to teachers,
memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning,
write about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part
of themselves.
4. Gives Prompt Feedback
Knowing what you know and don't know focuses learning. Students need appropriate feedback on performance
to benefit from courses. When getting started, students need help in assessing existing knowledge and
competence. In classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for
improvement. At various points during college, and at the end, students need chances to reflect on what they
have learned, what they still need to know, and how to assess themselves.
5. Emphasizes Time on Task
Time plus energy equals learning. There is no substitute for time on task. Learning to use one's time well is
critical for students and professionals alike. Students need help in learning effective time management. Allocating
realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty. How an
institution defines time expectations for students, faculty, administrators, and other professional staff can
establish the basis of high performance for all.
6. Communicates High Expectations
Expect more and you will get more. High expectations are important for everyone -- for the poorly prepared, for
those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the bright and well motivated. Expecting students to perform well
becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high expectations for themselves and make
extra efforts.
7. Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning
There are many roads to learning. People bring different talents and styles of learning to college. Brilliant
students in the seminar room may be all thumbs in the lab or art studio. Students rich in hands-on experience
may not do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways that work
for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come so easily.

Teachers and students hold the main responsibility for improving undergraduate education. But they need a lot of help.
College and university leaders, state and federal officials, and accrediting associations have the power to shape an
environment that is favorable to good practice in higher education.
What qualities must this environment have?

 A strong sense of shared purposes.

 Concrete support from administrators and faculty leaders for those purposes.
 Adequate funding appropriate for the purposes.
 Policies and procedures consistent with the purposes.
 Continuing examination of how well the purposes are being achieved.

ENHANCING YOUR TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

Accurately assessing your students' developmental state can direct your planning and impel your teaching. For
instance, recognizing a 16-year-old's concern about his appearance and his standing among his peers may
promote your rapport with him and eliminate learning barriers.

Keep in mind that chronologic age and developmental stage are not always related. Throughout life, people
move sequentially through developmental stages, but most people also fluctuate somewhat among stages,
often in response to outside stressors. These stressors can cause a person to regress temporarily to an earlier
stage. Sometimes a person may not achieve the task expected of his chronologic age. So you will need to
address your students at their current developmental stages, not at the stages at which you would expect
them to be because of their chronological ages.

In some situations, hopefully most, you will have time to sit down and develop a formal teaching plan. In
others, you will be confronted with a "teachable moment" when the student is ready to learn and is asking
pointed questions. Invariably, these moments seem to come at the most inopportune times. At times like
these, you face the dilemma: to teach or not to teach. Having a knowledge of basic learning principles will help
you take best advantage of these moments. Here are some principles proven to enhance teaching and
learning.

Seize the moment

Teaching is most effective when it occurs in quick response to a need the learner feels. So even though
you are elbow deep in something else, you should make every effort to teach the student when he or
she asks. The student is ready to learn. Satisfy that immediate need for information now, and augment
your teaching with more information later.
Involve the student in planning
Just presenting information to the student does not ensure learning. For learning to occur, you will
need to get the student involved in identifying his learning needs and outcomes. Help him to develop
attainable objectives. As the teaching process continues, you can further engage him or her by
selecting teaching strategies and materials that require the student's direct involvement, such as role
playing and return demonstration. Regardless of the teaching strategy you choose, giving the student
the chance to test his or her ideas, to take risks, and to be creative will promote learning.
Begin with what the student knows
You will find that learning moves faster when it builds on what the student already knows. Teaching
that begins by comparing the old, known information or process and the new, unknown one allows the
student to grasp new information more quickly.
Move from simple to complex
The student will find learning more rewarding if he has the opportunity to master simple concepts first
and then apply these concepts to more complex ones. Remember, however, that what one student
finds simple, another may find complex. A careful assessment takes these differences into account and
helps you plan the teaching starting point.
Accommodate the student's preferred learning style
 How quickly and well a student learns depends not only on his or her intelligence and prior education,
but also on the student's learning style preference. Visual learners gain knowledge best
by seeing or reading what you are trying to teach; auditory learners, by listening;and tactile or
psychomotor learners, by doing.

You can improve your chances for teaching success if you assess your patient's preferred learning style,
then plan teaching activities and use teaching tools appropriate to that style. To assess a student's
learning style, observe the student, administer a learning style inventory, or simply ask the student
how he or she learns best.

You can also experiment with different teaching tools, such as printed material, illustrations,
videotapes, and actual equipment, to assess learning style. Never assume, though, that your student
can read well -- or even read at all.

Sort goals by learning domain

You can combine your knowledge of the student's preferred learning style with your knowledge
of learning domains. Categorizing what the students need to learn into proper domains helps identify
and evaluate the behaviors you expect them to show.

Learning behaviors fall in three domains: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. The cognitive domain
deals with intellectual abilities. The psychomotor domain includes physical or motor skills.
The affective domain involves expression of feeling about attitudes, interests, and values. Most
learning involves all three domains.

Make material meaningful

Another way to facilitate learning is to relate material to the student's lifestyle -- and to recognize
incompatibilities. The more meaningful material is to a student, the quicker and easier it will be
learned.
Allow immediate application of knowledge
Giving the student the opportunity to apply his or her new knowledge and skills reinforces learning and
builds confidence. This immediate application translates learning to the "real world" and provides an
opportunity for problem solving, feedback, and emotional support.
Plan for periodic rests
While you may want the students to push ahead until they have learned everything on the teaching
plan, remember that periodic plateaus occur normally in learning. When your instructions are
especially complex or lengthy, your students may feel overwhelmed and appear unreceptive to your
teaching. Be sure to recognize these signs of mental fatigue and let the students relax. (You too can use
these periods - to review your teaching plan and make any necessary adjustments.)
Tell your students how they are progressing
Learning is made easier when the students are aware of their progress. Positive feedback can motivate
them to greater effort because it makes their goal seem attainable. Also, ask your students how they
feel they are doing. They probably want to take part in assessing their own progress toward learning
goals, and their input can guide your feedback. You will find their reactions are usually based on what
"feels right."
Reward desired learning with praise
Praising desired learning outcomes or behavior improves the chances that the students will retain the
material or repeat the behavior. Praising your students' successes associates the desired learning goal
with a sense of growing and accepted competence. Reassuring them that they have learned the
desired material or technique can help them retain and refine it.
TEACHING METHODS

Teaching methods are best articulated by answering the questions, "What is the purpose of education?" and "What are
the best ways of achieving these purposes?". For much of prehistory, educational methods were largely informal, and
consisted of children imitating or modelling their behaviour on that of their elders, learning through observation and play.
In this sense, the children are the students, and the elder is the teacher; a teacher creates the course materials to be
taught and then enforces it. Pedagogy is a different way by which a teacher can teach. It is the art or science of being a
teacher, generally referring to strategies of instruction or style of instruction. Resources that help teachers teach better
are typically a lesson plan, or practical skill involving learning and thinking skills. A curriculum is often set by the
Government with precise standards.

Diversity in Teaching in the Classroom

For effective teaching to take place, a good method must be adopted by a teacher. A teacher has many options when
choosing a style by which to teach. The teacher may write lesson plans of their own, borrow plans from other teachers, or
search online or within books for lesson plans. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher needs to consider
students' background knowledge, environment, and learning goals. Teachers are aware that students learn in different
ways, but almost all children will respond well to praise. Students have different ways of absorbing information and of
demonstrating their knowledge. Teachers often use techniques which cater to multiple learning styles to help students
retain information and strengthen understanding. A variety of strategies and methods are used to ensure that all students
have equal opportunities to learn. A lesson plan may be carried out in several ways: Questioning, explaining, modeling,
collaborating, and demonstrating.

Questioning
A teaching method that includes questioning is similar to testing. A teacher may ask a series of questions to collect
information of what students have learned and what needs to be taught. Testing is another application of questioning. A
teacher tests the student on what was previously taught in order to identify if a student has learned the material.
Standardized testing is in about every middle school (i.e. Ohio Graduation Test (OGT), Proficiency Test, College entrance
Tests (ACT and SAT).

Explaining
Another teaching method is explanation. This form is similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching by giving a discourse on a
specific subject that is open to the public, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with modeling.
Modeling is used as a visual aid to learning. Students can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and
hypothesizing to determine an answer.

Demonstrating
Demonstrations are done to provide an opportunity to learn new exploration and visual learning tasks from a different
perspective. A teacher may use experimentation to demonstrate ideas in a science class. A demonstration may be used
in the circumstance of proving conclusively a fact, as by reasoning or showing evidence.

Collaborating
Having students work in groups is another way a teacher can direct a lesson. Collaborating allows students to talk
amongst each other and listen to all points of view in the discussion. It helps students think in an unbiased way. When this
lesson plan is carried out, the teacher may be trying to assess the lesson by looking at the student's: ability to work as a
team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities. It is one of the direct instructional method.