728. Power Plant Engineering Jf Fast fission [ieee sre} “ea Fuel fission a Thermal neutron ‘absorption by fuel | Thermalneutron | neppt pw a absorption by NL_NL. nept Fy Fuc | non-tuel nepRi, (1- Pit) nep(i-f)P! Pit Fig. 16.10 Life Cycle of a Neutron 16.4 NUCLEAR REACTOR COMPONENTS Components that are most commonly used in most nuclear reactors for power generation shown in Figure 16.11 1. Fuel Ina thermal nuclear reactor, the fission induced by neutrons using a fuel isotope the several isotopes used in nuclear power generation, Fuel isotopes that are capable of bei fissioned by thermal neutrons are called fissiles, e.g. U*5, Pu>2? and Pu>"!. These are not able in nature but are produced by fission of fertile isotopes, ¢.g. gg Th”*”, oy Th?** and gyTh A typical nuclear reaction involving fuel isotope is U5 + in? — 4 7Ry + 55C,!4° + 2pn! + Heat (2 MeV) Fuel isotope + Neutron — Fission fragments + Neutrons + Energy 2. Moderator The function of a moderator is to reduce the energy of fast neutrons to thermal neutrons. D to high energy of fission neutrons (2 MeV) relative to that required to trigger another fissio event (0.0025 eV), their probability of interacting with another U5 is small. The probab of an interaction of a neutron and a bombarded nucleus is referred to as neutron cross se ‘The moderator slows down the neutrons to thermal energies by collision with inert ato (scattering). Speed of the neutrons is reduced within a small number of collisions as the mo erator possesses a high scattering cross section. Materials with low atomic mass number m best moderators. e.g. Light water, heavy water, carbon, beryllium‘Nuclear Power Plants 729 (Prevents radiation) 1 __ Secondary Primary coolant ‘a shield | Secondary . ' coolant Control rod ae ae 1 i ' Heat exchanger /Modetator ' ' ' — l«— Primary L6G) shield Fuel Utes lege (Cee ria Coolant circulator Fig. 16.11 Nuclear Power Plant ‘properties of a moderator st be as light as possible as slowing down action is more effective in elastic colli- with light elements. uld not absorb neutrons but slow down the neutrons as early as possible. ld have high resistance to corrosion as it has to work under high pressure and erature wuld have good machinability if used in solid form and should have high melting point. wuld be chemically stable and should not be decomposed due to nuclear radiation wuld have high thermal conductivity for better heat transfer. nt tion of the coolant is to remove the heat released by fission. The coolant should have fic heat, high conductivity, good chemical stability, good pumping characteristics and yn-absorption cross section. Coolant can be either liquid or gaseous. water, heavy water, air, CO,, He, sodium, bismuth, potassium, organic. i il rods Jods are normally made of cadmium, boron or hafnium. They have huge neutron- ; cross sections. The control rods are lowered or raised in the reactor core. Since the power is directly proportional to neutron density, lowering the control rods will remove from the reactor core and will decrease the power and reaction rate. Raising the control ill increase the power and rate.730 Power Plant Engineering 5. Shielding Shielding prevents the passage of radiation to the outside of the reactor. The prevents the leakage of neutron and gamma radiation present in the cooling circuits activation of the coolant as it passes through the core. The kind and the amount of: required depend on the type of radiation and intensity. A low atomic weight material for and a high atomic weight material for gamma rays are used. Shield is frequently c layers or heavy and light material such as concrete and water. Shields for external cit only gamma radiation may be present are made up of steel, lead, polyethylene and Concrete is used mostly due to its low cost. 6. Reflector Function of the reflector is to minimize the neutron leakage by reflecting them back reactor. The material used for reflector is same as that used for moderator. 7. Structure Structure provides physical support to the reactor, its components and containment elements. Aluminium, steel, zirconium and stainless steel are used for this purpose. 16.5 CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEAR REACTORS Nuclear reactors are classified based on the following factors: 1. Bpe of fission (i) Fast reactor — Fission is caused by fast neutron. The reactor has no moderator. core size is less. (ii) Thermal reactor — Fission is caused by slow or thermal neutrons. (iii) Intermediate reactor. 2. Types of fuel (i) Natural fuel — Using natural uranium as fuel and heavy water and graphite as (ii) Enriched uranium — Using 5-10 per cent of U5 and ordinary water as moderator, 3. Fuel cycles (i) Bumer reactor — Produces only heat (ii) Converter reactor ~ Fertile material is converted into fissile material (iii) Breeder reactor — Fertile material is converted into initial fissile material e.g. Natural uranium is the fuel; thorium is converted into U? Plutonium is the fuel; U** in converted into plutonium 4. Position of fissile and fertile material (i) One-region reactor — In this reactor, both fissile and fertile materials are mixed. (ii) Two-region reactor — In this reactor, both fissile and fertile materials are sep: placed (Figure 16.12).Nuclear Power Plants 734 (b) Two-region reactor (a) One-region reactor Fissile and Fertile material mixed Fissile Fertile .g.U surrounding Pu e.g.Natural U Fig. 16.12 Position of Fissile and Fertile Material te of fuel {) Solid state — liquid metal fuelled reactors i) Aqueous homogeneous reactor — liquid state hoice of moderator i) Graphite — higher atomic weight and bulky ii) Natural water, enriched Uranium ii) Natural Uranium wre composition i) Homogeneous reactor — Ifthe fuel and moderator are mixed, itis called a homogeneous reactor. rs i) Heterogeneous re neous reactor. This reactor contains large number of fuel ing them carries the heat generated 16.13 shows the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous reactors. actor — Ifthe fuel and moderator are separate, it is called a heteroge- J rods and the coolant circulat- Homogeneous U and moderator Homogeneous reactor mixture (b) Heterogeneous reactor Coolant flow channel Fig.16.13 Classification Based on Core Position732 Power Plant Engineering 8. Method of cooling (i) Direct system of cooling In this system, heat generated in the reactor is utilized by a liquid fuel, which exchanges with water circuit (Figure 16.14) Liquid fuel Fig. 16.14 Direct System Liquid Fuel (ii) Indirect system of cooling In this system, heat generated by the solid fuel is transferred to the coolant, which in exchanges heat with the water circuit (Figure 16.15) Solid fuel ae Coolant Fig. 16.15 Indirect System 9. Coolant used (i) Gas-cooled reactor ~ Air, Hy, He, CO, > Uses natural uranium, graphite moderator > Low pressure coolant, high reactor temperature > Large size reactor > Low power density (kW/I of core volume) > Steam pressure and temperature low > High pumping power (ii) Water-cooled reactors Water is used as coolant and moderator. (a) Light water (LW) (ordinary water) reactor These are the thermal reactor systems in which water serves as both the coolant and moderator. > High hydrogen concentration > Good thermal properties > Cheapest coolant and moderatorNuclear Power Plants 733 > Cooling system is simple > Hot water is corrosive > Must be highly pressurised to operate at moderate temperature > Costly reactor vessel, leak proof primary cooling circuit > Enriched Uranium (2-3 per cent) is used (6) Heavy water (water) reactor (HWR) These are the thermal reactor systems in which ordinary water serves as the coolant and the heavy water as moderator or heavy water serves as both the coolant and the moderator. > Low electron cross section > Good neutron economy > High fuel burn-up, lower fuel cost > High initial cost and limited by critical temperature 6 THERMAL FISSION REACTORS AND POWER PLANT AND THEIR LOCATION most important nuclear power reactors used at present include the following: ight-water (LW) moderated and cooled reactors may be either pressurized water (PWR) or boiling water reactor (BWR). In PWR, ing at about 14 MPa pressure and 300°C, the heat is transferred from the core to steam ors through intermediate heat exchangers. In BWR, operating at about 7 MPa and the coolant water boils at the top of the core and supplies steam directly to the turbines. fuel used is slightly enriched UO). jeavy-water moderated reactors (CNDU) se reactors, the heavy-water moderator is contained in a calandria. Insulated pressure containing the fuel elements circulate the pressurized light-water coolant in the calandria MPa and 300°C and transfer the heat from the fuel elements to steam generators. The fuel is natural UO), rbon-dioxide gas-cooled graphite-moderated reactors first-generation reactors (Magnox) of these types are cooled by circulating CO, gas. fuel elements use natural uranium metallic fuel rods clad with a magnesium alloy. In the \d-generation advanced gas-cooled (AGR) reactors, stainless steel-clad slightly enriched fuel rods are used. These reactors are ‘used to generate steam at higher temperatures igh-temperature helium gas-cooled reactors (HTGR) se reactors, graphite serves as moderator, reflector and core structure material. Coated le oxide or carbide fuel is used. The helium gas coolant (700-1000°C and 5-8 MPa) fers heat to steam generators. Liquid-metal cooled fast breeder reactors (LMFBR) reactors use liquid sodium in the primary system that transfers the heat from the core to intermediate heat exchanger. From here, sodium transfers heat to the steam generator. The consists of (U, Pu)O, pellets contained in stainless steel cladding.