cou COURSE GUIDEBOOK s RSE CUERUME ® Great Courses’ cae Biology and Human vior: Biology and Human Behavior: The Neurological Origins of Individuality eae sonny weumyy pus Boye a Ac ce Be te aoe hey efwee es 1-800-TEACH-12 1-800-832-2412 1 THE TEACHING COMPANY Course Neo. bedTable of Contents Biology and Human Behavior: ‘The Neurological Origins of individuality Professor Biography Course Scope Lecture One: The Basi Components Neurochemisry: How Two Neurons Communica esti in the Syapse: How Learning Works [Lecture Four: The Dynamics of Interacing Neurons. Lecture Five: The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Lecture Six Endocrinology I: Generating an Endocrine Si Lecture Seve Lecture Eight: Sypthese: The Biology of Who We Are Glossary BibMoRaP BY oy doctinology Il Hortonal Effects on the Brain, Biology and Human Behavior: The Neurological Origins of individuality Scope: This se of eight ecures provides an overview of how the brn work, how it ‘plats the functioning ofthe body including the release of hormones, and howe uch hormones, in tur, regulate the funtioning of the bran. The sees Being by explaining the workings ofa single brain ell the neuron — and then progresses to more sophisticated communication structres inching how two ngyrons communicate with each other, how luster of newns erry Out ‘ope operations, and how sich operations influence o7zans and glands throughout the body. teach lve, there are the oid goals: a) 0 eatly the cutent state of knowledge in neurobiology snd endocrinology; () to ands how recent finding deve feds ar relevant to behavior, and (@) 0 ehalyze hp these findings ae relevant individ sifferences. The understanding and ejoymeat ofthis series is not dependent upon a thorough knowledge of chtmisry; however, thé mil il be most meaningful fr those Who Rave a atc understanding of biology. e ‘he Fist lecture contains two parts. ‘The fis prt uses provocative” insaduce the major theme ofthe cours; namely that behavioral biology plays an important oe in understanding individual behavior. The yond half ofthe Jeccire identifies the basic components of the nervous system and expsis how {nxmation moves from one end ofa neuron to ano, ‘Locture to explains how infomation moves acros the synapse from one neuron tothe nex. Cental o this important concept san understanding of he biology of neuroirnsmitters how these chemicals are made and ways that they ‘exert their actions. Also included in ths lecture are examples of ways that snoctalces in aeurotranster signaling righ underlie certain mental ilinesses and the effect of particular drugs on neurtransmiter action. ‘Ptosticty inthe synapse isthe focus of lecture thre, Particular emphasis is given ‘o longterm potentiation andthe role ofthe hippocampus in laening an memory. Factors that weaken the log tm potentiation proces s wel as those factors that strengthen the proces are described. Inividal ferences in Jngterm potentiation and responses t tes ilistrate how eormunicalion between neurons isnot a stati press, Bu one that changes overtime, In leoture four Sapolshy moves to the nex integrative level by explaining HOW populations of neurons interact. The process of inhibition whichis erica 0 provesses suchas extracting sensory formation or making complex cognitive fssocatons is described. ‘The neural networks t workin memory, pi and ‘creativity are used as examples inthis lees. Lectures five, sx, and seven shift the next integrative level, how the brain rogalats organs throughout te body. Lecture ve examines he workings ofthe ‘©1ope Te Teching Company Limi Pri (RU he Tach Compu Lied are asionomic nervous nyse ad i subparts, the sympathetic component andthe mph servos etm wih pacar cpus on sutnomic loon by emotion and by tought. Levan sk describes how he ran Fenlines the physiology of ersas trough th body ough ionomers Test seven complccs he endocrine crcl by examining how harmon in tierra the bse. The role of etogen and teronterone in od, behave, tnd aggression ae a ecg theme these lectures Syntesizing information fom te fst oven estes, hs Ol ote examines cme of umn behavior sch as observe compulsive srr, ntl orca dsrders temporal lobe personality, ad schizotypal personality fom a tania perpetve,Sooleky ends ex by posing ester about he tocital an philsopbical implications of expsining individual Debaviors and Sirens interme of scene. 1998 The Teaching Compy nied Parerip 0. Lecture One ‘The Basic Components ‘The frst part of this lecture provides an overview ofthe course and Sutlins the three major area o be studied: how the brain works, how the brain influences evens throughout the Body, and how the biology of ‘he brain influences individuality and behavioe. The second pat ofthe Jecture provides the basic building blocks of newrobiology, how information moves from one end of « neuron to another and the critical ‘ole of neuronal integration aed communication, Outline Biology must be considered as a possible factor in human Behavior and individuality A. Could behavior often explained as «mide crisis aetully be the result ‘ofa mutation ina single gone? 1B, Could abnormal levels ofa hein chemical stall cause an obsessive personality quirk? Could the onset ofa subiype of epilepsy actually be the tue cause of «| sudden religious conversion? D. People ae accustomed to thinking that they are individuals i contol of their own behavior; however, tere sa science that suggests that biology afecs benavio. 1. Questions arse when people ty to understand things like criminal ‘behavior, depression, and learning disabiits, 2. There i an nteriwining between the chemistry ofthe brain and human behavior 3. The mind influences the body and the body influences the mind, The base constituent of th nervous system isthe bain ell ‘A. The main brain cll isthe neuron. (Fig. 1) 1. All neurons go from lft 1 ight, 2, The dendrites create chemical excitation in the neuron. B, The wave of chemical excitation passes down along eable called the 1. Axons are very long projesions of neurons 2. Attho end ofthe axon isthe exon terminal hat connect othe dendrites ofthe next neuron, (01996 Te Tec Cony Lie PeepFG) Giisleet wtich were ones thowght to be unimportant, can wrap round the axon ad form a myelin sheath 1. Myelin seats create an insulation that increases the spec with hich electrical waves move down the axon. 2, People are not born with myelin sheaths; as myelin sheaths Form new skills are possible II, Neuconal communication includes bth resting potentials and ation potentials ‘A. Tobe prepared to communicate clatly,neuroas must concentrate on contass during resting potentials 1. Ina sae ofequlloium, nearons crete chemical contrasts 2. Neurons expend great deal of energy redistibuting ions during the resting potential BB, When new information i transmitted by a single dendrite spin channels open and ions begin 1 move cusing a cbange in fate of the neuron. 1. Nosingle rerona input wiggers an action pt isnot ‘enough power forthe flow of eleteal information" ronsaue (s.2) 2 Tmepration atthe neuronal level occurs becuse o called ‘a. Temporal summation i when th ne np sy t0d ove ad over so that tna moves down the 1b. Spatial summation is when enough differen spines te being simulated once so that information ove town the axon ‘eA neuron cell body is an integrator ofthe inputs fall the titferent neurons around When there is enough of a wave of depolsiation to esc he axon hillock, the axom hillock integrates the varios ips and decides whether o nt to act i A, When the axon hillock is triggered to act, neurons are in ation Potential 2. ‘Action potential doesnot decrement over space and ime; i ‘ogenerites and continues pasting information toh the axon Aerminals to the next neurons. 3. The axon hillock sa erica feature of the nervous system. TY. Neurons are a complex integrated network with interesting implications, A. ‘The number of dendrites, neurons, and connectors wares from ‘individual 0 individual and ean change at diferent points ofthe tite! ‘cle because of environmental stimulation. " ‘1998 he Tescing Company Lined Persp 'B, Axon hilloks can also change overtime and under diferent (C.- How do these neurological differences affect individuality? Figs i The basic parts of neuron andthe surounding gis. A: the cell ody. B the icles, containing the DNA. C: one ofthe dendritic spines, Ds the axon hills Es the axon itself. F: gla ells wrapped around the axon, forming the mye in sheath, G: the axon terminals, tee i BEE cane -Fig/2: The flow of eietial information across neuron, At he donde end, singe dendrite pin is slctrcally excited, cassing a wave ofensitation st ‘hut point (point “A,” as recorded with an eleciode), The wave spreads long the cll body, decrementing such that by point "Bits smaller, snd virally gone by point*C: In contrast, should there be enough summation to rigger an action potent at the hilloek (point “D"), that signal lies dow to the axon and does Hot decrement, Instead, the action potential is just as strong at points and.” (©1906 Tes Testing Company Le PuteipJames W. Kala, Bioloscal Psychology, Chapter 2 D. Leger, Biological Foundations of Behavior, Chapter ‘Supplemental Reading Gordon M. Shepher, Neurobiology, Chapers 6:8 Eric R, Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M, Jessel, Prin Science, Chapters 25-8 ‘Questions to Consider: 1. Whi isthe axon hillock so important to 8 neurons ability Wo iegrat from many other neurons? 2. How might individual differences inthe funetioning of the nervous ysten arse from some of the differences described in this lecture? 8 (©1998 The Teaching Compa Limi Patnenbip Lecture Two Neurochemistry: How Two Neurons Communicate Scope: This second lecture moves from how the brain works onthe level ofa single neuron to how information maves across the synapse from one neuron to the next. Exploring how electrical sgnals ate changed vo ‘chemical messages inthe brain provides a eral foundation for understanding how the braia works, the effects of certain drugs onthe ‘ain, and the neurological origins of individuality Outline 1, {nove for information 1 mave ftom one neuron othe nex, infomation rust ross the synapse. (Fig. 3) A. Anelectial signal cannot pas through the synaps The release of neuroiansmitrs translates an electrical signal toa ‘ebemical signal 1. Tubules transport musi o be axon terminal, 2. Neuroiransmiters are packaged in vesicles attached to de ‘membrane wall 3. Daring action poeta, vesicles release nerotrensmitrs imo the synapse; the release of neurotansmiterstaslaes an ele igal toa chemical signal ‘The binding of neurotransitrs to thet receptors eases a change in the excitability of the second neuron, Upon deactivation, newotransmiters ae either eyed back et the next vesicle being formed, or they lot ito the syeapse where they re «ventualy broken down by enzymes B.A compli “excitatory, 1. “Inhibitory” transmis cause a decreas in excitability ofthe postsynaptic neuron, 2. Notall neurotansmivers are equal; there ae ube graduations of the effects among both tho “excitatory” and “inhibitory ‘3. The mumber of newrotransminers is relatively smal, bates bas its Teton in ciferent part of the nervous sytem, ion inthe proces is that not all nurtransmiters are (©1996 Te Tec Company Lime uaem. 10 [Neuroxansiters are biosynthetic pathways tht serve as messengers ‘Ac Mae fom amino seid, neurotansmiters are produced simply and ‘uiey B, They must be plentiful and easily reeyled C. A neurotransmiter is identified by four eter, 4. eis located inthe axon terminal, 2 Itisreleased during the ation poten 3. Ie Moats arose the synapse and binds with receptors onthe postsynaptic neuron ‘Any interference with she neurtransier wil alter the neurochemical events in a predictable manner D. The plasticity of neurotransmiters can change overtime 1. The amount of neurotransmiters synthesized can be sere, 2, Up- and down-regulation alters the number of rcoptors 4 ‘compensate forthe signals being made by neurtasiters 3. An imbalance between the amount of neurotrasmties synthesized andthe repultion of receptor ean result in 3 he ‘Neuropharmacology manipulates the neurochemistry of th apse w beter understand the workings ofthe neurotransts ‘As Using drugs to change events i the brain prove information about how the brain works, the eff rugs on the brain information about certsin diseases andthe ~ss logical ‘orgins of naivialty There are drugs that so closly resemble «naturally ccing neurotansmiter that the reepiors are fooled by 1, These drugs are released through blood vessels ane postsynaptic neuron. 2 Hallucinogens (e.,psilocybin) are able o simulate the serotonin receptor. (Hig. 4) C. Other drugs block the acess of a neurotransmitert its receptor, baling communication across the synapse A, Curare can block the acetylcholine recepor 2. Ant-psychotc rugs block me dopzmine receptor 1D. Some digs caus te inappropriate release of neorlransites, 1. Amphetamines and cocaine tigger the premature elese of dopamine wansmiters 2, Bemise the release of dopamine makes a person fee pleasure in at, least one part of the bran, artificially releasing more of i makes rugs like cocaine highly additive. 3. Drugs that release dopamine can triger schizophrenic behavior while drugs that Black dopamine sre used to halt schizophrenic Some dus her he bedown and eying of aerotannit or Conte oy puter seer copy erent vents canbe eto} ower blood pressure. S 2 Aires nig Prove, cse amplicon he Peacanoirs signal by Docking fs deg Aver nanipiton nceue be ou fsa fr Cera natant resample sean be DOP eo ‘asen wi Putin's etn Manian of chen avnys ba ie kof de ft ray because eth neurotasmitr as multiple jobsin different pats ofthe brain, 1/1 example of how neurochemistry influences individuality an be seen in ne neurtransmiter endogenous benzadiarepine, Endogenous benzodiazepine receptors influence anxiety levels, ow much benzodiazepine an individual makes, releases, and beaks ‘down wll determine his o¢ her anxiety level Trangulizers are used 0 decreas a persons anviey lve ‘0108 Te Tenhine Company Lime PrueFig.3 Fig. 3: Top: The orientation of two ncurons to eachother atin ‘axon terminals ofthe neuron on the lef do not quite touch the dente spines ofthe neuron on the riht. The gap between the tvo ish Bottom: Magnification of a synapse. On the left side isthe very end ofthe axon terminal. Various tubules on the Tar let ransport nutrients othe axon terminal Meanwhile inthe terminal self, neurotansmites are packaged in vesicles tethered tothe membrane wall one sich vesicle isn the proces of leasing neuroransmiser into the synapse, Such neuoransniters oat gross the ope ‘space and bind to specific reeptors onthe second, “postsynaptic” neuron ‘Aficrard, they flat off, and can either be recycled back ino the pesynapie' ‘euron's vesicles for reuse, or are broken down by enzymes the synapse R he Teaching amar Lin Paeshp eg fH hee Serotonin, on tenet fe Psilocybin ake out hh ig. 4: A: synapse in which the presynaptic neuron isnt releasing any acirotransmites. However drugs that closely tesemble those aeurotansmiters are percolating out ofa nearhy blood vessel and are reaching the postsynaptic B: The chemical structure of serotonin, a newowansmiter. “C= carbon; "0" © oxygen: "H'"= hydrogen: "N= nitrogen, CC: The chemical structure of «hallucinogen psilocybin. Not the similarity 0 serotonin. Serotonin receptors cannot distinguish the 0. 1984 The Teachiog Coney Limi Paeip"Essential Reading S, Barondes, Molecules and Mental Iness '. Snyder, Drugs andthe Brain Supplemental Reading: 1. Cooper, F. Bloom, and R. Roth, The Biochemical Basis of ‘Neuropharmacology Ere R. Kandel, James H. 8 Science, Chapters 13-15 ‘Questions to Consider: 1. Why do side effets occur in newropharmacology? Give some examples 2 Consider the following scenario: Sopposs that major depression is enirely ‘eo to0 litle comminiation nw class of synapses ha se the neurotransmitter serotonin. Describe the possible steps ts acca in the Serotonin synapse tht could explin why one indivi essed and nother is mo pany Lined Pavip 14 ware, and Thomas M. Jessel, Principles of Newal ‘Scope: This lecture examines how communication within and between neurons changes over ime. Particular emphasis i laced on long tm, Potentiation (LTP), nclading an explanation of how the process occurs in the hippocampus, aswell st effects on learning and memory. ‘Ways that the LTP process i enhanced and disrupted, both naturally and artificially, rw also investigated. Outline ‘Changing the strength of synsptic communication i the bass for lsming A. Learning is the proces of making certain pathways work mre eadily than they did before, 2 This isa relaively new concept before twas believed hat Whenever something new was leamed, a new neuron ora new synapse was formed, 1. Lesening strengthens the faetoning ofa preens ‘ccasionally is new synapse developed. The cortex and hippocampus ire the main regions oF the brain responsible fr learning and memory. 4 Problems inte hippocampus may result in diseases lke Alzheimer’s disease 2. The famous case of H.M, who had his hippocampus removed, shows the importance ofthe hippocampus to memory 1B. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the process of stimulating a dendrite spine repeatedly and then restimulating that same spine causing & “potenuatad” electra! response. (Fig 3) 1 Afce potentiation has occured the pathway i stonger 2 Potentiation increases the ikeliiod that a single neuron can cause sa action poten. ng synapse only How does LTP work? (Fig. 6) A. LTPis the result of glutamate being released into synapses thoughout the hippocampus 1. Glutamate is simple neurotransmitter made from an amino ai. 2. Glutamate isthe most excitatory neaton with wo receptor systems, each of which s differentially excitable, B. Once LAP occurs, «new ion, calcium, enters the neuron. 1 Calcium eggers the synthesis of more receptors (up-regulation) 2 Calum casos the ecopors o say open longer once they are ‘excited (©1990 The Tescheg Company Lie Paseip3. Calcium changes how readily the elec ve moves down the membrane once there s some excitation 44 Once calcium rushes init enuses the synthesis of 1 Those retrograde transmitters oat back othe presynaptic neuron and inctese the amouat of glutamate being syhesired bb, These new tansmitrs ae mode fom gasses and, therefore, {do not nee vexces, The changes caused by LIP are lasting, D. isbelieved that frgetng things is basically a reversal ofthese st A, The neurons thar us glutamate are very vulnerable and mus be monitored 2. These ae the fist neurons to dein situations ike candia aes stroke, and epleps 3. Asyietie version of glutamate, MSG, is banned from baby food because a baby's brain cannot monitor the TL, Several factors ntuence how readily LTP occurs A. Somethings make LTP more dies A. Alcobot disrupts portation, ‘8. A short-term effect is an alcoholic black 1b. long-term effects alcoholic demen ‘Daring stressful period the hormone plucocorcodis secreted to the brain, ‘When a person goes from nota all sresscd to moderately stressed, TP is enhanced because ofthe exctetion ofthis hormone 1b, When a person goes from moderately seed 0 highly stressed, LTP decreases because there is oo much slucocomicoid Nooding the brit € Abigh dosage of synthetic glucocorticoid (e.,Prednisone) also decreases the likelihood of LTP. ri BB, Healthy simulation snd moderate stess enhance LTP. Inthe postsynaptic neuron, two types of retrograde tarsmiters ae alo tvalabe, one to prohibit the amount of glutamate, the othe to enincs the amount, depending on what the brain needs a the tine IV. LTP influences some aspoets of individuality and learaing ability ‘A. LTP influences long-term memory and declarative (explicit) memory 1B, LTP does not nfuenee short-term memory or procedural (impli) memory. © The case of HM illustrates the workings of the hippocampus. 16 8 Te Teaching Compiny Unie Pep After HLM had his hippocampus moved, be remembered everthing fom befor the operation, but he ean emember nothing ‘that Has hippened snc, 2, HM. has a perfect prcedural memory. DD. How a person lear is affected by soc things the numberof slutamate ceptors, excitability in synapses, and the differen subsypes ‘of glutamate receptors founda the hippocampus. ae Aa c Pig. i 4 tng es poi a aces ae (019947 Tash Company Listed Pasia Lecture Four ei ‘The Dynamics of Interacting Neurons Scopet The next nopative love of neuron function examines How networks of rourons cary out complex proseses. How Reurons sharpen detection A ‘gna ough inhibition, ad the way that ayers of neurons ovelap Sn for networks dredyaspact individ! memory, pain, and reatvity ‘The work of Hubel and Wiesel is wied a ame work for ‘dersanding the pater of acvity in neural networks Outline * 1. Neurons sharpen the detection of signals by aibitng themselves and other le sewn B ara |A.-Neurons communicate wth hemselve. js Se 1 The ability for neurons to bave eller projections coming off the axon alos them to obit themselves a bape her signals ovr tine 2. Thiscreats individual acon potential flloned by resting Fig. 6: Summary of synaptic changes underying LTP. A: synapse prior 4 Recurrent collateral projesons are sen in many neurons. LP. Be new, improved synape following LTP. ‘The presyneptic neurons 'B. Through lateral inhibition, urns sharpen thst signal ve pace releasing more aeuouansmiter the postsynaptic neu contains more ie, ee tie Sst nemotranrer, nd such reeepor say open longer 1. The exciton of oe neuron leads the delayed inhibion of (Gadieated by asterisks) Te ee a Neurons canpot be confused (1 the non carrying a message eae ems trun shutdown neighboring neurons ores emia), ee 1 ‘The work of Habe! and Wiese sips expan the wing of mera Supplemental Reading: setworts F Edwards, LTP is LongcTerm Problem, Nature Ay ying ow ach ein oft ve pros il 'M. Barnaga, The Tie of Memory, Turing, Science oculee tere a R.A. Nicoll, and RC. Malenka, Contrasting Properties of Two Forms of Long 1. Poincforpornt napping at layer one indleaed that these neurons “erm Potentiation inthe Hippocampus, Manure io” abou ota ight (8) The neurons inthe sesond layer ofthe cortex “kno” about straight lines of light '3.The neurons in he thid layer ofthe cortex “know” about moving a lines, ile the neuron inthe fourth ayes "know" about angles. R. Malinow, LTP: Desperately Seeking Resolution, Slence ‘Questions to Consider: 4. How con nonlinear neurotransmitter effects he brought about with a multiple receptor system? 2 How would knowledge ofthe workings of longterm potentiation bein to explain individ differences in learning aby? 8 (199 Me Tenhng Company intel Paw ‘e108 tty Company Ln Peep ”'B. Following thie lope, twas believe that one could continue through the layers recognizing more information (eg, the grandmother neuron" 4. This was not possible because there couldn't posily be enaugh scurons foreach t consi singe piece of information 2 Ihis no single mesons that contain information but ptr of ‘A neural network sa series of neurons that Fem a atwork that Jerats once it parialy overlaps with another network 1. Memory works by taping into the neural network necessary to find the needed information, Tn the early slags of Alchemer’stisease, people haven't ost their ‘memories they have trouble remembering information becanse the networks ae beginning to break down, MD, Neural networks influence how the human body fecls and responds to pan. A. Ininstances of sharp, eperitic psn, the neurons sissy affected “tum ‘on pain, and trough inhibition, the pains "snes 67” (ig 9) B. Ininstances of dull, protopahc pun, tose noutons ceo affected “tur on pain: however, the lack of clini cs the throbbing © Stimulating adjacent pathways shuts down he pain (e.g, ek rubs)a For chronic pain, implants might be used whereby the pain pathways. ae stimulated causing a brief shot” of pin follow by the pathways) being shut down. i AV, Tei the individual differences that exis in the overiapping projection of networks that cquses people to know diferent inforeatin (ie. ereativtyh Py (1008 Me Teng Campin Lani Patent Fig7 ao) > eee B oa Cc eave Tee : poe > en i Fig, 7: Shacpening the detection of signal by inhibi the noighés. Neuro Cs imulted (a photoreceptor tinue by light, 8 ace reeptorin the skin stimulated by vouch) and, onthe ight, ome can se that at the ine that js stimulatd (a theresa burt of action potentials coming down font “The inhibitory collateral projections of “Cont its neighboxs'B" and “D") makes them sient while "Cis stimulated, Thus, dhe contrast is enhanced. By "C°bevoming ative ad "Rand "D” being silenced, one plains where he signa is coming fom wit greater accuracy ‘Note: This diagram is simplified. In elt, each neuron ('A” though “E) has ‘inhibitory collateral projections onto it aearast neighbors (©1958 Te TenkingCoepan Lined Paresh a i eeTime 1 Time 2 Time's Retinal #1 % i} Fig. 8: Processing of visual information; time lapse dawg at shows which neurons are excited movipe from times | through 3 if Retinal cll ste locate in etn hie call ayers #1, #2, and #3 are located a successfully higher levels ofthe cortex. ‘ [ACTime 1 line of light shines om the iti, stimulating he tee cells fed With black. This in ur, triggers the trce earesponding cells in 1 w have ‘action potentials - these are the cells that "know about dots of ight. This 8 tur, causes single eli ayer #2 to respond, Stil notin shaping i, layer #3 a » ‘Ac Time 3, the line of ight us shifted to stimulate the ina ine of retinal el, frggering adilfeent rio of calls, different ¥2 cel, nd finaly #3 hs one < neuron undergo an action potential neuron that "know about a moving line flight ig Stemi pin pathy, Neo stile byp. I Bs ‘inulates neu "caging «pain velleyto go up Sul Cord nc Me secon sve ofp Ae ta tp oko lemon ae Sicha test nears een." Th he pS ed a sites, This isthe pain pathway for epic pa, Sn contrast, suppose veuron "D" is timated by pain. Iestimultes neuron “BR” hich time the person Becomes aware of pun AL he sani, eur Hvis teuron "A" THs prevents "A" of inhibiting "Westin ia rotoctite pain Essential Reading c asian Joaes W. Kala, Blologicat Psychology, Chapte bs7 Kandel, Small Systems of Neurons, Seite Amiewn Supplemental Reading [ie R. Kandel, James H, Schwarz and Thomas M,Josell, Principles of Neural Sclence, Chapters 23,27, 40429 ir Lynch, Synapses, Cireultsand the Beginnings of Memory » ‘Questions to Consider: /! Why an something rclatively simple ike the visual cortex week na point- for-poit manne; yet a complex prog ike many storage ean?Lecture Five ‘The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) ‘Scope: This lecture examines the workings ofthe autonomic nervous system fad its spats, te spmpadetic nervous system and the ‘arasympathetc nervous system, How the autonomic nervous system regulates the organs ofthe body, how different levels of the brain Activate the system an how the system is stengthene are also investigated. The lecture ends with a limpse nto ways tha the ‘utonomic nervous system influence individual diferences, Outline 1. The voluntary nervous system controls the rapid rstion of skeet ‘isles, while the involuntary nervous system regulcis very clin the body. ‘A. The involuntary nervous system, also called ihe system (ANS) is Focated inthe bypothala 1 ANS doesnot work s quickly as the vols itis eoormously distributed. 2, The ANS has two components ‘The sympathetic nervous sytem ($1, ich releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (a noradenalin), {suse for emergencies. bb. The parasympathetic nervous syst releases scerylcholin, which Wiggers a cat, vegetive stat. 1B, “The SNS and PNS systems work in choreogrip opposition 4, While the heart is able to beat on sow, ts he bali tha tol i whether w speed upc slow dove, 8. During SNS the heat eats faster, blood presse increases, and bood flows faster, allowing glicone to be purnped into muscles bb. During PNS the heart bats ower, blood pressure decreases, pi he heart snot stained. 2, Both SNS and PNS interactions also affect the gastrointestinal tract ‘a, SNS shuts down the gastrointestinal act during on emergency | So that eneay that is needs clwhere i not “wasted (ey Ary mouth when nervous). SNS also shuts dova te blood fw othe stomach; wer are ‘he extreme result of chronic stress because SNS is continually suing down the biood supply he stomach. fe PNSins the opposite effet, stimulates the gastrointestinal frac (ie low sess» good appt). carvous sytem, bat ae (01098 Te Tsing Compuny Lind Parehp {3 Both the SNS and PNS systems affect the pei. ‘a. Inonder to have an erection, pan ust be ina laced sae (le, PNS must be operative) bh. The SNS slowly begins to take over unit becomes stranger than the PNS and an erection occurs Swessimakes i ficult w turn-on the PNS reuling in sres- Induced impotency. 4. IFSNS aecelerter to quickly, men have prematute cjaculations, Aman who is able to have an erection during REM. sep is suffering ftom psyehopeni, not organ, potency, The SNS both excites (eg the hear) and inhibits (©, the srintestinal teat) organs, 4. The autononis nervous system activated and regulated diffrent in tree layers ofthe iran, A. The firs ston of the ANS i ditety influenced by the byposss vss for example, a person is injured, a blood pressure sensor Sends «=~ cue up the spinal eord to the hypothalamus the hypodisy asso the $NS, and blood pressure and heat rat increase, i. BL Inthe layer, the ANS is regulate by the limb syste for xan sve Scents dotoeted causing an emotional response snd "essag to the hypothalamus, which in tun activates the « ANS. (Bg. 11) The ti! yor ofthe bein activates ANS in a way thats pater to humans, costel activation, (Fig. 12) 1.-A person thinks a particular tbought and axons ae ent the hyposhalanus where ANS i activate, 2. This method of activations particularly inportanc in the sty of lineal depression Clinical depression i absolutely biological the cortex it constantly activating the hypothalamus with sad though, The SNS is constant elevated. & Inassubset of depression where the patients resiant to every ‘noun therapy the cingalum bundle, or pathway from the oes, may be cut IML. Pastcty of the ANS is fected in thee diferent ways A a abituation isthe process wherehy over me the sam stimulus will not have the sun effect on the ANS, Sensitization isthe process whereby a stimulus that once didnot have aneffect on the ANS now does. 1m Te Thing pany Unie Peep. ioteeabece seg .onscious oo oF ebnroling the unconscious workings of hEANS; forepample, kinking relaxing thoughts ca | ede the SNS response, 1V. The funetoning ofthe autonobtMAMYbus system ders fom ndival to sndividual ‘AL ANSis sending projections to all organs, but al projections ae not qualy powerful some people may have weaker kidnoy or a stonger esr, for example 1B. Individual diffrence in how readily the SNS i activated i significant inthe way various individuals react sess, Fig. 10 Fig. 10: Somatic information (¢,om blood ves, blood loss) wigges the Jnypotlamus to activate the sympathaienervs system, mobilizing the heart 26 0109 De Tee Gar ied Pare nest | ~/ Pptinblesete) Spal {tirpothal] g Invading Male = Or Fie Emoto: simul (64 sgh ae go et cect roy ands cece eto a Time De pole ir ce cae Savon se oe Fig 12 ( sy CORTEX “a 7 linen ~~ coIN Or oan Fig. 12: A purely cognitive stimulus activates the hypothalamus, leading to sympathesally driven enhancement of eardiovascula ton, 1988 Me Teaching Comp Lindl Prastp nEssential Reading: James W. Kal, Biological Paychology, Chapters 11 and 13, ‘Robert M, Sapolhy, Why Zebras Don’t Ger Uieers: A Guide o Ses, Ste ‘Related Diseases, and Coping, Chapt 2 Supplementary Reading: Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz and Thomas M,Jssll, Principle of Newal Science, Chapter 49 Questions to Consider: 1 2. Describe the hierarchy of neuroanatomical inputs that elite ANS, What aspects ofthis are most nique to humans? From what you know about ANS, wha! wo in thir propensity toward stress-related disease i id explsin why navi ier (01998 Me TachingCynpny Lael Pusey Scone Lecture Six Endocrinology: Generating an Endocrine Signal In this introduction to endoctnology, the structre of hormones is explained ard compared ro newotransmiters, The regulation by the ‘ain ofthe pituitary sland, which, in tir, regulaes endoerine gland, isalso examined. The inerconnectedness of endocrine systems i ‘lusrated by explaining how stress effects a woman's ability to ovulae Outline ‘What ar the basic workings of hormones and neurotransmitsrs? (ig, 13) A. A pewowansmitr is a neuron that releases a chemical messenger cross the synapse to influence the next neuron. BB, Ancuron thar releases similar chemical that does no ross the ‘gmap, but instead goes into the cireulatory system, sa hormone. Nota hormones are derived from neurons; hormones can come from rc ayes Be ty ‘There ac are major differences between neurons and hormones, 1. Hormones work more slowly than neurons. 2. Neurons communicate ony with neurons; hormones have acess 10 8. Hesmoaes have a broader effect on call “The hypothalamus is the centerpiece ofthe endocrine system, regulating te pituitary gland, which intr regulates periphery glands. (Fig. 14} Understanding thatthe bain isan endocrine organ tht ean release hormones relatively new iden, ‘Basic thinking was tha al glands were autonomous and self regulating », Itvas believed, for example, that aging was caused by & crease in testosterone and men Would have testosterone injctions The pilitary gland was recognzad asthe “msster gland” uni ‘cients hegan 1o realize that when patients ad a problem ith he hypothalamus, he ptitary land also broke down. The hypothalamus became cesly known a the "aster lana” and confirmed san endorine organ. 2. There are examples of endocrine systems tht do not start withthe ‘ypothalamus, fr example, ANF iss hormone made in the heat ‘and released othe Keys during period of ih Blood pressure. Hormones il no thee categories ‘1938 Te Tecing Copy Lisa ipam. [A. One clas of steroids is mae from the precursor cholestrol these hormones include estrogens, androgens, progestins, a lucovoricolds BA second clas of hormones is made from th precursor pro's. 4, Baanples of protein hormones ae insulin ad growth homes, 2, While the potential for developing this class of hormones is very ficient, te recepiors must beable to diflerentate very subtle Aitferences inthe chemical suctne ©. A third elas of hormones is made from te precursor Include epinephrine, melatonin, and thyroid hormones Hormone ceptors receive the messages of hormones and tigger an aay of invacelllar event ‘A. The same proces of op and down-regulation a nthe newotrensmiter proces applies t hormones. B, The increase in harmone evel and the decrease in the sm receptor doesn't cancel itself ut because the ati snot onc--one; an fnverse U:patier seested resulting in homeoxate bal © Theresa tremendous amount of regulation hermes 0 sno endocrine ystems they are nota eomparzientlzné es ey mig ppeae 1D. Anexample ofthe crss-ogulation batwoon endoose effect of sess on females 1. From the bain comes a hormone, LHRH, which s the pituitary gland to release LH alongwith PSH; coleehvely they aus the ovaries to release hormones ik e032 2. Small amounts of ndrogens are also secoted by fe ust be absorbed by fat cells whers an enzyme cover estrogen 3. Ifawoman bas ite ft (e.g starvation) enough ofthe enzyme wo convert androgen to estroge 44. The androgens begin to build up andthe woman tops ovulate (ee, anorexes, alte), val E, Psychological stress also causes changes in the amount or cera" hormones 1. Beta.endorpin,gucocortico'd, ant prolactin quanti reduced, 22 Prolactin is very effective in suppresing reproduction. 1. When a woman nurses, prolactin is secreted hiss the aso Why nursing isan effetive form of contraception if done “prope.” bb, Anthropologists have discovered that women in developing ‘ounties nse their bales about once every ball our un (21998 Toe Tashng Compay Lime Patani ‘he baby is about four-year-old, causing prouctin level €© remn elevate. Fig. 13 A i Fig. 13s Nevravansmiters versus hormones. A: a neuron releases a chemical messenger, which travels atoss the synapse and influences evens in the next rneugon. By definition, this isa nowrtransmitr. B: a simular sauron releases, a Sina (or even ideatical chemical, which, thi time, wits up in the circulatory System gn inluences evens in a el “ight years away” By definition this fy 2 hormone. Cell anywhere nthe body releases a chemical messenger inte ‘lication and influences events elsewhere ~ once agin, a hore,Fig. 14 (it) | Pir? Fig. 14 The fw of inforation in “neuroonicin” systems: the hypotttumas releases hormones tht influence pititary events, This regulates which hormones the ptitary wil lease, and olimately rogues the sti of various peripheral plands (eg the ovaries, tse, thyroid Bssential Reading: Robert M. Sapolsy, Why Zebrax Don's Get Ulers:A Guide wo Sires Stress Related Diseases, and Coping, Chapters 2 and 7 Supplementary Reading: 4. Wilson, D. Foster, and, Wiliams, eds. Texthok of Endocrinology, Chapters 17 and 18 ‘Questions to Consider: 4. How are hormones and neurlransmiiers simile? How are they diferent? 2. How does the hypothalamus regulate event throughout the body? Pa Taig Comp Lia Pein Lecture Seven Endocrinology I: Hormonal Effects on the Brain Scope: ‘This lecture examines the other half of he endocrine eyele, how hormones regulate the brain, Patcularwicmtion given vo Hs relationship between estosterone and aggression in men andthe effect ‘festogen and progesterone levels on women. Additional ways that bhoxmones and ther comtesponding receptors play a oe in indivi tehavior are also explored Outline 1. Hormones ere released by the hypothalamus, but once inthe system they fet the brn creating a fall endocrine ick A. This fc called neuroendocrnology the interaction between hormones snd the brain «known fac in endocrinology is that testosterone affects -ocampus is highly sensitive to plucoconticod ns hippocampus is the par ofthe brain where there ae the receptors for glucocorticoid because poople cannot possibly remember everything, the anism that helps sor out tv information from nt information (pplieation of LTP) i eueoeocoi. 3. The loosis reflex (a female rodent raising ber tao prepare fOr ea) bors tale 1 Esrogen regulates the relevant neurons, mich causes the refox to only gceur during ovulation, 'b, Progen enters the neuron, binds with an esttogen receptor, 00s the DNA, tums on a gene that makes pots, which, ‘n ura, goes othe axon hillock, which then bevomes excited ‘¢ Thchomar equivalents the genital skin being more sensitive during particle times, 'B. Behavioral endocrinology has clesrly established that the male is smote aggressive than the female, 1. Theres bon comelation ad cause efeet relationship between testosterone level and aggression. a Menhave higher testosterone levels han women, so the correlation is that When testosterone levels crease, aggression increases. Thisis also a cause-effect eationsipbecaise castration reduces gression in species fer species,My 1 Aratsccn tte ini ser, he anal ld IIL. eemones play olin nda behaviors in bth sub anddang Les 1b. If an animal's (including humans) amygdala is stimélated, A. People synthesize and release different armounts of hormones, 44 Taine loft tere was enormous conoversy surounding Aver mpotan par ofthe equation the teen inh the theo mova of be ayaa in very vile roe ese hw ny epi Hates OY Wl aa nace er testosterone receptors (Testicular Feminization Syndrome), 3. Inanormal sample of males (eg. not men taking steroids) with 8 a male child that the receptors ae rendered ineffective, and the child. sig dtvaron a he ae re TL, There are other ways tha hormonal effects in the body affect the brain and cffoct captors cont 1 individual ifeencen, behavior ‘A. Inthe gastrointestinal act here is hormone, CCK, whic ssecrsted ‘when proteins and fats are broken down and digestion is over 1. CCK delivers a stration sgoa tothe hypotalams 2. Many scientists are trying to ind ways 10 make CCK syntccll¥ (ie, diet pil), BB, Ovarian hormones, esogen and progeste 1. The amounts of these hormones fuss sgnificartlytroayhout ® womans mens cycle ad life 2, When these hormones cotrthe brain, they have an effet on he limbic system. ‘3, These hormones regulate the nesrochemisty ofthe limbic syst . including the enzyres that break down neurotansmiters, 44. Fhuccatng depression is cocurs more often in women and is more likely to oecur during een times of the reproductive life histo (ep during mensration, immediately following childbirth, ‘uring menopause) andi belive tobe linked fo estrogen and progesterone levels. '5. A dsproporionately higher number of violent crimes by womes take place during the premenstrual period (PMS), ©1998 THe Tsing Cmpry Lied Puen (0988 Te Taching Company Lite wantFig. 15 No ‘Testosterone ‘Testosterone LY - ig. 16: Testosterone docs not “cause” agression bul exacerbates prooxising tendencies toward aggression. A: in an amygdaloid neuron tats elecrially silent, testosterone has no effect, Bn contrast in an amygdaloid neuron cats lectrically ative, testosterone augments the volley of such action pote Essential Rending: J Becket, M, Breedlove and D. Crews, Behavioral Endocrinology. Ca 5.9,and 10, Supplementary Reading Rober M, Sapolsky, Why Stess Is Bad for Your Brin, Science Robert M. Saplsky, Trouble with Testosterone ‘Questions to Considers 4, Two individuals cfr in some proces inthe body tats sensitive cow Paticularhormope. ‘This difference might be doe to differences between he {vo individuals inthe amount ofthat hormone thats secreted ino the blood. stem? What other endocrine factors might account forthe diferenes? 2. Drawing up the information from the frst few lectures how might homones effect behavior hy altering aspect of neuronal functions? Teskng Conpy Limi Peni Lecture Eight ‘A Synthesis: The Biology of Who We Are ‘Scope: ‘This ial lecture examines some extremes of human behavior, including obsessive compulsive disorder, frontal coral dsordrs, temporal lobe penonali, and schizotypal personality using the ‘iological arbework that wat established inthe previous leer, Prilosophical and societal implications of explaining human behavior within the famework of science are presented as pat of Sapolsky's hosing touahis. Outline [Everyone has a cortex, hypothalamus hippocampus, ad bie gysem, but they do not work exactly the same from individual ini: A. There ase genetic, neurvendocrinal and neurochemical rots to many tehavira problems 1) Fron! cortical damage causes dsinibition. 44, Phineas Gage went from ashy, tacitun person to an aggressive boty ater ronal cortex was destroyed ins mining b. To ntl eotex can be compare othe superego. 2 Humingon's Disease als includes damage othe ntl conten. ‘Thi primarily a disease where the patient has no consol ‘over movement ofthe limbs Tho curly stages, however, ned behavioral changes that are aired frontal cortex damage. 3. Amodicor of compulsive bebavior s common everyone, ‘specially during stressful period, There iss subset of individuals; however who are ‘incapacitated by rituals and suffer from a disease ealed bsessive-computsive disorder, bi, Thovgh obsesivescompulsive disorder is viewed as an anxiety disease by psychiatrist, ther is nw evidenee suggesting that there sa neurochemical component to the diseas, ‘Obsessive. compulsives have an elevated metabolism in parts ‘ofthe rain having do with motor movement New medications forthe disease havea diet eect on sapses ‘184 The Teshng Company Lined PaesBL Schizotypal personality disorder and Schizophrenia are ona genetic 1. Schizophrenia sa disease of thought masked by disordered thinking, inappropriate emotions and sccalization, nappreprite levels of abxrcton and hallucinxcons. 2. Schizotypal personality ot ul lows schizophrenia, tut Schizorypals are ofen relatives of shizophrncs. ft. Schlzorypa personality disorders marked by such things asa ‘isconneton othe ret of the world, metamagica thinking, litem interest in new age ot slence ton, and acral interpretation of the Bible Schivophenia isa genetic disorder and schizoypal personality fas a genetic component, lading one to ask: Where dogs “hommal” stp and “abeormal” begin? C._ Epilepsy is rggcred in diferent pars ofthe bain, 1. Ofen a person demonstrates behavioral changes immediatly, before an epileptic seizure, giving an indication as to What pot of the brani te foous oF te seizure 2. Inadditon, ina eran typeof epilepsy, he personality ebunges as well “Tiss called temporal lobe epilepsy Th Characteristics inside ots of huner,neophobis, hypereraphis and a dep interest teligion and pilose rh, IL. The biology of aman behavior begins o challenge people on mary tel ‘Ac Disorders that were unexplained eater no have names an bilogicl ‘explanations. B, Eventually everyone might have a neuropsychiatric label 1, What re the financial implications i, which Jseases and isondes wil be covered by insurance? 2. How wil abes be used as an excuse fr “inappropriate” bshavior, fies "I's not me i's my disorder”? How vil new ining force people into label that may not be acca, eg, comping the brain size of homosexual and Ieterosexuals and “deciding” who is homosexual? COpimisialy boundaries can be drawn afar as who a person is and the biology that easos certain bahvior= D. Biological continuum describe all individuals thete is 0 lear ‘efnition of what is “more.” 38 (1998 The Tesing Company Lint ater 1B) There are tll many philosophical inplieatons associated with sence, 1, People ike to believe tht they are unique individuals uae anyone who has come before them, Ifscience hens to define people by turning them into «bunch of auations, wl sience demystify life? ‘The purpose of science isnot t ob ie ofits mystery, but to constantly reinvigorate that sense of mystery, 1 Birds make perfect aerodynamic sent, but their beauty can stil be enjoyed 2 Science will never explain everything; everytime something is explsned twenty new and beter questions emerge, Robert M. Sapols, How Big is Your? Discover Supplementary Reading eR. Kandel, Jus. Schwartz, and Thomas M, Jessel ed. Prints. Neural Sten. “haptrs 38,56, and 63 ret Questions to Con 1 Whats one ele in which “normal” and “abormal” human tits may toma gene. sinoum’? ‘2s discused is eros Ietures, the limbie sytem i eral to emodtonal thought and bea Diseuss on ates ofthe cortex thas likely to rygulteHmbic “ncton, the consequences of damage to his coral re i tbe implcatios ofthis ortho reatoruy mae (01998 Te Ting Compr Lied FameGlossary ‘Acetylcholine: «compound released at autonomic nerve endings that functiins inthe vanamnson of nerve impulses ‘Amine: ¢ compound derived from ammonia by replacement of hyiagen bie tema hydearbon adic a Amino acids organic molecule containing an amino group and a carboxy bp, the "building books of poten + Amphetamine: a compound wed especially as stimulant ofthe ceattalHervous sytem, i “Amygdala section ofthe limbic system aijining the temporal be ie bra and involved in emotions of fear and agression Anorexia ack or loss of appetite for fod. ‘Autonomic neryous system; motor portion of the nervous system that emul under invontary con ‘Avon: the impulse-transmiting prt of nerve or cel ‘Axon hillock: te conical expansion ofan axon at its point of attach the body af the nerve oe Cerebral cores: the thin layer of gray substance covering the surface of eae ercbral hemisphere; responsible for higher meatal functions, neta sp pen Visceral fimetions, perception, ad behavioral reactions and forthe agorsion of these futons 1 ‘Cingulum bundle: «bundle of associated fibers that ineteate econ and hippocampus P Dendrite: nerve cel extensions that conduct impolses toward the auroral body, Deosyribonucele ac (DNA) {formation of the cel, ‘ emule acid tat carries the genede Dopamine: ancuotransmiter inthe ental nervous system retin, and sympaitic ganglia, acting within the brn to hep repute movement a, ‘ectrode: «conductor used to establish lecical contact. ae ‘Endocrine system: the sjstom of glands and oter structures that eaborine ‘internal secretions (hormones) id ‘Endocrinology: the science that deal withthe endoeine glands 91 40 (©1996 Te Thing Comey Lined Hae “Endogenous benzodiazepine: internal anit educers ofthe centr nervous sytem that enhance the hibery acuotaneniter action of stress producing ac, Enzyme: a complex protein, synthesize in aiving cll ha functions a a organic eaalyt, speeding the rate o a chemical rection. peri: pertaining oa discriminating responsiveness to smal valatios in pain or empeatre simul Estrogen: a substance (asa vex hormone tending to promote esas and simula the development of secondary sex ehareteristis in he fee, (Gia cos: coll in tho bran and spinal ord that Frm a supporting structure for the pewons and provide them with insalaton Gastrointestinal tract the two-ended, tubule ut of snimals involved in the testinal absorption of food material ‘Chueoeortieoid: any ofa clas of steroid hormones that are synthesized by the ‘Givteoater highly excitable neuotansmiter made fom amino acid, vcinogen« substance hike LSD) that induces hallucinations {Pp seams: an enfolding of cerebel cortex into the lateral fisure ofa siestel hemisphere sanong'a chemical substance, produced in the body by an organ, by eel of ‘gan, OF By settered cells, which has a specific regulatory effet on the sity of 1 certain organ, organ, or cel types Lypérpriphia: obsessive writing, a characteristic of temporal obs epilepsy. Hypotisems: know asthe “Sea of emotions” this part ofthe forebrain serves sol the internal physiological and behavioral tate ofthe bod, ‘eleasng sch thgs as hunger, pain, and body temperature Limbie system: group of ran teuctresconnnon tll mamma associated wit olfaction, eutonomie functions, and certain aspects of emotion and betaviog Lipls asa faite substances characterized by being water-insoluble soure of boy fuel Lordosis reflex: s reflex in female rodents during ovulation; an abnormal forward euryture of the spine that causes the tail to stick straight up. ‘Metab th hema! change in ving cel by which energy is provide for vita proceses and stvties and new materi ie asinilted [Myelin sheath he sheath surounding many axons, consisting of ell membranes wo (01998 Me Thing Coopay Lined PepNeophobia: fear of anything new. ‘Neurobiology the branch of biology thats concerned with che aaa a, piysiology ofthe nervous Stem. i [Neuroendocrinology the study ofthe teractions among nervous sytoms id endocrine systems ‘Neuron: nerve cell consisting ofan elongated sxon, cell body, dendrites, and sxoa terminal [Neurotransmitter any of several chemical substances tha tranamit nerve ‘impulses across «synapse 1 postsynaptic element, such a another neve, muscle, o gland, [Norepinephrine the neurkzansmiter that regulates blood pressure. "Nucleus: « membrane-bound boy that conti the hereditary unis of he cll Pituitary gland; small gland located under the hypothalamas, which produces several hormones, some acting on othe endocrine glands and some acing on ronendocrine sue, Potentiation: to make more poten oF to increase the effet synergistically. Progesterone: sox hormone produced in the femal eri forte reception of ferilized eg: prescat in small aman inthe ile, Proloetn: protein hormone of the pituitary gland that induces lactation Protopathie: general, nondscriminating responsiveness to pin o temporture ‘simul Psilocybin: x bllucinogenic organic compound obsined fom a Fags Pychotic: personality disorder characterized by defective or lost contac: wih realty and often by delusions snd ballcinations Schizotypal: personality disorder eharctried bya group of symptoms ‘similar to but es severe than Schizophrenia; odd behavior, peclis thinking, socal isolation, ‘Serotonin: an amine thet cases narowing of bod vessls and is fund spially nthe blood serum and gastric mucous membranes. ‘Steruids: a group name for lipids tht contain a hydrogenated ‘eyclopentnopeshypdrophenantrene ring system, ‘Superego: in psychoanalytic theory the part of the personality that serves as the Interalized moral arbiter of cont or conscience Synapse: he junction bermeen a nearon snd an adjacent cell across which an impulse is wansmite, ‘Temporal lobe: the ltr lobe ofeach cerebral hemisphere 2 (1998 The Teaching Copy Lined Pron ‘Testosterone! male sex hormone produce by the estes ad involved inthe deyelpment and maintenance of econdary sex characteristics a well 8 sperm Prediction; prevent n small amounts i the female Vest «small, membrane-bound sa within cellsBibliography Alexshder, RchaylD. 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