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Brukenthalia 3 PDF
Brukenthalia 3 PDF
No. 3
2013
BRUKENTHALIA
Advisory Board
Editor-in-Chief
Senior Editor
Editors
Editorial assistant
Radu-Ciprian ERBAN
PhDc, 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba-Iulia
BRUKENTHAL NATIONAL MUSEUM * MUZEUL NAIONAL BRUKENTHAL
BRUKENTHALIA
Romanian Cultural History Review
Supplement of Brukenthal. Acta Musei
No. 3
The review Brukenthalia receives contributions under the form of unpublished research
papers, review papers written in English. The field of interest is Cultural History. The editors
alone are responsible for every final decision on publication of manuscripts. The editors may
suggest changes in the manuscript. Such changes are not to be made without consultation with
the author(s).
Manuscripts will be accepted on the understanding that their content is original and that
they have not been previously published in a different form or language.
All correspondence regarding contributions and books for review should be sent to the editors:
e-mail: mihaela_grancea2004@yahoo.com
A. STUDIES
Mircea-Sever Roman
Considerations about the Sumerian-Akkadian Nether World 9
Mihai Dragnea
Slavic and Greek-Roman Mythology, Comparative Mythology 20
Ligia Boldea
Examining the Status of the Noble Women in 16th-17th Century Banat 28
Mihaela Tivd
The Influence of Italian Masters toward the Masques of Inigo Jones (17th Century) 36
Drago Sdrobi
How to Convert Privileges into Rights? The Modern Romanian Elite Genesis during 19th Century 46
Elena Andreea Trif-Boia
Strangers Hypostases in the Transylvanian Romanian Imaginary of the 19th Century 53
Alexandru Nicolaescu
Historiographical Discourse in Transylvania Magazine (1868-1895) 62
Maria Danilov
Bessarabian Contributions to the Study of the Romanian Language in the Context of Slavic Culture
(the 19th Century) 68
Georgeta Fodor
The Emergence of a New Educational Model during the Long Nineteenth Century. A Study Case:
Childrens Education 73
Anca Filipovici
Multispeed Modernization in Interwar Romania. On Decadence and Complexes of a Peripheral 83
Province Norhtern Moldavia
Valeria Sorotineanu
Two Patriarchs in Jerusalem (1927) 90
Diana Mihaela Punoiu
Carlist Propaganda and National Holiday: Restoration and Youths Day (1938-1940) 98
Mihaela Grancea
Death and the System Perceptions of the Leaders Death in Stalinist Romania 107
Olga Grdinaru
The Soviet Hero-Making Process. Aspects of the Soviet Heroism 114
Marius Silvean
The Intellectuals in the Evangelical Churches during the Communist regime 123
Marian Coman
Provincia Magazine, Identity Projection and Regionalism of the Transylvanian Intellectuals 133
Viorella Manolache
An Indication of Option: Bio-Power 154
Andi Mihalache
Miniature Memories. Small Patrimonies in Romanian Post-Communist Memoirs 161
Maria Nicoleta Ciocian
The Bible Source of Postmodern Literature (Scriptural Quotation in Contemporary Literature) 180
Dana Percec
Food Fantasy. The Rise of a Genre 191
Rodica Grigore
Andrei Codrescu and the/His New Scheherazade 202
B. REVIEWS AND SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY
Christine A. Mallin
Corporate Governance (Oana Albescu) 208
Andi Mihalache, Adrian Cioflnc (editors)
The Recent History Otherwise: Cultural Perspective (Olga Grdinaru) 209
Dominique Mda
A review of Le travail: From Labor Society toward Consumer Society (For a Cultural History of
Labor) (Drago Sdrobi) 213
Huub van Baar, Ingrid Commandeur (editors)
Museutopia. A Photographic Re-search Project by Ilya Rabinovich: The Post-Soviet Museum:
History Ruptures, Memory Continuities (Ludmila Cojocaru) 216
Cultural History. Journal of the ISCH
Cultural History. Journal of the International Society for Cultural History, Volume 1, Numbers 1
and 2/2012 (Alexandru Ilie Munteanu) 219
Artefacts Culture and Identity. International History for Cultural History Annual Conference 225
(Radu-Ciprian erban)
A. STUDIES
Considerations about the Sumerian-Akkadian Nether World
Mircea-Sever ROMAN
Student at Babe-Bolyai University
College of International Relationships and European Studies
E-mail: michaelroman7@yahoo.com
Abstract. The foundations of the European and American Judeo-Christian civilizations are to be
found in the Ancient Near East or, more precisely, in the Sumerian-Akkadian world-view. The Eastern
Weltanschauung migrated to Europe and influenced it greatly via commerce, military conquests and
cultural exchanges. Part of this Weltanschauung was the eschatology, which can be identified in the
discourse of the Easterners about the nether world and in their thanatological rituals. Inferno of the
Sumerian-Akkadians is the forefather of all Infernos from the Ancient Near East and, accordingly, of
the Judeo-Christian hell. Studying the way the Sumerians would fancy the nether world can be used as a
basis for studying other infernos. The essay will also take into consideration the infernal gods and the
demonic spirits and, since the ancients believed in a hereafter, the paper also presents life after death, as
the Sumerian-Akkadians would imagine it.
Key words: Ancient Near East, hell, infernal gods, demonic spirits
10
descending into Hell, has succeeded in staying translated as Lady of the Flawlessly Grown
alive (Kernbach, 1989, 418). Branch (6).
Therefore, Ereshkigal puts an end to her The name Ningishzida is translated as
widowhood by marrying Nergal, who is her Lord of the Productive/ Steadfast Tree
uncle, Nanna(r)/Suens brother. Thus, the (Alexander et alii 2003, 736-739). But when we
celestial god Nergal becomes the infernal god, talk about any tree, we need to include in the
ruler of the Netherworld together with picture its long, complicated roots, penetrating
Ereshkigal the goddess, who, nevertheless, has a deep into the earth. Probably due to this root
superior status. In this way, the god is ascended system a system of connections with the
in function, promoted to the position of king, but underworld was established, symbolic of
placed in the lowest regions of the Earth, thus infernal character of god Ningishzida
benefiting from what I think fit to call a According to the myth of Gilgamesh, Enkidu
downward elevation. and the Nether World (7), Ningishzida, the snake
We may say that in the Ereshkigals immune to incantations, is curled among the
marriage with Nergal, the active forces of roots of the World Tree, the tree placed in the
pestilence, destruction and war are unified with centre of the Universe, the axis mundi. In this
more passive forces of death (Holland, 2010, shape of a big snake, dragon or basilisk curled
162). It is worth mentioning that this myth is the among the roots of the World Tree, he is a god
only love story that takes place in the dead realm of vitality (Chevalier, Gheerbrant 1995, 299) (8):
and has a happy ending for the protagonists (1). (8): he has the power to extract life from the
ground, he renders nature fruitful and he may
Namtar, the Angel of Death heal people. Actually, there is a famous
Namtar is the vizier of Ereshkigal the character who claimed that he had been healed
goddess. The name of this god (dingir) is by the god Ningishzida, namely Gudea, the
translated as fate, and he is the demonic god of governor of Lagash in the 21st century B.C.E.
pestilence. Later, in Semitic mythology, he He was considered a ruler in the
appears as the angel of death. Namtar was the netherworld and the throne-bearer of the earth
herald of the goddess and the concocter of rules. (Alexander et alii 2003, 736-739).
He is said to be surrounded by demons Ningishzida, the dragon or the serpent-god
(Kernbach 1989, 413) (2). was sometimes also represented as a bull, the
Ningishzida and Dumuzi, the Celestial and symbol of force and fertility.
Infernal Dragon-Gods The dragon Ningishzida copulates with
We are to present now some intriguing Zertur or Sirtur, whose name means young
gods that show similar features to Satan, the maiden or perhaps virgin (Albright, 1967,
biblical serpent: the god Ninigishzzida, 193). The virgin shall conceive and bear a son,
Ningishzida or Gizzida, and the god Dumuzi. and shall call his name Dumu-zid-abzu, the
The god Ningishzida is the patron of the Faithful Son of the Underworld Ocean (of fresh
settlement of Gishbanda, near the city-state Ur. water). This son is also named Dumuzi, the
We do not know precisely who his parents were: Righteous Young Man.
it is possible that his father was Ereshkigal (3) or Ningishzida and Dumuzi are considered
Ninazu (4), and his mother was Ningir(id)da (5), gods of the vegetation that sprouts from the
while his wife was (Nin)Azimua, a name earth, and they are also the pair of guardians to
the gates of Heaven (Kernbach 1989, 205,
Pritchard 2011, 75). Thus, Ningishzida, the
serpent-god and Lord of the Productive/
Steadfast Tree, given his stick as the axis mundi
(1) http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/religion/nerg
alereshkigal2000.htm accessed on 26.3.2013.
(2) See also http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to (6) http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/415
pic/376937/Mesopotamian-religion/68267/Myths 722/Ningishzida and http://www.sacred-texts.
#ref559313 accessed on 26.3.2013. com/ ane/sum/sum07.htm, accessed on March, 26,
(3) Ereshkigal was the goddess of the Inferno, a femi- 2013.
nine divinity, but the Sumerian deities could be (7) http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi? text=
androgynous and bisexual. t.1.8.1.4# accessed on March, 27, 2013.
(4) A balbale to Ningishzida A, line 36, on http:// (8) Appealing to the Chaldean and Arabic language,
etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi- Ren Gunon proves our point: Chaldeans had a
bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.4.19.1# accessed on March, single word for life and snake; snake symbolism
26, 2013. is tied up to the very idea of life; in Arabic, snake
(5) Ibidem. is el-nayyah, and life el-hayat.
11
and his quality of gatekeeper, was later taken Essentially, the demons were inferior to
over by other cultures: for example, in Greek the gods. Yet, in an imperfect, unclear way,
mythology, he was valued as Hermes, while his these beings would share in the divine and, even
stick was called the Caduceus. The fact that if in their quality they were inferior to the gods,
Ningishzida was a gatekeeper was also still they were superior to the human beings.
conveyed in one of the functions Hermes had, In the Sumerian thought the demons or the
that of proopylaios, gatekeeper1. spirits (in Sumerian, udug (2); Akkadian, utukku)
In his shape of gatekeeper, god utukku) would be divided into evil demons,
Ningishzida prefigures god Janus bifrons, the edimmu or ekimmu, which were the greatest
two-faced Janus, the bifacial god from Heaven, majority of the demons, and du, good spirits,
who opens and closes the gates of prayers that willing to help people after having instituted
people address to gods, but who is also present personal covenants with them.
in Inferno, permitting or refusing access there.
Therefore, the reptilian character of Edimmu/ Ekimmu, the Divine Bad Demons
Ningishzida, the serpent-god, is obvious, but In their greatest majority, the demons
Dumuzi is no different: a liturgical title given to were evil beings. They would dwell in Galla/
Dumuzi is Ama-ushumgal-anna, where ama Irkalla and, when coming onto Earth, they
means mother, ushumgal means big snake, would act cruelly. They knew nothing about
dragon, and anna has its root in an, the heaven. compassion and no offering would stop them
Ama-ushumgal-anna is translated as Mother- from accomplishing their mission. For instance,
Python of Heaven (Albright 1967, 193). In late this is what is written about them in the poem
Sumerian liturgies Dumuzi was homologated as called Dumuzids dream
Sataran The Serpent Goddess.
In later literary works Ningishzida fades in Those who come for the king are a motley
the background; a lot is dedicated to Dumuzi in crew,
his character of healer, as well as divine Who know not food,
shepherd, but also a mortal masculine Who know not drink,
representative of fertility. Who eat no sprinkled flour,
Later, Dumuzi passes into other cultures, Who drink no poured water,
integrally or in several forms, being named Who accept no pleasant gifts,
Tammuz in Mesopotamia, Osiris in Egypt, Who do not enjoy a wife's embraces,
Adonis in Syria and the later Hellenist world, Who never kiss dear little children,
Attis in Asia Minor, Dionysus in the Hellenist Who never chew sharp-tasting garlic,
world, Bacchus and maybe Janus in the Roman Who eat no fish,
world. For example, in the Bible, in the book of Who eat no leeks (3).
Ezekiel, 8:14, the paganised Israelites worship The Arch-Demon Kur/ Asag
him in the annual ritual named taklimtu. Among many other characters, the
This tendency of myths to cluster around Sumerian-Akkadian mythology speaks about the
selected figures is clearly due to the dramatic demon Kur. His name is translated by
quality of the cycles in question, which tended mountain, but the semantic field of this noun
to spread and to oust or to absorb all rivals overlaps partially with that of the word ki-gal,
(Albright 1967, 195). the great below. He dwells in Hell, which is
the region immediately below the primordial
The Demonic Spirits sweet waters.
In this part of the essay I will discuss the The myths would present him as a
Sumerian-Akkadian pandemonium, i.e., the demonic winged dragon that is very similar to
demons in whose existence and actions the the way the apocalyptic dragon is seen in the
inhabitants of the Mesopotamian basin believed. popular variant of Christianity.
As the gods would have a certain He is the patron of all illnesses and
hierarchy, so would the demons, but although a sickness in the world. He dries up wells and
far less accurate one. covers the earth with sores into which it squirts
18
Fig.1. Babylonian representation of the universe
Source: Banu 1967, 65.
19
Slavic and Greek-Roman Mythology, Comparative Mythology
Mihai DRAGNEA
PhD Student, University of Bucharest
E-mail: terra_mater_2007@yahoo.com
Key words: Slavic mythology, Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Paganism, Kievan Rus'
26
vedere de la Dunrea de Jos Polirom, 2007.
[Early Slavic Linguistics and Kernbach Kernbach, Victor, Dicionar de
Archaeology. Another view of 1983 mitologie general [Dictionary of
the Lower Danube], General Mythology], Bucureti
Trgovite, Cetatea de Scaun, Albatros, 1983.
2009. Kernbach Kernbach, Victor, Mituri
Rice, Rice, David G.; Stambaugh, 1996 eseniale [Essential Myths],
Stambaugh John E., Sources for the study Bucureti, Encyclopedic
2009 of greek religion, The Society Universe, 1996.
of Biblical Literature, 2009. Petre, Petre, Zoe, Liu, Alexandra;
Rybakov Rybakov, B.A., Yazychestvo Liu, Pavel, Ctlin (eds.), Dicionar
1981 drevnih slavyan, Moskva Pavel de mitologie greco-roman
Nauka, 1981. 2001 [Greco-Roman mythology dic-
Frazer, Sir James George, The tionary], Bucureti, 2001.
Frazer 1922 Golden Bough: A Study in
Magic and Religion, London, Magazines:
Forgotten Books, 1922. Lujn Lujn, Eugenio R., Procopius, De
Woodard Woodard, Roger D., The 2008 bello Gothico III 38.17-23: a
2008 Cambridge Companion to description of ritual pagan Slavic
Greek Mythology, Cambridge slayings? in Studia Mythologica
University Press, 2008. Slavica XI 2008, 105-112.
27
Examining the Status of the Noble Women in 16th-17th Century
Banat
Ligia BOLDEA
PhD, Researcher, Muzeul Banatului Montan, Reia
E-mail: ligiaboldea@yahoo.com
Abstract. Examining the image of the noble woman in Banat in the Middle Ages may appear from
the very beginning as a failed attempt, as the scarcity of the references and the dominantly patrimonial
subject that excluded the womans presence from the beginning, all confine such a historiographic
approach to serious limits. We aim however to show to what extend we could render the womans status
in medieval Banat, starting from a concrete example of a noble family history in the 16th-17th c. town of
Caransebe, the family of Simon of Caransebe. The medieval female imagery in Banat in the period we
aim to introspect is grounded exclusively on the documents of the time, the only ones that can bring to
light a possible unsubstantial subject in the absence of more, different, reference sources. We focused the
research on the 16th-17th centuries for a very good reason: after a long silence in the office documents of
the previous centuries, the presence of the noble woman in Banat begins to appear in documents of a
probative value, if not in a dramatic manner at least in one enough to sketch some feminine portraits that
can suggest some evolutionary characters we might consider to be extrapolated to the level of the social
universe of that time. It is a vivid image of a component of the Romanian society in Banat in the late
Middle Ages period, a case study that can offer more facets to be analyzed by the historiographic
research; these may lead to define an interesting typology that has to be integrated to the social elites of
Banat picture.
Key words: Medieval Banat, noble elites, ownership structures, womans image, inheritance rights
28
could have been better represented in pledge until the real inheritors could pay the full
documents, but the truth is that there are only amount of money. But it seems that the
few concrete elements to ground such an Romanian law in practice at that time gave the
interpretation. The womans position and role in inheritors and inheritress equal inheritance
Banat medieval society were, without doubt, rights relating to the whole parental ownership.
much more complex, and all the above Therefore, they might assert that the Romanian
appreciations belong to our perception, not to womens inheritance rights followed the
the real situation. Unfortunately we do not Romanian law, in competition with the noble
possess today those material references to certify rights (Drgan 2000, 205-206).
this assertion. In the 14th15th century Banat, the Since the end of the 15th century and
patrimonial system was re-set on the new during the 16th-17th century we may notice in the
Angevin law in fact, that associated the existing documents a certain shift concerning the
inheritance rights to the written acts (Pleia womans presence in society and, by that, in the
1987, 197; Pop 1991, 22; Drgan 2000, 125; documents. First of all, the need to preserve the
Fenean 2007, 15-16). But those acts were real estate within the family in the case of
always emitted in favor of male owners and of defectum seminis determined the Hungarian
their male descendants. Consequently, the royalty to admit a concept like praefectio at the
womans presence had no chance to be level of noble elites, through which the
mentioned in those documents; as the latter inheritance rights were transferred to daughters;
represented the main part of the written sources, in order to equally and legally access the
the result was a dense semidarkness surrounding parents ownership, daughters became men from
the image of the noble woman. the legal point of view. Moreover, we might
We may mention in the same time that assert that trough this inheritance rights transfer
women were not mentioned in the land to women, the male principle - which dominated
transactions or inheritance on the primary the kingdom in terms of a succession rule - was
position, had no legal identity, and, so much the harmonized with the Romanian law in which the
less, they did not practice one of the main noble female succession was also allowed. Such a
tasks: the military service. In fact, one of the procedure was always undertaken with the
reasons to exclude women from the right of kings agreement, previously asked by a
inheritance was couched as following: women nobleman. Acts of similar nature seem to have
and girls dont become inured and cannot serve been expanded in Banat as well, a concrete
with arms under color and fight against the example being the case of the well known
enemies (mulieras autem et puelle armis family Fiat of Armeni (1) (igu 1996, 33;
militare cum hostibusque decertare non solent Boldea 2002, 237). The documents went as far
neque possunt) (apud Pascu 1986, 19). as to mention that certain possessions were to be
Economic reasons can also be mentioned here, obtained and owned by Banat elites members
as the general interest was in ownership units with the inheritance right both for male and
production and ability to serve the state female descendants; one of the first concrete
authorities. The nobles estates were protected document in such a case is dated 1458 and
too from an excessive division by promoting the certified that the succession right within the
general rule of male principle relating to noble family of Bizerea of Caransebe was
succession; especially that the nobles from the incumbent both upon sons and daughters (2)
Hungarian kingdom did not know the (Hurmuzaki 1894, II/4, 56; Fenean 1981, 38).
primogeniture so that all the inheritors had equal We have not found such a mention in the case of
rights, in contrasts with the Western feudal law
(Pop 1997, 51). In spite of its restrictive (1) According to the documents after the delicate
character, that succession basic rule did not situation of the family in the first years of the 16 th
entirely neglect the girls inheritance rights, the century, when one of its members had been
so-named quarta puellaris (Tripartitum P. I., tit. accused of homicide and menaced with the right
88, 89, 90; Istoria dreptului romnesc 1980, of desherence, his brother redeemed those parts of
530). According to that rule, the excluded from estate which could have been alienated from the
the real estate inheritance girls were entitled to familial patrimony, and asked the king Vladislaus
II the right to transfer his possessions both to his
of the inheritance value in money by being
male and female descendants.
dowered by their parents or by their brothers (2) It was about an estate uniting between the two
after the parents death. What is interesting is nobles, Nicolae of Bizerea and Iacob of Racovi,
that often they were given parts of the estate for in order to protect their possessions from possible
dowry, by law trespassing, probably like a alienation in the case of defectum seminis.
29
other families as the Mtnics or the Mcicas privileged statute, its obvious respectability, its
as they had a rich male descent and probably the scholarship and wealth that were intrinsically
womens right of inheritance opening was supposed by such functions. But on the other
useless. A better individualization of the female hand, according to its 13 ownerships that formed
figures is also to be noticed, as they were named the stable nucleus of its real estate (leaving out
and escape therefore from the former of account the temporary or random possessions
semidarkness, and so we might see their true of some of its members), the nobles Simon of
presence within the communities they are living Caransebe family did not rank among the great
in. They appear in front of the judge bench, estates owners in Banat of Caransebe and
fighting for their inheritance rights; also, they Lugoj, being outrun by other families such as
were named by their fathers as the main Fiat, Gman-Bizerea, Jojica or Vaida, which
inheritresses; they took part in land transactions possessed through time tens of estates within the
too (acquisitions, pledging, and sales); they county of Severin or outside it.
wrote wills concerning their personal goods An interesting page of that familys
(even real estates - some of them - that were history was written by the noble ladies Elisabeta
bought during their marriage or widowhood); and Ana Simon, both of them, the aunt and the
they also protected their minor children against niece, being descendants of someone named
their relatives trials to eliminate them from the Nicolae Simon. Their way to set in vantage
inheritance; they raised objections to vesting of ground in the family and their marriage to
possession; they expressed their religious representatives of the known and influent family
options (by adhering, for instance, to the tertiary of the Mtniceanus, as well as their way to
Catholic orders or making donations to abbacies. administrate their own estates make a conclusive
example of how the patterns and social
Female Noble Portraits The Women in coercions concerning women began to relax: the
Simon of Caransebes Family noble woman became more and more visible and
We aim to show to what extend we could active within the economy and social life of her
render the womans status in medieval Banat, family; such a fact surely brought about a certain
starting from a concrete example of a noble movement freedom, almost inexistent in the
family history in the 16th-17th c. town of documents referring to the previous centuries.
Caransebe, the family of Simon of Caransebe. An extremely interesting figure in that
It is a case study strictly grounded on the family was Elisabeta Simons, Nicolae Simons
reference data we have examined. We presume daughter and sister of Ioan Simon jr., the last
that such a case may be extrapolated and one having repeatedly been a castellan of
enriched according to other sources and Caransebe between 1585 and 1590 (Pesty
examples. A first notice is that we refer to a 1877-1878, I, 322-323). The first mention of her
noble family of Caransebe, Romanian, in our name in the documents is dated the 18th of July
opinion. That opinion is grounded on the 1544 (Pesty 1883, 34), the date when, together
Romanian milieu of the majority that family with her brothers she took part in the acquisition
lived in, on matrimonial alliances exclusively of no less than 13 estates in the district of
with other Romanian noble families from Banat Caransebe; those possessions made the real
or Haeg (Mtniceanu, Gman, Doma or estate basis of his family. What calls our
Bcu), and also on the obstinate reiteration of attention to her presence within that real estate
the same first names, evincing no inclination transaction is the fact that Elisabeta was named
towards Magyarization, although the Romanian in the context as a young girl (puella) (1) unlike
elites from Banat had passed the previous her brothers who certainly were adults at the
centuries from the Orthodox faith to time. Her presence in that real estate transaction
Catholicism. The family was also representative awakens in fact a double interest: firstly, we
for the new noble functions that had speak about a woman, and especially about one
proliferated in the Eastern Banat since the 15th
century (Costea 2005, 149-150; Boldea 2010,
82-83; Drgan 2011, 277); some of its members (1) According to the civil law on the noble womans
were attested repeatedly as castellans, mayors, right (jus feminem), at that time the legitimate age
of a woman was of 12 years, when she could
noble judges or jury men of Caransebe, an
decide on certain juridical actions. For the
almost full range of local dignities. It is an maturity or the perfect age (aetas perfecta) the
eloquent proof of that family active involvement age of 16 was taken into consideration, the
in the social-economic and political-legal daily moment the woman got thorough rights
activities of the town; it also proves its (Tripartitum, P I, tit. 111)
30
who had not come of age (we may estimate her of June 1585 (Pesty 1883, 73), when the
age at that moment as that of 12-16); secondly, members of the familys three branches
both her brothers and cousins accepted her as an Mtniceanu, Frca and Groza-eicu came
equal part within the transaction; it is a fact that before the castellans of Caransebe to ask for
supports the opinion that women in the Simon their shares of the estates from the villages of
family were the object of a special Mru, Mtnic, Belien, Morencz, Ohaba, Sacu,
consideration, an almost equal one to that of the and Cernota vesting of possession, and also from
family male part, and that opinion is certified by Mru, Mtnic, Belien, Morencz, Ohaba, Sacu
supplementary data; it is a fact less explicitly and Zgribest predia (county of Severin, district
present in the time references, and so we of Caransebe), all of them having remained
presume it to be generated by some personal after Francisc Mtniceanus death without
affinities. We dare making such an appreciation descendants. The widow opposed to such a
in defiance of the fact that cold, technical requirement and asked to keep those possessions
language of the documents lets out almost none as long as she bore her husbands name. After
of the testimonies on these figures affective and only three days, on the 11th of June 1585
emotional character. Given her family position (Fenean 1981, 70), the situation got
in the town of Caransebe (1), Elisabeta Simon complicated as Baltazar Zagyvai with a princely
made an extremely good match to one of the letter, vesting of possession, came at Morencz to
important representatives of the town nobility, pass their possession in his own name and in the
Francisc Mtniceanu, who is attested between name of his relatives. The document dated the
1548 and 1585 (Pesty 1883, 41, 115). He was 11th of June rounded the previous one, namely
the best situated member of Mtniceanu family that not only the dead Francisc Mtniceanus
in the 16th century, as having been for many possession were in question but also those ones
years the castellan of Caransebe (1561-1563 of Mihail Mtniceanu, who probably died at the
and 1571-1572) (Pesty 1877-1878, III, 298; same time, without descendants. In the second
Pesty 1883, 90); it was a difficult time of the place, the vesting of possession generated two
power centers re-setting in that area after the impediments: one belonged to noble Ladislau
virulent conflicts between Habsburgs and the Bratovan who opposed for Mihail Mtniceanus
Ottomans from the middle of the century and the shares; the other one was raised by Lupu
town of Caransebe and the town of Lugoj Mtniceanu (who initially belonged to the
option for the Ottoman suzerainty within the common familial interests) in his own name,
Principality of Transylvania. Unfortunately, both for Francisc Mtniceanu and Mihail
their marriage did not have inheritors or Mtniceanus inheritances. Lupu Mtniceanu
inheritresses, so in 1585, after Francisc was married at that time to Ana Simon, Elisabeta
Mtniceanus death the question of his relatives Simons niece. In accordance with the time
successional rights was open in front of the local usage, the opponent parts that were constituted
authorities, concerning his share of the real on that day had to appear after 15 days before
estate of the Mtniceanus. the prince and he had to decide on the cause. We
The widowhood was an unhappy situation have no data on the princely judgement solution
for any woman of that time due to her precarious concerning the division of the inheritance among
social, legal and economic status. According to the representatives of the family Mtniceanu. It
that time law, a widow without children had the seems that Elisabeta Simon was allowed to keep
right on the whole estate of her husband if he her ownership on her former husbands
had not left a will as long as she remained possessions until the end of her life (Pesty 1877-
unmarried (Magina 2011, 286). Probably, the 1878, II, 4).
soundness of her marriage, the stateliness of her Elisabeta Simons will from the 6th of June
husbands functions, as well as that one given by 1599 written in the presence of several
her own familys members justified Elisabeta to Romanian nobles from Caransebe , is
come into conflict with her husbands relatives extremely suggestive in what concerns the
concerning his inheritance which was a wealth of a noble woman at that time, and also
considerable part of the Mtniceanus her right to dispose of her own goods. First of
ownership. The litigations series began on the 8th all, it is worth mentioning an aspect: by her will
the noble lady disposed also of the goods that
(1) Her uncle Gheorghe Simon was a judex primarius
had remained from her husband, to an equal
of Caransebe, as her cousin from father, Ioan extend with the ones she gathered along her life.
Simon senior also was, while her brother, as we The main beneficiaries were Lupu Mtniceanu,
have seen, was a castellan of the town. her niece Ana Simon and the latters children
31
from the marriage to Lupu Mtniceanu, as well after the death of her father, Mihail Simon, and
as Ioan Simons sons (we presume the last one following a previous understanding between that
to have been her brother). She bequeathed Lupu one and his brother, Ioan Simon junior (the
Mtniceanu the shares of the estates in the young girls uncle) she would be given a part of
villages of Sacu, Mtnic, Morencz, Cernota, villages Domanea, Cornea, Cnicea, Cornereva,
Ohaba, Ruginos, Mru and Zgribest that had Bogltin and Zgujeni; but Ioan Simon did not
belonged to Francisc Mtniceanu (in fact, they do such a thing and kept the goods under his
were parts of the family Mtnics land ownership (Fenean 1981, 65; Costea 2005, 106,
possessions that were now directed towards a 111). It calls our attention the fact that those
unique inheritor, the other branches of the possessions were not part of the land patrimony
family being excluded). He also inherited the of Simon family being joined possessions of the
glade, the hay fields and the cultivated fields families Vaida, Moise and Fodor, who disputed
around Morencz, which had been probably them for decades (igu 2008, 205). We do not
bought by the wills author, as well as the know yet how Ana Simons father got the
amount of 6 thalers. Elisabeta Simon proved to possession of some parts of those estates. It is
be very generous with her own family: she left certain however that they belonged to his own
Ana Simon and her sons the mills in Mru and estate, so he thought to have the right to leave to
Morencz that had been built at her expense his daughter that legacy, and his brother Ioan
(Pesty 1877-1878, II, 5), half of the kitchen Simon agreed at least as long as Mihail Simon
gardens and an amount of money; Gabriel was alive. After Mihail Simons death the uncle
Mtniceanu, Lupu Mtniceanus son with Ana refused to honour the understanding and kept for
Simon, was given a silver sword ordered by her himself the respective parts of estates he had no
former husband; Magdalena Mtniceanu, also right on. Ana Simons case was brought to court
Lupus and Anas daughter, was given a golden in 1582 and two years later it would be re-
silver goblet and a silver glass; Ioan Simons brought with Lupu Mtniceanu, her husbands
sons were given a hay field at Racovia, as well support, a fact that certainly improved the legal
as the cattle, grains and money that would argumentation. So, on the 1st of May 1584
remain after her death. In the same way a certain (Fenean 1981, 66; Costea 2007, 107), Prince
Francisc Lazr was also given the lands the will Sigismund Bthory of Somlio asked several
specifies to be his proper share. Francisc Fodor noblemen from Caransebe to look for Ioan
was given a house in Caransebe near to his own Simon junior and admonish him for his refusal
dwelling. We may note that in her way, to hand over to the plaintiff the parts of the
Elisabeta Simon proved to have been a good parental inheritance, and asking him either to
manager of her husbands estate, but also of her submit the princely will or to come to the Court
own, that she increased it along her life and in order to clarify the situation. Although we do
disposed of which by will after her death, with a not know the final decision of that lawsuit, we
distinct fondness to her own family to which she presume an amiable understanding between Ana
would let the main part of her estate. Simon and her uncle, as on the 11th of March
Another female figure in the family, 1590 (Veress 1931, 210-211) the two, together
whose historical portrait may be sketched was with Elisabeta (Ersilia) Simon and other
Ana Simon, Mihai Simons daughter and Ioan representatives of Vaida and Jojica families
Simon juniors and Elisabeta Simons niece. summoned before the judge the nobles Francisc,
Through marriage she also entered the numerous Petru and Pavel Mcica for the estate they had
and influential family of the Mtniceanus, and in the county of Hunedoara, but the document
we mayt ask if that marriage was not in fact does not mention the possessions in question.
facilitated by the previous marriage of her aunt For being a complex cause, the families of
Elisabeta within the same family. She had Simon, Vaida and Jojica ascertained it to Ioan
several sons and daughters, but only the names Boronkai to whom they agreed, if they
of Gabriel, Ioan and Magdalena were recorded succeeded, to yield 1/3 from their share from the
in the documents of the time. The documents gained estates; if not, they would be under no
present her as an active and tenacious woman obligation to him.
who did not hesitate to appear repeatedly before At the end of the century, we find Ana
the judge bench when she was to protect both Simon as the main beneficiary of her aunt
the rights from her parental inheritance, and her Elisabeta Simons will, together with her
childrens rights as successors of Mtniceanus husband Lupu Mtniceanu; from her aunt, she
estate. From her youth she faced the issue of personally and her sons would receive several
inheritance when, on the 27th of November 1582, mills at Mru and Moren, kitchen gardens,
32
precious objects and money, she and Mihail widow at the age of 68 (Pesty 1877-1878, I,
Fodors wife being obliged to support the author 475), and that is the last datum on her.
of the will until the end of her life. Her husband,
in his turn, also received a great part of Conclusions
Mtniceanus estate for which he would The medieval female imagery in Banat
repeatedly appear in court the following years, in the period we aim to introspect is grounded
pleading against his collateral relatives (Boldea exclusively on the documents of the time, the
2011, 262-264). After Lupu Mtniceanu death, only ones that can bring to light a possible
we notice that Ana Simon assumed the charge of unsubstantial subject in the absence of more,
preserving the inheritance rights of her sons, different, reference sources. We focused the
Gabriel and Ioan Mtniceanu, and so, on the 21st research on the 16th-17th centuries for a very
of August 1624 (Pesty 1883, 280), she opposed good reason: after a long silence in the office
the princely decision through which the so- documents of the previous centuries, the
called Zagyvai parts of the Mtniceanus estate presence of the noble woman in Banat begins to
had to be attributed to Francisc Groza, called appear in documents of a probative value, if not
Farkassi of Sacu. It seems that Ana Simons in a dramatic manner at least in one enough to
opposition stood no chance at the given moment, sketch some feminine portraits that can suggest
those Zagyvai parts remaining in Francisc some evolutionary characters we might consider
Grozas ownership. It is the last piece of to be extrapolated to the level of the social
information on that descendant of Simon family, universe of that time.
a representative of the noble women in Firstly, based on that particular case of
Caransebe at the turn of the 16th-17th c. that Simon of Caransebes family, we can remark
deserves to be remembered in order to sketch a that the women in the noble family assembly
more veridical picture of the noble womans role played a more active and better defined role
within the late Middle Ages society in Banat. comparing with other familial nuclei. So, they
Another Ana Simon, a paternal cousin of took part in real estate transactions on equal
the above mentioned woman, was also among positions with the family male representatives,
the remarkable representatives of that family. they inherited lands not only the dowry and
She is mentioned in the documents especially for dowry goods , were able to write their wills or
her marriages, to husbands from noticeable appear in court for their rights or in front of local
families in Banat of Caransebe and Lugoj or the or central competent fora. It is a vivid image of a
county of Hunedoara, a current experience component of the Romanian society in Banat
among the noble elites of that time, who were so from the late Middle Ages, a case study that can
interested in preserving their privileged status offer more facets to be analyzed by the
(Rusu 1997, 30). Her first marriage was to historiographic research; these may lead to
Ladislau Gman, a member of the influential define an interesting typology that has to be
family of Bizerea-Gman of Caransebe with integrated to the larger picture of Banat social
whom she had only two daughters, Margareta elites. Secondly, the documentary data show
and Sara (igu 2000, 47), the last one being doubtlessly that the noble women of the time
married at her turn in the same old family of the owned lands, gardens, hay fields, houses,
Mcicetis. After her first husband death, she money, serfs, animals, jewels, and precious
did not hesitate to appear in court on the 30th of clothes possessions that proceeded from the
June 1622 (Fenean 1981, 150) against her dowry given by a noble father or from their
relative, Nicolae Gman who asked her to give lifelong acquisitions, following their marriages,
him back an amount of 60 forints that her their sale contracts, or from the pledges they
husband had borrowed from him. Never growing made. There are not few the cases in which the
shy, Ana Simon put four of Nicolae Gmans documents stipulate that certain goods were
serfs on trial, accusing them of acts of violence obtained by the noble ladies from their own
for which she was entitled to ask as much as the revenues, and in many cases that they were
death penalty. Finally, due to some good bought during their widowhood. Such a reality
peoples agency, they reached an amiable may show that during their marriage the
agreement, the two parts renouncing their management of the family estate might have
charges and claim for compensation. In 1622 belonged to women as well, although the men in
Ana Simon became a widow and married tefan the family were more visible in the documents.
Lada, a former judex nobilium at Toteti, district In fact, all the three noble ladies in the family of
of Haeg; some years later she became again a Simon of Caransebe despite their good
matches within the local society that
33
undoubtedly provided them with a consistent Costea Costea, Ionu Solam virtutem et
material and moral support had to face 2005 nomen bonum. Nobilitate, Etnie,
widowhood and fight for their rights and when Regionalism n Transilvania
the case - for their childrens. They proved an princiar (sec. XVII) [Solam
enterprising and dynamic nature, that made them virtute et nomen bonum. Nobility,
able to battle their own way within an Ethnicity, Regionalism in
exclusively male world, and so they became Principality of Transylvania (17th
models for other women of their time. However, century)], Cluj-Napoca, 2005.
in the absence of some pertinent sources, it is Drgan Drgan, Ioan, Nobilimea
hard to evaluate to which extend that model 2000 romneasc din Transilvania
spread within the social milieu of the period. 1440-1514 [Romanian nobility of
Transylvania 1440-1514], Bucu-
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35
The Influence of Italian Masters toward the Masques of Inigo Jones
(17th Century)
Mihaela TIVD
PhD Student, University of Bucharest University Of Architecture and Urbanism Ion Mincu
Center of Excellence in Image Studies (C.E.S.I.), Bucharest, Romania,
E-mail: mihaelativda@yahoo.com
Abstract. This study underlines the important influence of the Italian masters toward the work of
the English scene designer and architect, Inigo Jones (1573-1652). Being considered a Vitruvius
Britannicus of his time, Jones revolutionized the British architecture and theatre during Stuart dynasty
thanks to his brilliant mind which absorbed like a sponge all the new artistic theories. Inigo Jones had
inexhaustible resources thanks to his creative genius and that is why he is considered to be the first
English classical architect, closely connected to the Italian space, who introduced new aesthetic and
philosophical standards in the English culture from the 17th century.
Key words: Inigo Jones, classical architecture, perspective stage, skenographia, masques, Italy
The new Vitruvius Britannicus beginning of his career. On his notes from the
Roman sketch his motto was based on a neo-
Born in London in 1573, in a humble stoic belief: Basta quel che contenta (That
Welsh family, Inigo Jones (Figure 1) will which contents is sufficient). However, after
become the first English architect, painter, improving his artistic qualities, he adopted
engineer and scene designer from the another saying, from Petrarchs Trionfo
seventeenth century. The impact of his work, as dAmore: Altro diletto che imparar non trovo
well as that of Ben Jonson, is extremely strong (I find no other delight than in learning)
on English mentalities and art. (Chaney 2006, 20).
His theoretical writings were inspired by It is well-known that during his lifetime
the works of the Italian architect Andrea Inigo Jones made three journeys in Italy (from
Palladio (1518 -1580) and his theatrical scenery 1595-1603, 1609 and 1613-1615) which
and buildings were influenced by Vitruvian completely changed his way of thinking and
theories regarding the proportion and symmetry working. On his first journey, in Venice and
rules. Firenze, he meets Bernardo Buontalenti (1531-
The first 30 years of his life are unclear 1608) an Italian painter, architect and scene
due to the lack of accurate data and information designer from the Medici court. From now on,
preserved. However, we know for sure that his he acquires and assimilates many design
early career started as a picture maker, in 1603 techniques from this Italian artist and also from
but, in the absence of any official documents, we other masters such as Palladio, Scamozzi and
can easily say that Inigo Jones was an Serlio.
autodidact, as Ben Jonson and Shakespeare But, the true change and cultural
were before him. Inigo Jones himself says that: revolution take place on his final journey to
being naturally inclined in my younger years to Italy, from 1612-1615, when he joins Earl
study the arts of design I passed into foreign Arundel and his wife in a great giro dItalia as
parts to converse with the great masters thereof art commentator and guide because, like the
in Italy, where I applied myself to search out the English Ambassador in Venice, Sir Dudley
ruins of those ancient buildings which, n despite Carleton wrote, Inigo was very useful to Lord
of time itself and the violence of barbarians, are Arundel by reason of his language and
yet remaining. Having satisfied myself in these, experience of these parts (Barefoot 1993, 73).
and returning to my native country, I applied my In his copy book of Palladios Quattro
mind more particularly to the study of Libri dellArchittetura, and in his Roman Scheck
architecture (James Lees-Milne 1953, 20). (Figure 2), Jones noted numerous observations
The influence of the Italian classical regarding the buildings, temples and antiquities
school of architecture may be seen from the he studied in Italy. He had a main interest in the
36
classical and also the neoclassical schools of House, a new hall dedicated to the court
architecture. masques. His architectural talent among
In Milan, Turin, Venice, Vicenza, Naples Rubenss painted ceiling is just another element
and Rome he found inspiration for his future that emphasizes the divine monarchy theory and
buildings and other architectural works from a tribute to King James I, presented in his
home, especially for Saint Pauls Cathedral, apotheosis, like an ancient Roman emperor.
being inspired by The Baths of Diocletian and Rubenss paintings are three main canvasses
Basilica of Maxentius from Rome. Also, being which depict The Union of the Crowns, the
in Rome, Jones studied very well the Roman Apotheosis of King James I (Figure 3) and The
Forum and the surrounding ruins (for e.g. Santa Peaceful Reign of James I.
Francesca Romana, Arch of Constantine used His impressive collection of architectural
as a model for his future Temple Bar in London, books and scene designs includes works as:
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina), Basilica Philibert de lOrmes Le premier tome de
Santa Maria Maggiore, Lateran Palace and San larchirecture (1569), Regole delli cinque ordini
Giovanni Lateran, The Pantheon, Bramantes darchitettura, of Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola,
tempietto in Saint Peter in Montorio, the Villa of from 1607 and Giorgio Vasaris Delle vite de
Pope Julius III and the ancient Roman way, Via piu eccellenti pittori, scultori et architettori
Appia. In Naples he studied the Italian Palazzi (1568).
of the mid-16th century and it is possible that the We also know that he bought a copy of
buildings analyzed here inspired him for Scamozzis book, Lidea della architettura
Whitehall Palace from England. Moreover, it universale, from 1617, and that he made
was in Veneto and Emilia Romagna that Jones annotations on the margin, like in the case of
would have found the architectural tradition Palladios work. This means that he seriously
developed by Bramante, Serlio, Giuglio studied the theoretical foundation and after that
Romano, Palladio, Scamozzi, in Verona Michele he developed his own style. He educated
Sanmichelli, at its strongest (Worsley 2007, himself about architecture in all this time and it
25). Venice was at that point an important is interesting that in his buildings, as in his
European cultural center, although it was always designs for the masque shows, he emphasized
half a century behind the rest of the Italy in its Vitruvius theories about the principles of
development. Among all his visits abroad harmonic beauty, symmetry and proportions.
Jones brought back the simplicity of design As we are going to see further in this
(Barefoot 1993, 79) and the revolution that he study, it was a common practice in Renaissance
started is not just in architecture but also in and Baroque time for most of the European
theatre where he invented the great picture architects to design not just buildings, but also
frame proscenium opening, which has, with the stage sets for the theatre spectacles. Todays
drop scene and movable stage ornaments, main type of architectural drawings was defined
persisted from his day to ours (Ramsey 1924, by Vitruvius. Scenographia, as it was described
25). by him, will be accomplished only in the 16th
In all Inigos work we can see clearly a and 17th centuries by masters from the Italian
connection with the classical architecture based and French courts like: Salviati, Jaques Callot,
on the primacy of Antiquity, as interpreted Stefano della Bella, Serlio, Buontalenti,
principally by Vitruvius, and on the classical Parmigiano, Scamozzi, Alfonso and Giuglio
orders of architecture as development by Alberti, Parigi (main scenery artists from the court of the
Bramate, Raphael and a sequence of other Grand Dukes of Tuscany). All this, among the
architects including in particular Giuglio book of Cesare Ripa were Inigos sources of
Romano and Sebastiano Serlio. Though this inspiration and borrowing. That is why in his
canonical tradition was epitomized by Palladio, work we can find all the new and fundamental
in particular his Quattro Libri dellArchittetura elements from the Italian Baroque stagecraft: the
() (Giles Worsley 2007, 1). curtain and the arch scne, the prospective
Also, other source of inspiration for Jones scene, scena ductilis, machina versatilis, the
was Constantino de Servi, a Florentine painter illumination of the scene etc (Folena 1969, 8).
and artist who also visited London in 1613, and All the English masques from 1605 to
who produced the scenery for the Somerset 1640 included a large stage with a proscenium
Masque of Thomas Campion. and perspective scenery, a practice influenced by
More likely Inigos talent as a great the European fashion at that time. But from all
architect reaches its peak in 1622 when he these works Nicolla Sabbatinis Practica di
finishes the new building for the Banqueting fabricar scene e machine neteatri from 1638 is
37
clearly the most important treaty for Inigo also a religious significance: the mask reminding
Joness stagecraft designs. Serlio believed, like of the golden one worn by God and the
Jones, that the stage machinery had the role to archangels in the medieval mysteries.
evoke wonder in the minds of spectators and, The word masque appears only in the 17th
above all, as a way of expressing the century and it is the French word given by Ben
magnificence of monarch (Strong 1984, 156). Jonson. At their beginnings, the English black
After his last visit in Italy, in 1615, he masks worn by the Tudor actors were called
succeeded Simon Basil as Surveyor of the Kings guizard or visor which signified mask. They
Work and practically he begins his career as a were an amateur production, involving the royal
true architect. In his only six buildings that household and the nobility in which music and
survived in England, we can clearly see that his dancing played a more important part than the
architecture was not based simply on the use of text. Only after their development in the
the orders but on the graduated application of Renaissance Italy, at the court of Lorenzo de
classical ornament to buildings whose essential Medici, these spectacles became more
design is based on symmetry and order. The elaborated, resembling more to the spectacular
degree of ornament was depended on the mascarade (masquerade) and the French ballet-
particular purpose of the specific building, that comique. The Tudors masks are considerably
is, on the fundamental classical belief in less elaborated but they keep the same structure
propriety or decorum (Worsley 2007, 72). as the later masques. The masque and its
From 1615 to the end of his life, Jones physical setting were designed to work together
was more and more aware of his role and in creating an effect of royal splendor and
profession and declared: But I am truly / generosity (Astington 1999, 114).
Architectonicus Professor, rather/That is (as one After returning from Italy in 1605, Inigo
would say) an architect (Ramsey 1929, 11). Jones introduced the mobile setting, first used at
Starting from this theoretical foundation, the Oxford University (cast decoration in the
Inigo Jones, armed with his copy-books of form of a rotating screen in Italian manner
Palladio and Serlios works, will create a new (Histoire de la Musique, vol. I: Des origines a
artistic gender, based on the visual and Jean Sbastien Bach, 1960, 1749). However,
performing arts, establishing an organic union of the first masque performed at the Stuart court
music, dance and drama: the court masques. was Ben Jonsons Masque of Blackness from
These artistic influences appeared first in Italy 1605 and the last one, William Davenants
and then were adopted in France and later in Salmacita Spolia, from January 1640 (this
England. They had all the necessary elements to masque reveals a nave idealism of king Charles
create a court spectacle: pastoral, classical and I about his absolute and divine powers). The
mythological motives, scene design and new and initiative of these complex theatrical shows
complex stage machinery. (Guardamagna, Anzi belongs to consort Queen, Anne of Denmark
2002, 135). The English massively imported (patroness and protector of Jacobean court
from the two different examples, and managed culture, the one who adopted a cosmopolitan and
to generate, despite all the accusations of extravagant lifestyle). She will instruct Ben
plagiarism, an original and innovative artistic Jonson and Inigo Jones to organize a spectacle
genre. The masque remains a mixture of the in 1605, which introduced some moving
English tradition and the foreign influences, scenes and new scene machineries, like the
especially the Italian ones. moving sea. The word had an Italian origin,
macchina and in some texts we find it like
Revolutionizing the English theatre engine or machine: scenes and machines
The origins of the English masques come were the two basic elements in the presentation
from a very distant past, recalling the old pagan of a theatrical performance during the early 17th
rites of agriculture from the Greek, Roman, century (Nicoll 1938, 60).
Celtic and Teutonic cults. With this opportunity In these court festivities, public access was
the evil spirits were banished by the disguising strictly forbidden, unlike the Elizabethan era,
and masks that people wore. In the Middle Ages and the shows were entirely sponsored by the
the ritual is more clearly defined and takes a king himself, who became the main patron of the
theatrical form, being called carnival and artists. The hall where the shows were
preserving two different functions until the performed was arranged like a local theatre, and
Renaissance age: a political and a moral one. the stage played a key part in the whole quasi-
(Guardamagna, Anzi 2002, 131). Also, in the dramatic fiction. Usually, most of the English
medieval times, the tradition of mask theatre has masques were presented in the Banqueting
38
House, at Whitehall Palace, were the main royal and was inspired by, were Sebastiano Serlios Il
ceremonies and celebrations took place. There Secondo Libro di Perspettiva, from 1545,
were also cases in which the masques were Daniele Barbaros La Pratica della Prospettiva,
hosted by some English nobleman (like the show published in 1559, in Venice, Giovanibattista
The Gypsies Metamorphosed, from 1623, Giraldi Cinthio, with his work from 1554,
offered by the Duke of Buckingham in Kings Discorso sulle tragedie, and Leone deSommis
James honour) but the exceptions were very few book, Quattro dialoghi in materia di
because the kings court showed a true rappresentazioni sceniche, 1556-1561. They
monopoly over the masques spectacles. The theorized about the scenic space and their ideas
banqueting houses were particularly favoured revolutionized the world of theatre. That is how
for the masques which became a feature of we can explain the fact that in the English
Stuart court life, no doubt because they offered masque we find traces of the Aristotelian theory,
plenty of space for the special demands of these which were assimilated as well by the Italian
entertainments, which called for a dancing-floor artists.
in front of a scenic stage which was commonly In his book entitled De Architettura,
quite large (Astington 1999, 53). This style dedicated to the Roman emperor Augustus,
influenced Jones from the Palladios frons Vitruvius speaks about the Greeks and Roman
scenae in Teatro Olimpico from Vicenza. theatres, establishing the rules for the
(Figure 4) construction of a typical Roman theatre, the
Therefore, the new artistic genre that model being the one of Marcellus from Rome
arouse in Europe in 17th century needs a new (Figure 5).
physical space to develop: festivals were now The most important Italian entertainment
removed into the confines of the palace in the from the 16th century that obviously inspired
form of the spectacular court masques staged in Jones was the Florentine Intermezzi from 1589,
temporary theatres erected in great sale des ftes at the Medici court (in Uffizi Theatre), entitled
we know as the Banqueting House () In 1637 La Pellegrina (Figure 6). Honoring the marriage
a separate Masque Room was erected, between the Grand Duke Ferdinand I and
forerunner surely, had the monarchy survived, of Christine of Lorraine, the six entertainments
a permanent court theater of the type established performed with this occasion were staged in a
in Florence in 1586 (Strong 1984, 154). As a large room that was approximately three times
stage designer Jones sought to improve himself as long as it was wide. The stage was raised
constantly and he managed to create some above the auditorium floor to which it was
ingenious machines which amazed the audience connected by an oval stair (Weil 1983, 10).
every time, thanks to his engineering talents. The designs were made by Buontalenti
From 1605 to 1640 he produced more than and the text was written by Girolamo Bargagli.
30 masques and show designs and as a proof of We know from the sources that Inigo Jones
his impressive work we have his 450 drawings copied them in 1611 because his drawings for
and sketches. sets and costumes from the masque are
What was new and really revolutionary sometimes borrowed consistently from the
for the history of the English theatre was the Italian and French designs (Figure 7). In The
perspective stage. Masque of Hymenaei, from 1605, he includes
The ancient Greeks were the first who put another borrowed idea from the Italian sources
into practice the principles of perspective scenes, (probably from Le Nozze degli dei from 1637),
early in the fifth century BC. They also invented the one of the microcosms: Jones designs a huge
the term skenographia (that means scene globe that spins. But not all the stage drawings
painting, the art of portraying objects or scenes of Inigo Jones are borrowed from Italy or
in perspective) which will became the technical France. In DAvennants masque, Britannia
term for any artwork executed in perspective. Triumphans, he showed beyond the perspective
The perspective applied to the space of the of a street of houses a view of London (Yates
theatre supports the concept of a privileged 1969, 173) and this is not the only example that
optical point placed in the middle of the room, it had been recorded.
where the king was situated. Anna Anzi says, Another strong connection with the Italian
quoting Roy Strong that the king sees perfectly culture is the one regarding the old British
the show, being in the same time the centre of tradition about the kings descending from the
the masque (Guardamagna, Anzi, 2002, 135). Trojans, in Brutuss person. This links very well
The Italian works regarding the practice of with Joness attempt to connect this theory with
perspective sceneries that Inigo Jones may read the Stonehenges architecture. Commissioned by
39
the King James I, in 1620, to discover the World Discovered in the Moon, regarding the
mystery of Stonehenge, Jones develops a version theory of the infinite universe. But Jonson
according to which Stonehenge monument is an placed the centre of the Masque in England
ancient Roman temple dedicated to Caelus, the itself, and his monarch is the Sun whose rays
celestial divinity. With his theory he tries to never set. So, he unintentionally contributes to
underline two main issues: the fact that the the theory of the heliocentric monarchy.
British are the true descendants of the Romans
and the second, that the king could be associated The visual element from the court spectacles
with that celestial god, Caelus, and worship like As we have already mentioned, a crucial
a Sun-God, reminding about the heliocentric spatial principle of the court theatres from the
politic of Masque of Blackness, from 1605. King 16th and 17th centuries is closely connected with
Jamess triumphal entering in London in March the principle of perspective and says that the
1604 restores the ancient principle of harmony royal seat should directly face the stage, and
and proportion through a series of triumphal hence both state and stage were aligned on the
arches dedicated to the new king which were central axis of the chamber. The truly important
directly inspired by the triumphal arches created matter about the stages being in the middle of
to the archduke Albert and infant Isabella in the hall was that it should be in the center of
1566, in Antwerp (Harris, Orgel, Strong, 197, p. the sovereigns view. He or she should also be
24). able to hear well (Astington 1999, 95). In other
The heliocentric theory of the infinite words, the monarch should have to be visible to
universe is also reflected and underlined in his audience.
English masques. Another influence from Italy From this point of view, the masque
is Giordano Brunos philosophy. In her article requires a religious, aesthetic and political
entitled Giordano Bruno and the Stuart Court stratification and it also creates a new culture by
Masque from 1995, Hillary Gatti says that there changing the language (creating a new way of
is a close connection between the English understanding facts for the audience) and also
masque and the works of Giordano Bruno. In De the space (constructing not just an imaginative
triplici minimo, from 1589, he gives importance but also a physical one by constructing such
to the British monarchy by making references to halls like the Banqueting House at Whitehall).
the future James I. It is possible that Bruno Moreover, as we already underlined before, the
inspired himself in De gli eroici furori, from the kings position plays an important role too:
Ballet comique de la Royne by Balthasar de single-centered, he is surrounded by a
Beaujoyeulx, from 1581, when he visited Henry homogeneous mass. This location in space as
IIIs court in Paris. This entertainment was more monarch, and central point of view creates a
an English masque than a ballet and inspired relationship of power. So, what use has this kind
Brunos later works when he presents the of device? The masque emphasizes the central
monarch as a divinity. His presence in the role played by the king and manipulates public
Jacobean and Caroline masques appears first in thinking. Then, the centrality of the monarch
Thetys Festival, by Samuel Daniel, continuing emphasizes both positive (placed to the center)
with Masque of Blackness, Masque of Beauty and negative (placed to the periphery) values
and Loves Triumph through Callipolis, through the masque antimasque dichotomy.
performed later, in 1631. Bruno perceived the First and foremost the masque was a
infinite universe like an unbounded ocean and statement made visually by means of
we find the heliocentric theme of the infinite engineering. Every stage picture Inigo Jones
universe in the mentioned masques too (Gatti presented was a symbol composed of a
1995, 816). Inigo creates with this occasion composite series of hieroglyphs (Strong 1984,
wonderful machinery which is moving and also 156) and this means that the audience was
rotating scenes that convey the sea or the forced to decipher and to understand the new
ocean from which the masquers reveal language of these court entertainments.
themselves, in front of their divine and centred This study aimed at investigating the
monarch. Giordano Brunos philosophy is a cultural and artistic context of the success of
revelation of the divine truth sent by God only to Inigo Jones as English architect and scene
the chosen ones. The masques speaks about designer. The role of the masque is a special one
his infinite universe and his heliocentric view in the court culture of the 16th and 17th centuries
(an infinite ocean of divine life) but even so, and the cultural revolution from this period,
Ben Jonson has a sceptical position. In 1620 he after Jones Italian and French tours, represents
writes a satirical masque, News from the New a crucial moment in Britains cultural and
40
artistic history. With a brilliant mind which Carroci Editore, 2002.
absorbed all the new theories like a sponge, Harris, Orgel, Harris, John, Orgel.
Inigo Jones had inexhaustible resources thanks Strong 1973 Stephen, Strong, Roy, The
to his creative genius. Imagining an illusory King's Arcadia Inigo
kingdom, for his monarchs through his court Jones and the Stuart court:
spectacles, Inigo Jones offered a safety and a quatercentenary exhibi-
comfort utopia where James I and Charles I tion held at the Banqueting
become ideal kings, loving and nourishing House, Whitehall, from July
fathers for their subjects, despite the realities of 12th to September 2nd,
civil war. However, Inigo Jones changed the 1973, catalogue by John
course of British architecture from the Harris, Stephen Orgel and
prodigious eclecticism of the Elizabethans and Roy Strong, London, Arts
Jacobeans to a respect for the principles of order, Council of Great Britain,
grandeur, and harmony, derived from classical 1973.
and Renaissance examples (Higgot 1990, 1). Lees-Milne Lees-Milne, James, The age
1953 of Inigo Jones, London,
References Batsford, 1953.
Nicoll 1938 Nicoll, Allardyce, Stu-
Papers in periodical journals: art masques and the Renais-
Gati Gati, Hillary, Giordano Bruno and the sance stage. With one
1995 Stuart court masques, New York, hundred and ninety-seven
Renaissance Society of America, 1995, illustrations, New York,
p. 809-842. Harcourt, Brace and
Company, 1938.
Books: Ramsey 1924 Ramsey Stanley C., Inigo
Histoire de la *** Histoire de la Musique, Jones, London, Ernest
Musique vol. I: Des origines a Jean- Benn, Ltd. & Bouverie
Sbastien Bach, 1960. Street, 1924.
Astington Astington John, English Strong 1984 Strong Roy, Art and power:
1999 Court Theatre, 1558-1642 Renaissance festivals, 1450-
Cambridge University 1650, Woodbridge, Suffolk,
Press, 1999. Boydell Press (1984).
Barefoot Barefoot, Brian, The
Weil 1983 Weil Mark S., Baroque
1993 English Road to Rome,
theatre and stage design
Images Publishing (Mal-
Washington University,
vern) Ltd., Printed and
1938.
Bound in Great Britain,
1993. Worsley 2007 Worsley, Giles, Inigo Jones
Chaney 2006 Chaney, Edward, Inigo and the European Classicist
Joness Roman Sketchbook, Tradition, New Haven/
vol. I-II, The Roxburgh London, Paul Mellon Center
Club, 2006. for Studies in British Art by
Folena, Strong Folena, Gianfranco, Roy Yale University Press, 2007.
1969 Strong., Disegni teatrali di Yates 1969 Yates, Frances A., Theatre
Inigo Jones. Della ioli of the world, London,
Strong. Presentazione di Routledge and Kegan Paul
Gianfranco Folena, Ltd., 1969, p. 169-186.
Venezia, N. Pozza, 1969.
Guardamagna, Guardamagna, Daniela,
Anzi 2002 Anna Anzi, Storia del teatro
inglese. Il teatro giacomi-
ano e carolino, Roma,
41
List of illustrations Vicenza, Italy. [Artist necunoscut. Teatrul
Olimpic. Partea central a scenei. Arcul central
Fig. 1 Inigo Jones. Self-portrait, 1640. Riba este cunoscut ca porta regia sau arcul regal.
British Architectural Library Drawings and Vicena, Italia].
Archives Collection. [Inigo Jones. Auto-portret,
1640. Riba British Architectural Library Fig. 5 Unknown artist. Teatro di Marcello
Drawings and Archives Collection.] sketch, 1st century B.C. 1st century A.C. Rome,
Italy. [Artist necunoscut. Schia teatrului
Fig. 2 Inigo Jones. Roman Sketchbook, 1614. mpratului Marcello, secolele 1 .Hr. 1 d.Hr.
Chatsworth, England. [Inigo Jones. Schie Roma, Italia.]
Romane, 1614. Catsworth, Marea Britanie.]
Fig. 6 Bernardo Buontalenti, La Pellegrina
Fig. 3 Peter Paul Rubens. The Apotheosis of Dorian Harmony, 1589, Italy. [Bernardo
King James I, painting ceiling. 1632-1634. Buontalenti, La Pellegrina Armonia Doric,
Banqueting House, Whitehall Palace, London. 1589, Italia.]
[Peter Paul Rubens, Apoteoza regelui Iacob I,
picture pe tavanul Banqueting House. 1632-
1634. Palatul Whitehall, Londra.] Fig. 7 Inigo Jones. Venus design for a cloud
machine. The Trustees of the Catsworth
Fig. 4 Unknown artist. Teatro Olimpico (1580) Settlement. [Inigo Jones. Venus schia unei
Front scene. The large arch in the center is mainrii care red un nor.]
known as the porta regia or royal arch.
42
Fig. 2 Inigo Jones, Roman Sketchbook, 1614
Fig. 3 Peter Paul Rubens, The Apotheosis of King James I, 1632- 1634.
Banqueting House
Source: http://www.artsunlight.com/artist-NR/N-R0001-Peter-Paul-Rubens/N-R0001-497-
banqueting-house-whitehall-london-rubens-s-painted-ceiling-central-canvas.html
43
Fig. 4 Unknown artist. Teatro Olimpico (1580), Vicenza, Italy
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Veneto_Vicenza1_tango7174.jpg
Fig. 5 Unknown artist. Teatro di Marcello sketch, 1st century B.C.- 1st century
A.C. Rome, Italy
Source: http://www.homolaicus.com/storia/antica/roma/teatro_marcello.htm
44
Fig. 6 Bernardo Buontalenti, La Pellegrina Dorian Harmony, 1589, Italy
Source: http://jeannedepompadour.blogspot.ro/2012/04/costumes-by-inigo-jones-and-
bernardo.html
45
How to Convert Privileges into Rights? The Modern Romanian
Elite Genesis during 19th Century
Drago SDROBI
PhD Candidate George Bariiu Institute of History, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
E-mail: dragossdrobis@yahoo.com
Abstract. Tackling the elites theme represented both a modern and modernizing orientation for the
post-communist Romanian historiography. But, as many other conceptual loans, the elite concept
embodied for many Romanian historians the very idea of modernity, neglecting the ingnue meaning of
the term. If we choose to analyze the genealogy of this concept, we will find out that the elite-masses
binomial was first used by the Italian sociologists Gaetano Mosca and Vilfredo Pareto in the late 19th
century, the peak of the philosophy of history. For the Italian sociologists this binomial was conceived as
a way to find out a law of history. Thus, the elite concept was designed toreflect the evolution of the
relationship between power and the powerless, whatever the age.
Through this concept it is possible to figure out the reasons that determined the old Romanian elite
to establish a modern state. For landlords (boyars or nobles) a Romanian modern state should become a
mechanism to reinforce the oldattributes ofpower. One of the strongest mechanisms to inoculate such a
new social order was education, with its social model, the intellectual.
The critical cultural discourse, main Despite this discourse that denies any
characteristic of the present multiculturalism, form of superiority, the egalitarianism as
imposes renunciation to cultural elitism. By this ideological purpose was finally banished in the
way, the approach of any subject which refers to utopia land. Two centuries from the
any form of superiority both in past and proclamation of the equality during the French
present is presently regarded with skepticism Revolution, what remained as a political purpose
and even harshly criticized. The Marxist in the postmodern society is the assurance of the
paradigm was among the most important equality of rights and the equality of chances for
ideological currents that proposed to attenuate all human beings.
the role of the elite by reshaping the morphology This essay proposes to depict the
of history around the concepts of class fight and evolution of the binomial elite-masses from the
social class. Nowadays, the neo-Marxism is point of view of a new concept, that of social
accompanied by multiculturalism, a principle change and also of social promotion. Originated
that wants to found ethno cultural groups in the sociological field and utilized especially
relationships from equal positions (Constant by the social and cultural history, the prevalence
2000, 15-16). In this manner, the new history of the social change idea converted the concept
promoted by multiculturalism imposed a new of continuity into an overcome one. The appeal
research discourse through which the societies to the change became the matrix for the past
should be the atoms that must be studied by the reinterpretation. Nevertheless, the approach of
historians. The elitism refers to a research the changes that occurred in the Romanian
tradition dedicated almost exclusively to social society during the 19th century can be
origins and to the relationships between those summarized in a single line from the novel The
who occupied privileged social positions, taking Leopardo by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, in
into consideration the reputational aspects of the which an aristocrat seemed to be convinced that
Power. Instead, pluralism depicts a research If we want things to stay as they are, things will
program which prefers the study of the decisions have to change. The adaptation to the new
and their real consequences, focusing on the context as revealed by this phrase leads to
decisional mechanisms (Scott 2001, 12). This the same purpose: the continuity of the idea of
would be the reason why the elite subject was on class or family. In order to explain the process of
the second place for such a long time and was social change the concept of generation begins
seen as a form of scientific research that no to become more important: the generation in
longer corresponded to the new social requests. decline, the generation that is in charge and the
46
generation that aspires to take control all this egalitarianism, the democratic state becomes the
have reactions provoked by some traumatized desirable political formula.
historical events, events that tends to accelerate The Pareto and Moscas ideas seem to be
and to catalyze social change (Burke 1999, very different from the Marxist sociology. For
185). In other words, the modernization Pareto there is no serious reason the superiority
appears rather as a consolidation process of the of the ruling minorities to come to an end, and
achieved power by the old elite and as a way of the faith in establishing a social order that
creating a new societal discourse that justifies should abolish any differences between
the maintenance of power in the hands of the dominants and dominated is just a social utopia
same aristocracy. Briefly, it is about the famous (Coenen-Hunther 2007, 53). No matter the
theory formulated by Titu Maiorescu, that of political system, the idea of society itself
forms without fundament, a paradigm around requires a minority that is obliged to rule the
which Romanians cultural and social models social, political and economic establishment. In
were created. What level of degree had this this respect, I must point that the difference
forms for the Romanian society fundaments?, to between the Marxist approach and Pareto elitist
this question I shall try to find an answer. vision is rather a met theoretical one: for the
Marxists history is perceived as progress and as
The elites: origin of a concept a theological phenomenon, while for the Italian
The genealogy of the idea of elite is, at sociologist history if, indeed, it is governed by
least, an artifact related to the idea of modern any rule circumscribes the idea of cycles. For
democracy, a mechanism through which Pareto, the only aspect that can be ameliorate is
historians, sociologists and anthropologists tried the way in which the elite gains the power
to reveal the essence of the politics: achieving (Coenen-Hunther 2007, 53). This is why the
power. Two Italian sociologists were those who mechanism to assure legitimacy becomes more
theorized this sociological system of elites in the important. And in modern times legitimacy
late 19th century. Considering that modern resumes itself to the alternativepreeminence or
democracy is just an appearance and criticizing excellence.
the Marxist model that reduced history to the
idea of class struggle, Gaetano Mosca and From Classes Dirigeante to Noblesse dtat.
Vilfredo Pareto stated that the past represents Elites Consecration through Education
variations of the same theme: masses and elites. The hatred for the upper class is the
This is the reason Gaetano Mosca imposed a involuntary homage brought by the lower
new scheme for interpreting political systems class. In all this surrounding land [..] there
that are in fact constituted by two recurrent is no face that shows nothing but the dark
elements: governors and governed. The firsts respect of fear and slavery. (Charles
represent a minority no matter the political Dickens, A Tale of TwoCities)
system and they build their superiority Quest-ce que une lite? Cest un petit
especially through organizational capacity and bataillon des mes voues une noble
concerted action, that always triumphs over a cause, la dfendantnergiquement daprs
disorganized majority, which has neither will, les rgles dune sage organisation et
nor impulse, nor action in common (Gaetano cherchant entrainer la foule dans la voie
Moscaapud Scott 2007, 121). Of course, as any de bien. (Louis Razuc, Llite, son rle et
dominant group, the elite need a mechanism in sa formation)
order to legitimate the acquirer of the power, to Modernization means social mobility, a
justify superiority. In other words, the elite need process that conferred a new polysemy to the
a political formula, a concept launched by notion of elite, the two excerpts from above
Mosca in 1884. Through this we should being illustrative for the identity changes that
understand that in all countries that reaches occurred. For the middle age, a society of ranks,
even a mediocre level of culture, the leading the Dickens statement reveals how elites were
class justifies the power that is grounded on a perceived, because in those times elite was in
faith that, in a certain age and for a certain fact a political elite. Dirigeantswere those
people, is largely accepted (Gaetano beneficiaries of the administrative functions
Moscaapud Coenen-Hunther 2007, 69). In offered by the European monarchs in order to
addition, this political formula is related to a organize the state. In exchange, the modern elite
political mechanism: the state. And, due to the calls for other modalities that should reinforce
fact that modernity is governed by the ideal of their power claims by imposing a new social
ideal, a model that had to correspond to the
47
democratic ideals of the society. This new social matter of fact, modalities in order to maintain
ideal, build by the education process, will be that power, but not goals for itself. As, for instance,
of the merit. In other words, preeminence was sometimes simultaneously, an ideological
supposed to be replaced by excellence. resource was the anti-Occidentalism or the rural
Meritocracy became in fact the mechanism for idealization (Lazr 2002, 85).
implementing the social mobility. The 19th century is for the Romanian case
Charles Christophe described how the confrontation the old boyars, holders of
intellectual elite succeeded through meritocracy important economic capital and the new state
to gain the power in the Third French Republic boyars, bureaucrats, dependents on the financial
(Charle, 1987). Although this principle of resources of the state. Initially, the landlords
meritocracy was firstly launched during the considered the absence of an autonomous state a
Great French Revolution, only the Third French source of insecurity that could very easily affect
Republic (since 1870) was the one to demarche its economic capital. The wars, the territorial
the process of social renovation (Charle, 1990, concessions from the 18th and early 19th
11). This is another reason why we may state centuries leaded to the necessity of building a
that revolution, as a concept, launches and modern state. Nevertheless, the Adrianople
reinforces the illusion of a dramatic and quick Treaty (1829), with its favorable terms for the
change, when, in fact, these changes take place landlords could not be considered an advantage
gradually. Regarding the problem of elite, the for the reign institution and, in extension, for the
French historian considers that the old state. This is because the economic resources
aristocracy built its privileges by manipulating still remained an advantage of the landlords,
the economic, social and cultural capital (Charle while the state had no economic power. The
1987, 28). The economic capital assures in fact primary source of conflict between the old
the monopole of the political power due to the boyars, the economic independent one, and the
poll tax vote system that splits the people in two new elite, a state dependent one in its way to the
distinct categories: electors those that economic resources traces down to this very
designate the power and eligible those that moment.Because the state had no economic
can aspire to power. More than this, the resources, the clash will be leaded against those
economic capital, as a family inheritance, who continued to refuse in conceding their
perpetuates the access to a potent social network power to the state. It is about the great landlords,
and, by this, to public functions. This is, in fact, that for a long time were not obliged to
how economic capital turns into a social one. contribute to the state budget, a proof of its
The lack of economic capital concludes the power in the Romanian states. Meanwhile,
French historian means the instauration of during 19th century, the new bureaucratic
meritocracy. It becomes obvious that the cultural nobility had allied with the state in this struggle
capital becomes crucial. And the only way to against the privileged nobility, a nobility still
acquire cultural capital is education (Charle refractory to the idea of state recovery budget on
1987, 28). its opulence. From this economic point of view
we can explain the delineation of those two
The Romanian Case. The Modernity: an political poles from the 19th century: the
Imported Exigency? conservatism, as an expression of the great
For the Romanian space, the absence of an landlords that refused any reforms that could
adequate social and economic structure limited affect the rural property, and liberalism, which
modernization to an institutional process. In fact, desire was to implement modernization and a
the eradication of some material and institutional central system for controlling the economic
gaps was seen as the bottleneck of the resources, too. Thus viewed, the modernization
modernization process. Another clich of the is no longer an opposition between landlords
Romanian historiography states that the and bourgeoisie, but an opposition between
European integration was the ultimate political landlords representative for the private sphere
goal of the Romanian political class and so the and the state bureaucracy (Lazr 2002, 94-96).
modernization. In fact, the main goal of the This is way the sociologist Marius Lazr
Romanian elite was always the power and not concludes that modernization in the Romanian
the westernization. It is the internal competition space was a superficial phenomenon, unable to
for the domination resources the element that, create and launch mechanisms for recruiting a
actually, provoked the European integration new elite; actually, modernization remained a
phenomenon. This is the reason why way for developing the old aristocracy control of
modernization and westernization were, as a the state, but certainly not a process founded on
48
a real social mobility. For the Romanian elite,
political modernization represented the shift Meritocracy in the Romanian Space the Old
from a domination system based on the Exploiters and the New Ones
influence networks of some aristocratic families, The 1848 revolution was in fact an elite
to a bureaucratic foundation and institutional revolution, instead of a mass revolution. In the
autonomy system. This phenomenon was leaded 1848 Romanian society the language of the elite
[] by the same aristocratic elite, that rapidly was so different from that of the peasants to
learned to reconvert and conserve the old misunderstanding; a society far away from the
influential status in the new modern socio- idea of modernity, and through this, from the
political matrix (Lazr 2002, 93). principle of meritocracy. The reason found
The same idea is formulated by Daniel bytefanCazimir to explain the failure of this
Barbu, too, but with a distinct amendment: the revolution was the lack of a transition period,
elites perceived modernization as a power over necessary to blur the differences. Cazimir
the words (Barbu 2001, 264). Revealing the lack interprets the changes occurred in clothing at the
of bourgeoisie values from the Romanian beginning of a fragile, but irreversible
society (like labor, family, economy, ethic, phenomenon. The German fashion or the
authority or scientific spirit), the historian French one brought in The Romanian
reached the conclusion that modernization was Principalities by the boyars sons is the sign of a
missing the western vision of this phenomenon, paradoxical situation, although they intended to
that consisted in producing, distributing and spread an egalitarian state of mind. So, if those
consuming wealth. With no socio-economic who wanted to promote socially adopted rapidly
foundation, modernization itself became just a the new attire, instead, the traditional boyars
discursive phenomenon: The modernity was not strove not to resemble with the new Dinu
perceived as a culture of experience, grounded Pturic social typology. But, eventually, an
on the economy dynamics and social foresight, insidious effect of the fashion was that it obliged
but as a culture of discourse in which the present all individuals to obey in front of the changes,
was set on the History values and obeyed to the because in 19th century fashion was a
European democratic model irradiance(Barbu mechanism of dialogue and of social
2001, 264). The modernization, in fact the recognition. Trying not to adapt could became
import of some western institutions specific to a social reclusion. Although the 1830-1860 period
Nation-State, ends up as a way of converting the was represented as a period in which old boyars
power prerogatives, a power easily to exercise with oriental clothes coexisted along with the
through political discourse mediation. The young boyars dressed in trousers and frock
politics is not a future projection, instead it coats, we should remark the great deal of
becomes the way of rediscovering Romanian concessions made by the old generation in the
modernity in the past. This is the reason why in favor of the new one. In fact, it was a roles shift
discursive practice of the Romanian politicians it synthetized with accuracy by VasileAlecsandri:
is easily to encounter the appeal to the History, We should be fair and we should respectfully
necessary in order to look for and even to invent knee in front of our parents memory. Although
those seeds of modernization in the Romanian through their way of life our parents seemed to
space. In this manner, modernization became a be part of the 16th century, they had a sublime
natural stage in the developing of the Romanian merit. They allowed a century of progress and of
state, certainly not an ideological import that regeneration in their country, the 19th century,
could affect the background. This history and brought from abroad by their children (1). When
politics pendant will end up into a nationalistic
discourse, reinventing the past. Meanwhile, it (1) Apud (Cazimir 2006, 65): S fim drepi i s ne
was a way to escape the major challenge: how to nchinm cu respect i recunotin dinaintea
install a democratic, modern and liberal regime memoriei prinilor. Ei prin traiul lor preau a
into a space with no civic culture, bourgeoisie face parte din seculul XVI, dar au avut meritul
values and free will exercise. Modernization in sublim de a introduce n patria lor un secul de
the Romanian space was unable to assure the progres i de regenerare, seculul XIX, adus din
consensus around the idea of state and to strintate prin copiii lor). This transition period
analyzed by Cazimir reflects the changes occured
reinforce social solidarities. Without these two
in language, too. It is a situation described in a
characteristics, the image of the modern very plastic manner by the author: A lot of old
Romanian state was one of a parallel-state to the things are still existing, but their fate is already
society interests, an incapable state to represent doomed. The new things are already existing, but
the idea of social justice. havent triumphed yet (Multe lucruri vechi mai
49
the old boyars realized that the new clothing seeking freedom: the nations. In this respect, the
meant more than a simple fashion, it was already evolution of a nation is addicted to the
too late. In fact, the fashion was not just a simple affirmation of a national genius and to a
fad; it meant new social models and aspirations. historical fate. The youngster revolutionary
And, although the 1848 revolution was a failure, leaders tried to apply this vision to the
in less than 15 years the Romanian Principalities Romanian society, but considered that the
were involved in an institutional, political and freedom was for the people as a communitarian
social modernization phenomenon. The clothing entity, and not as a collection of independent
homogenization wiped out the ranks. Instead, it individuals (Matei 2004, 62). Because of the
consecrated equal chances, as an foreign domination, primordially was to gain the
essentialprerequisite for the idea of meritocracy. freedom for the entire nation, while later the
However, this mechanism of social modernization efforts should be focused on the
promotion meritocracy can be glimpsed implementation of the individual liberty. The
since 18th century, the period of the Greekreigns nation liberty subordinated individual liberty
(fanarioi), when it was imposed the common (Matei 2004, 63), a vision that would destroy
law of according princes by the ruler. But, any trace of respect for the individual liberty,
because these princes were offered especially to but instead it would develop a collectivistic
the foreigners, perverting the idea of aristocracy, syndrome of adulating the national virtues.
the reaction of the local boyars had a Was meritocracy only a way for the old
xenophobic side. In this respect, illustrative are aristocracy to legitimate its continuity in the
Constituia crvunarilo rwritten by Ionic Tutu field of power? The Mihai Sorin Rdulescu
or Cererile norodului romnesc formulated by prosopographic analysis regarding the
Tudor Vladimirescu. Although still considered antebellum liberal elite highlights the boyar
as the first signs of the Romanian society origin of the most important leaders of this first
liberalization, in fact is the xenophobic reaction political party from modern Romania
of the local boyars replaced from the state (Rdulescu 1998, 145). For instance, the ten
functions by the foreigners. The goal of liberal prime-ministers during 1866-1900 were,
returning to the Romanian reigns is, in fact, the with two exception (P. S. Aurelian from
intention of the local boyars to monopolize the Transylvania and Dimitrie Sturdza from
administrative apparatus. For the Romanian Moldavia), descendants of Wallachia boyar
boyars administrative function was not a families: Brtianu, Ghica, Kreulescu and
political duty, but a devotion relationship with Golescu. In fact, no member of the liberal elite
the reign. Although it may seem as a reform, the was a descendant of the bourgeoisie (Rdulescu
fight of the local aristocracy meant the return to 1998, 42, 147). In contrast, the great
a state design considered to be equitable. The conservative political leaders came from
Organic Rules tried to find an answer to this Moldavia, but their social origin was an
problem, recognizing the nobility titles to those aristocratic one, too. Due to the distinctive
capable to prove this with documents. Still, an geographical separation of the two political
innovation is implemented: the consecration of groups the programmatic differences will occur.
the meritocratic principle in achieving nobility These differences will be visible during the
titles that could be conferred especially by the 1848th revolution, when we can distinguish the
Reign (Lazr 2002, 101). roots of the dilemma regarding the role of
Meritocracy is closely linked to the idea of meritocracy with long term effects in defining
individual freedom. But, despite the 1848th the modern Romanian elite. For instance, if the
revolutionary program included social goals, ideas of meritocracy in Walachia were positively
these were subsidiary to the national objectives. perceived, in Moldavia it was obvious a sort of
What was really important for the revolutionary call for tradition; it was about Moldavians
leaders remained the emancipation of the desire to return to tradition, in order to regain the
Romanian space. Through this, the 1848th natural rights of the privileged status, unfairly
liberalism divided society into a liberator elite lost. More than this, the Moldavian boyars
and an obedient community. It is a model didnt accept the idea of ceasing the role of
inspired by Jules Michelet theory, according to primus inter pares to the Walachia landlords in
which the world was made of immutable entities the projected future Romania. This is the way
we can justify why so many Moldavian boyars
struie nc, dar soarta lor e deja pecetluit. Cele were part of antiunion current in 1859
noi i-au fcut deja apariia, dar nu au triumfat (Rdulescu 1998, 147).
nc) (Cazimir 2006, 10).
50
As it concerns Transylvania, the idea of pattern of thought that will inspire Vladimir Ilici
revolution itself will be monopolized by the Lenin later.
fight for national emancipation, a characteristic The Romanian space suggestively
that would transform this movement in the sole resembles with the Russian Imperium. For
counter-revolution in 1848. Fighting against the example, the young 1848th elite focused on the
Hungarian revolution led by Lajos Kossuth, the improvement of the peasantry status. More than
Transylvanian leaders goals would end up in an this, the so-called bonjour youth (because of
indirect favor to the Austrian monarchy. Despite their French style in speaking and dressing)
its amplitude, the Transylvanian revolution of developed a sort of peasant spirit archeology, a
the Romanians remains a clear proof of the spirit considered to comport the ingnues idea of
inextricable linkage between the idea of Romanianity. Ion Heliade-Rdulescu,
modernity and national ideology. This is the MihailKoglniceanu with his Literary Dacia,
reason why the idea of meritocracy will remain Alecu Russo and his project of recovering the
absorbed by the national emancipation goals. Romanian folklore are just a few examples to
Along with these regional different reinforce the above stated ideas. The folklore
approaches regarding meritocracy, it should be would become the romantic heroic vision of the
stated that no debate was developed either. But, national bildungsroman. Through the mediation
the idea of meritocracy can be detected in the of history and folklore the building of the
debates concerning the political ways that must Romanian-peasant image began. In fact, the
be followed and, especially, in the debates about peasant was entitled with the status of national
the limits of the Romanian citizenship concept. eponymous ancestor, on the condition to remain
Still, meritocracy was supposed to assure the silent (Karnoouh 1994, 115).
mechanism for a new social typology: the We could state that in the Romanian space
intellectual, who has to embrace the ascending we do not witness the birth of the intellectuals
aspirations built only through personal merits in either, but rather the intelligentsiasgenesis. In
a democratic society. the limits of an autocratic system as it was the
reign of MihailSturdza in Moldova during 1834-
Romanian Cultural Elite: scholars, 1849 the reforming local boyar cluster, also
intellectuals, intelligentsia or revolutionaries? known as the national party, seemed to be a
The failure of the 1848th revolutionary counterpart in front of the abusive power of the
project meant a redefining process of the ruler. If we also take into consideration the
scholars role in the building of the modern foreign influence in organizing the
Romania. The cultural and political sides proved Principalities, we can clearly make a difference
to be inseparable in order to accomplish the between the political sphere and the possibilities
national desiderates. At a first glance, here we of the new elite with European orientation. But
can detect the differences between the French this is rather a false perception. The political
intellectual model and the Romanian case of changes that could emphasize this point of view
intelligentsia. are the political union between Moldavia and
The concept of intelligentsia is used Walachia (1859) and the instauration of a
especially to describe those intellectuals from foreign monarchy in ruling the modern
the Russian space who opposed the autocratic Romania. So, these events consecrated the
monarchy of the Tsar. Practically, intelligentsia conquering of the political sphere by the new
tried to develop a political alternative that, elite, the 1848th generation. From this moment,
because of the lack of dialogue, would end up the vision regarding the Romanian ways of
into an anti-monarchic current liable to modernization were no longer coherent, the
destabilize the Russian society. Narodnicism cultural elites launching a well-known debate
represented an ideological association between the opportunity of westernization, perceived as a
intellectuals and peasantry in this fight. historic regularity (the modernist current) or as a
Secondly, these political methods will give birth dissolution of the nation (the traditionalistic
to a terrorist current, materialized in attacks approach). Because of these, the cultural elite
against the Tsar, like the Decembers movement will form groups of prestige, denomination
(1825) and the assassination of Alexander the developed by Sorin Adam Matei from Max
2nd in March 1881 by the anarchists. The lack of Webers concept of status groups.
political dialogue will have as a result the birth In conclusion, this new cultural elite
of some revolutionary ideologies, the most succeeded peacefully in imposing on the
suggestive being the work of Nikolai political scene. And this is why we can quit the
Cernashevski, What Is to Be Done? (1863), denomination of intelligentsia. The 1848th elite
51
ruled the Romanian state in a modernization Constant, Constant, Fred, Le multicultu-
process, after a first stage characterized by 2000 ralisme [The Multiculturalism],
revolutionary movements. But, because of the Paris, Dominos Flammarion,
political appetence and the aristocratic roots of 2000.
many of these young cultural elite, we can Karnoouh, Karnoouh, Claude, Romnii:
hardly speak about intellectual elite. The 1994 tipologie i mentaliti [The
intellectual characterizes himself through Romanians: typologies and men-
political independence. It is not the case in talities], Bucureti Humanitas,
modern Romania, where politics were created 1994.
by these ex-revolutionary leaders. Still, they Lazr, Lazr, Marius, Paradoxuri ale
developed political and cultural currents 2002 modernitii (elemente pentru o
regarding the destiny of the Romanian nation: sociologie a elitelor culturale
the conservatism and the liberalism. romneti) [The modernity para-
doxes], Cluj, Limes, 2002.
References Matei, 2004 Matei, Sorin Adam, Boierii minii
(intelectualii romni ntre
Barbu, Barbu, Daniel, Bizan contra grupurile de prestigiu i piaa
2001 Bizan [Byzantium against liber a ideilor) [The Mind
Byzantium], Bucureti, Editura Boyars], Bucureti, Compania,
Nemira, 2001. 2004.
Burke, Burke, Peter, Istorie i teorie Rdulescu, Rdulescu, Mihai Sorin, Elita
1999 social [History and Social 1998 liberal romneasc 1866-1900
Theory], Bucureti, Humanitas, [The Romanian Liberal Elite],
1999. Bucureti, All, 1998.
Cazimir, Cazimir, tefan, Alfabetul de Scott, 2001 Scott, John, Elitele n sociologia
2006 tranziie [The Transition anglo-saxon [The Concept of
Alphabet], Bucureti, Humanitas, Elite in the Anglo-Saxon So-
2006. ciology], in Ezra Suleiman, Henri
Charle, Charle, Christophe, Les Elites de Mendras (eds.), Recrutarea
1987 la Rpublique (1880-1900) [The elitelor n Europa [The
Republic Elites], Paris, Fayard, Recruitment of Elites in Europe],
1987. Timioara, Amarcord, 2001.
Charle, Charle, Christophe, Naissance Scott ed., Scott, John (ed.), Fifty Key
1990 des intellectuels, 1880-1900 [The 2007 Sociologists: The Formative
Birth of Intellectuals], Paris, Les Theorists, London-New York,
Editions de Minuit, 1990. Routledge, 2007.
Coenen- Coenen-Huther, Jacques,
Huther, Sociologia elitelor [The
2007 Sociology of Elites], Iai, Polirom
2007.
52
Strangers Hypostases in the Transylvanian Romanian Imaginary of
the 19th Century
Abstract. The present study investigates the strangers picture in the Transylvanian Romanians
mindset in a period when the society was engaged in a full scale process of modernization and building of
its national identity. This time interval corresponds to the time when Romanians were involved in the
movement of political emancipation in order to obtain rights and freedoms kindred to those that possessed
their cohabiting neighbors and when the Romanians have forged their own cultural model based on
principles and values that were entrenched in Europe during the Enlightenment. From the methodological
point of view, the study, based mainly on press materials, brochures and textbooks of that age passes
beyond a mere string of Transylvanians clichs and stereotypes about foreigners and tries to analyze their
functionality.
Key words: the other, ethnic representation, Transylvania Romanian culture, nineteenth century
54
the Afghans, the Moroccans, and most people of condition. Thus, they got to quickly identify
Central and South Africa etc. were harshly themselves with the cause of such people and
penalized for hindering freedom (Boiu 1972, 6; even to harshly criticize the Austro-Hungarian
Familia 43/1973, 496; Familia 28/1886, 336; officials policies by comparison, disseminating
Felezeu 2012, 57-58) and, hence, the pervasion written examples about concrete situations of
of culture among their people. All the same, they persecution that occurred in other cultural spaces
were more lenient with the Japanese or the such situations were frequent precisely
Persians, the former being praised for the during periods when Austro-Hungarian
reforms that have led to the modernization of censorship limited their right to free expression.
Japan with the Meiji era, while the Persians were Of course, except the above mentioned cases,
instead admired for the openness under which namely, that of the African-Americans and that
they manifested towards arts and science, of the red skins, the interest for the Irish cause
openness that brought them over time the that aroused in the first years of the Romanian
nickname the French of the East (Marki 1899, newspapers (Mitu 2000, 123-165; Amicul
127; Diaconovici 1904, 567). Familiei 14/1882, 156; Familia 97/1880, 606;
Organul Luminrii LIII/1848, 299; Goldi
1897/III, 248; Unirea 1/1891, 4) and the
unconditional admiration that they showed for
the liberation movements of the Balkans people
might be mentioned too. The attitude that Great
Britain displayed towards its own subjects stood
alongside the Ottoman Empire, which is why
British abolitionists were heckled by
intellectuals like George Bari precisely for their
refusal to improve economic and political
conditions for their servants at home (Mitu
2000, 141).
55
association with people with a similar status. seizures, daily violations of the right to assembly
Arabs, for example, also followers of Islam, and association, constantly generating insecurity
although portrayed as fanatical, cruel and and terror, etc. (1).
vindictive, have a portrait that is completed by The issue concerning the Jews and the
references that come to praise their love of Gypsies was rather peculiar as history has not
freedom, their passionate and serious character recorded between the three ethnic groups neither
and their generosity. Likewise the same moments of close cooperation, neither intervals
laudatory tone is also kept in materials that marked by strong conflicts of interest. Thus the
display their data on scientific and cultural danger theme that the former represented and
history, focusing their accents on contributions all the negative elements that accompanied this
of the arts (Familia 43/1873, 496). Meanwhile, theme were nothing more but facets of a general
the Moroccans or the Afghans were blamed, European picture that has been transmitted here
especially, for refusing enlightenment and through written text. Of course, amid the
endorsing the patriarchal life (Familia 92/1878, hysteria generated by nationalism, they were
586; Familia 21/1879, 142). It is obvious that taken up and amplified by some intellectuals
fear and terror caused by the Turks in the Middle (Slavici 2000; Popovici 2008, 379-380) and
Ages couldnt be entirely forgotten, more so as even associated with those of other evil forces
in the nineteenth century too they continued to that threatened the good of the nation, namely
have great influence on the Romanian territories. the Hungarians. But we may not speak, in
These emotions rather turned into repulsion, into general, about an attitude born within the
a general attitude of rejection. The situation Romanian community, especially since they,
went so far that Romanian rulers portraits that including graduates of theological seminaries,
were victorious in battles with the Turks spoke positively about the Jews, praising them
achieved downright legendary proportions for the gift of being God's chosen people.
Paul the Knyaz, Hercules of his time(Boiu Zacharia Boiu, for instance, showed that of all
1872, 94) and the hospitality that the Turks the ancient people contemporary to the Jews
had been showing to strangers was to be only they worshiped one God, honoring him in
cataloged as a result of a sense of obligation, and a very similar way our Christian religion does
not as a genuine, naturally developed feature (Boiu 1872, 17). Gypsies, instead, have been
(Familia 43/1873, 496). reproved almost exclusively based on their
Neither Russians were granted forgiveness cultural inferiority, their disinterest in
for their behavior concerning Bessarabia, and education, as well as for their lack of courage in
their betrayal during the Russo-Turkish War
(1877-1878) was interpreted as evidence of (1) From a longer list of such claims, remember the
greed, lack of honor and respect for the given following news articles: Selbaticii, Arad, 18
word (Familia 26/1878, 156). And the case of February, Idem, 25 (7/19 February 1898), 123.
the Hungarian authorities is more than telling, as Vandalisme ungureti, Idem, 88 (10/22 May
aversion towards everything that could be 1898), 431. n unguri gendarmii nu puc, Idem,
labeled with the word master had taken 115 (18/30 June 1898), 563. Puncte de orientare,
uncontrollable proportions. A thing that should Idem, 17 (28 January/9 February 1897), 77. E
have appeared absolutely normal within a rndul ranilor notri. Un proces monstru, Idem,
community whose intellectuals elevated the 37 (25 February/ 9 March 1897), 174. Idem, 39
most revolutionary ideas of the time to absolute (27 February/11 March 1897), 182. Falsi i
mincinoi, Idem, 42 (4/16 March 1897), 197.
models and constantly denounced the abuses of
Fanatism unguresc la Cluj, Dreptatea, 95 (28
the Old Regime, citing very often examples of April/10 May 1894), 3. Procesul lui Lucaciu,
people who have made sacrifices to overcome it. Idem, 198 (11/23 September 1894), 1. 68 de
Its enough to remember the phrase used by a nvtori nemaghiari din comitatul Timiului
contemporary journalist to describe the situation suspendai, Idem, 4 (6/18 January 1894), 4.
of Hungary in 1897, A State divided in two: Adevraii agitatori, Tribuna Poporului, 44 (6/18
cruel rulers and tormented thralls (Tribuna March 1897). Procese noue. Procesul printelui
Poporului 7/1897, 29) such descriptions Lucaciu, Familia, 38 (18/30 September 1894),
constantly occupied the pages of Transylvanian 455. Procese de pres, Idem, 40 (2/14 October
publications, and were complemented with 1894), 479. Idem, 41 (9/21 October 1894), 491.
Procese noue, Idem, 43 (23 October/4 November
specific references to abuses committed against 1894), 516. Infamia ovinismului, Tribuna
ethnic Romanians: unjustified arrests, kangaroo Poporului, 46 (21 March 1897), 217-218.
trials, bloodshed, often without reason
Cavalerism maghiar, Dreptatea, 98 (4/16 May
(Tribuna Poporului 7/1897, 31), searches and 1894), 5.
56
defending their cause (Diaconovici 1904, 1095- persisting on the issue of the United States
1096; Reteganul 1896; Familia 1/1886, 12). political system, on that of the morality of its
They embodied the very opposite of what was inhabitants, as on that of their kind of relation to
required from a people in the era of nationalism culture. We may refer, then, to the example of
and progress, because instead of showing Latin America, mainly known thanks to the
concerns in order to display greatness and great powers interventions on its soil, the
uniqueness, they contented with a living that instauration and dethronement of the Emperor
Transylvanians catalogued as bohemian or Maximilian of Habsburg in Mexico, Cubas war
even promiscuous. Notable in this regard are of independence, the Spanish-American War etc.
the words of Ioan Pop Reteganul in the brochure Finally, we may also evoke the example
dedicated to their history, Gypsies (Blaj, 1886), concerning the Greeks in the case of whom the
Gypsies have had no ideas, no dogma, no echo of the Romanian intellectuals discourses
customs, no history, no tradition, no country, not from beyond the Carpathians N. Blcescu, M.
even their own superstitions, since even those Eminescu, D. Drghicescu (Boia 2001, 310)
special superstitions of other nations that they so consists in a more than obvious manner either in
easily seized and acquired, they just as easy a reproach on the fiscal measures taken during
rejected them. They have no national costumes, the Phanariotes reigns in the extra-Carpathian
no baptism or some special mark. Between territories, either on the undesirable effects of
Tartars they dress like Tartars, between these measures upon the inhabitants, reproaches
Hungarians, like Hungarians, and everywhere that can be found in almost all types of
they dress with what other people are dumping publications. In fact a correlation may be
at them... Their dictionary... has no verbs for observed between the Transylvanians discourse
concepts like to have, to own neither for to about the foreigners on one side, and their other
must or debt and law. They're like air plants provinces brethrens discourse, on the other,
(See Reteganul 1886). while the enemies or, conversely, the friends
There are very numerous cases where of the latter were taking credit at large of a
imaginary projections on foreigners have been similar status in the mindset of the former.
disseminated in Transylvania as ready-made
stories translated from the sources of
information available during that period
Hungarian, German, Romanian, French, English
periodicals and so on, books purchased from
Romania or the European states and whose
interpretation was either totally blocked by the
fact that they simply didnt have the additional
knowledge needed to combat or defend them,
either limited because they had a complete trust
in the authenticity and authority of the used
sources. It is the case mainly for remote, exotic
populations, foreign to the Transylvanian
horizon and for whose discovery the resort to
intermediaries was needed; but also the cases of
some pretty familiar ethnic groups, neighbors or
even close inhabitants. The resulting image in
this case is, in general, quite brief and heavily
influenced by the cited source text, the discourse
of the colonizer or of the European explorer,
when referring to Africa or to Asia, and by the Gipsy from Banat, Familia, 1892
intellectual discourse and that of the aristocracy
of the Old Continent, if we consider North
America. Alongside this general portrait dictated by
The first, was focusing on the habits of the the nature of contacts with the other, but
conquered people, in general, on the elements of alongside the specificity of Transylvanian
novelty and even strangeness designed to fill the Romanian customs and traditions too, a few
gaps present in areas such as geography, particular representations have been outlined in
ethnography, history, biology and so on, in cases such that it has been assigned to each people or
of discovery expeditions. The second was nation a number of defects and/or virtues. Thus,
57
the British impressed Romanians by their of wisdom passed down over many generations:
pragmatism and ingenuity, the French by wit, The Russians a bear,/ the Turks a wolf/ the
cheerfulness and good taste, the Germans by Polacks a fox,/ But the poor Moldavian/ Is
sobriety and high scientific and cultural either sheep/ either cow (Ibidem) shaped, on the
development, the Russians by their good humor one hand, the portraits of the Turks and the
and a seemingly pious spirit, the Italians by their Russians as enemies, and on the other, the
fiery character, their cheerfulness and hospitality portrait of the Romanian Moldavian as a victim
that welcomes those who have passed their of the hostile deeds and of the gain lust of his
threshold, the Spaniards by courage, neighbors. A symbolic meaning also had
perseverance and love of their country, the expressions such as If you give Ivan excuse,
Swiss by their patriotism and respect for liberty, youd be sure he will abuse, Slyly walk with
equality and fraternity, the Americans by the cross hanged on the chest like the Russian,
entrepreneurship, eccentricity and exacerbated Like master, like man, The Turk beats you,
materialism, the Dutch by diligence and the Turk judges you. The first two, alluded
perseverance, the residents of the Scandinavian to an alleged greed, insolence and hypocrisy of
countries by their high levels of literacy, the the Russians, while the last illustrated the
Balkan people by their courage and sacrifice unfairness of Turkish relations with Romanians.
spirit, the Hungarians through their pride and Finally, Cobuc didnt miss his witticism on
chauvinism, the Chinese by traditionalism and people such as the Germans, the Serbs, the Jews
exacerbated nationalism, the Japanese by their and the Gypsies and as a rule he always signaled
openness toward culture, the Indians by their the least flattering. The fairness of the first was
wisdom and ability to contemplate the expressed by maxims such as Just, like the
fundamental essence of things, the Turks by German or You dont see a German to steal his
their fanaticism, violence and sensualism, the pipe while statements like The German puts
Arabs by their love of freedom, courage, his hand and God takes His mercy came to
hospitality and so on (See Trif-Boia 2012). establish a balance between virtues and vices.
Articles of an extreme racy taste are also those The quips regarding the Serbians highlighted
that emphasize the subjective perceptions that their lack of wisdom, those aimed at the Jews
nations mutually address to each other, on the spoke about their loud character as well as about
one hand, from the desire to show themselves their inclination to scam other people,
off in front of the other, to assert their own meanwhile the Gypsies were generally
primacy, and hence, sometimes harsh neighbors associated with a common propensity for theft as
reactions occur against it, and on the other hand, well as with a lack of firmness A green horse
depending on the nature of the existing and a mindful Serbian, Jewish Larva The Jew
relationships, stemming from the interests that only eats after he cheats or To have an honest
they have in common. In an article suggestively feel, the Gypsy has to steal and Sturdy as a
entitled How people judge each other George chicken(Ibidem).
Cobuc, for example, was expressing his
confidence that every nation is endowed with an
attitude of superiority against its neighbors, an
attitude that can be noticed by the mutual mood
of seeking their flaws or of mocking each
other. In this sense, bringing into question the
graphic representations of some nations in
European humorous magazines, most of them
sanctioned for their vices: the English appeared
as a dog, bulldog, with teeth grinning and ready
to bite, the Russians were represented by a
bear standing on his rear feet in a paw with a
knout and with a flask of vodka in the other,
while the French were assimilated to a cock
usually climbed on a bunch of litter proud
and pugnacious and gazing the chickens all the
time (Familia 21/1900, 242). In order to situate
the Romanians in relation to others and Femeie din Orient [Woman from the East],
especially their poor relations with their Familia, 1892
neighbors, the author has inserted a few words
58
A final issue that wed wish to take into metonimice ale Statelor Unite ale
consideration is that of the woman. In her case Americii n imaginarul romnilor
the image is polarized, as the Transylvanian ardeleni [Indian. Yank. Slave -
observers assessments drew connections metonymic representations of the
between her status, on the one hand, and the United States in Romanian
political and cultural development of the people imaginary], in: De la fictiv la real:
whom she belonged, on the other. Therefore we imaginea, imaginarul, imagologia
may observe the Oriental womens portrayal, [From fictional to real: image,
that of the women from Eastern Europe and the imagery, imagology], Iai, Al. I.
Balkans being depicted as inferior beings, Cuza University Press, 2010.
subjected to men, and only concerned with the Boia Boia, Elena Andreea, Imaginea
household and its proper functioning. In parallel, 2009 Statelor Unite ale Americii n
however, also took shape the image of cultura romneasc din Transil-
westerners, educated women who were about vania pn la Primul Rzboi
to gain their economic and political Mondial [U.S. image in the
independence. We recall, in this regard, the tens Romanian culture in Transylvania
even hundreds of articles who described either until World War], Cluj-Napoca,
the actions of the feminist movement, either the EFES, 2009.
successes obtained by women in various Dinu Dinu, Ion Pe urmele lui Badea
activities (Familia 4/1887, 44; Foaia Poporului 1979 Cran [On Badea Cartans
4/1898, 41; Familia 14/1903, 161; Albina footsteps], Bucureti, Sport-Turism,
Carpailor 21/1879, 335; Bunul Econom 1/1900, 1979.
9; Familia 27/1870, 324; Familia 56/1871, 368; Felezeu Felezeu, Clin, ntre fanariotism i
Amicul Familiei 3/1888, 47; Familia 24/1866, 2012 micarea de emancipare naional.
282). Beyond such considerations, the portrait of Modelul cantemirian de abordare a
the fair sex, as well as that of men, takes some of imaginii Imperiului Otoman n
the most diverse shapes, such as the analysis that cultura romneasc scris [Between
targets the beauty of their physical traits, their Phanariotism and national
clothing and accessories are completed by emancipation], Tabor, 2 (May
studies focused on their temperament and 2012), p. 47-61.
particular habits, contributing in this way to the Grancea Grancea, Mihaela, Trecutul de
shape of a very diverse picture. It is a portrait of 2009 astzi. Tradiie i inovaie n cultura
beings whose striking otherness sparks not only romn [Past today. Tradition and
curiosity, but also observers fear, admiration or, Innovation in Romanian culture],
on the contrary, their rejection. The latter Cluj-Napoca, Casa Crii de tiin,
especially occurred in the case of individuals 2009.
scared by the momentum of the feminist Oiteanu Oiteanu, Andrei, Imaginea evreului
movement and of its impact on the traditional 2003 n cultura romn [The image of the
family. Jew in Romanian Culture],
Bucureti, Humanitas, 2003.
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Rus 2011 Rus, Ioan Icoana Pmntului, Tom January/7 February 1887), p.
I Trgu Lpu, Galaxia Gutenberg, 44.
2011. Familia Procese noue. Procesul
38/1894 printelui Lucaciu, Familia, 38
Newspapers articles: (18/30 September 1894), p. 455.
Albina Femeia albanez, Albina Familia 40- Procese de pres, Idem, 40
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Familiei industialu, Amicul Familiei, 3 198/1894 198 (11/23 September 1894), 1.
3/1888 (1 February 1888), p. 47. Familia Puterea gendarmilor maghiari,
Bunul Femeile n slujbe n Frana, 7/1897 Idem, 7 (14/26 January 1897),
Econom Bunul Econom, 1 (25 December p. 31.
1/1899 1899/ 6 January 1900), p. 9. Familia Puncte de orientare, Idem, 17
Dreptatea Cavalerism maghiar, 17/1897 (28 January/9 February 1897),
98/1894 Dreptatea, 98 (4/16 May 1894), p. 77.
p. 5. Familia Familia, 39 (27 February/11
Dreptatea Fanatism unguresc la Cluj, 39/1897 March 1897), p. 182.
95/1894 Dreptatea, 95 (28 April/10 May Familia Falsi i mincinoi, Idem, 42
1894), 3. 42/1897 (4/16 March 1897), p. 197.
Familia Porturi din Sicilia, Familia, 5 Familia Selbaticii, Arad, 18 February,
5/1866 (15/27 February 1866), p. 55. 25/1898 Idem, 25 (7/19 February 1898),
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282. 24/1899 Familia, 24 (13/25 June 1899),
Familia Russu, Ioan Scrisoare din p. 283.
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(13/26 July 1886). 21/1900 popoarele, Familia, 21 (21
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56/1871 (30 July/11 August 1871), p. Poporului January 1898), p. 41.
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Comtessa de Latenay, Familia, 4/1894 Idem, 4 (6/18 January 1894), p.
39 (25 September/1 October 4.
1877), p. 457. Tribuna Stpnirea, Tribuna
Familia Portarea Rusiei facia de Poporului Poporului, 7 (14/26 January
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Diaconovici Diaconovici, Constantin,
61
Historiographical Discourse in Transylvania Magazine (1868-1895)
Alexandru NICOLAESCU
PhD Student, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia, Romania
Faculty of History and Philology
E-mail: alex_nicolaescu@yahoo.com
Abstract. Our analysis stopped over the 1868-1895 period because it represents the first major step
in the evolution of Transylvania periodic. This period is divided by the editors of the magazine in three
individualized parts: George Bariiu (1868-1878; 1881-1889); Ioan Popescu (1890-1891); Zaharia Boiu
(1892-1895). Each one of them established its own editorial management.
This study tries to draft the evolution of the historiographical discourse in Transylvanian
Association for Romanian Literature and Culture of the Romanian People magazine. Due to the large
number of papers that were focused on studying the life and activity of George Bariiu, we did not want to
pay much attention to the period in which he was the editor. Ioan Popescu and Zaharia Boiu continued to
publish historical studies in Transylvania magazine even though they were not as good as their
predecessor. The two of them continued, to a great extent, the precedent editorial politic regarding the
type of historical studies published in the magazine.
After the end of the Romantic Age, which documents was generalized in the period after
was somehow indifferent to the true historical 1849, while the historical interests were pointed
demands, the Romanian historiography entered a towards modern medieval and social history,
much stricter phase called positivism, in the first alongside with the political concerns that were
part of the second half of the 19th century (Zub also preponderant. Besides the concern for
1987, 146). The letter has not spared from modern, medieval and antique history, the
exaggerations as well, being considered, by events of the 19th century started to be discussed,
some historians, a post-romantic period or a late- putting an emphasis on the history of the 1848
romantic one. There was a struggling for Revolution. Historical reviews and changes of
renewal in this period, especially concerning the opinion also appeared in this period which
critical spirit, which will be imposed later on helped to find the solution to major historical
(Zub 1985, 15-16). Efforts were made to problems (Ibidem, XXXVI). All these
transform Romanian historiography in a more characteristics that belong to the period after
professional one, but the process was real slow. 1849 will be fully retrievable and debated in the
The appearance of history departments in Iai pages of the Associations periodic.
(1860) and Bucharest (1864) did not also led to Romanian historiography got a significant
the historys immediate professionalization, as it answer through the contact with the specialized
happened in other countries (Boia 2011, 92-93). literature from the West. Under this aspect, the
The Romanian historiographys entry to progress registered in Transylvania was less
the criticism phase or to the critical spirit is obvious than in extracharpatic Romania, which
placed at the same time with the foundation of can be explained by the orientation of the latter
the Junimea Society and Literary discussions towards critical spirit, while Transylvanian
magazine (Teodor, 1970, XXXIX). The new historiography had a more juridical-
orientation was barely imposed at the end of 19th constitutional vision, due to the propaganda for
century, A.D. Xenopol being declared as the historical writing (Zub 1985, 20).
initiator of this movement, influencing the later Regarding the historical writing, we must
great historians: N. Iorga, Ioan Bogdan, D. underline the role of the educational preparation
Onciul and C. Giurescu. of the intellectuality in Transylvania, influencing
The historians concern for the topics that the historical development of the province (1).
were tackled was influenced by the current in The theological formation was quasi-total during
which they activated, now defending the Transylvanian School and in the fortyeighter
approaches, genres and newer research methods.
It is to be noted that the publication of
(1) For more clarifications, see Sigmirean 2000.
62
period, among the intellectuals from interpretation, they were still recognized as
Transylvania being also jurists and teachers. The being contributors to this field (2) (Zub 1985,
teachers studied philosophy, history and 53). Another fact to be noticed is the absence of
philology, although their basic formation was Timotei Ciparius studies in Transylvania
theological. After 1860, theology and the magazine, most probably due to the fact that he
sacerdotal class encountered a drastic diminution was busy with the redaction of his own
of their social role, thus in the Transylvanian publication entitled The archive for philology
intellectuality entered, starting now, more and and history, which appeared in Blaj, in 1867.
more intellectuals with studies in various The historians that were part of the
domains (Mureanu 2003, 22-23). Association were acquainted with the
In the second part of the 19th century, the methodology and the research techniques of the
historical research received a tremendous output time, especially with the Romanian ones. Their
from the cultural magazines, helping to concerns focused mainly on national history.
specialize and professionalize the history (Zub They approached topics like: the origin of the
1985, 192). The Association complied with the Romanian people and of the Romanian
requests of that period and founded its own language. But they hardly let go of the
publishing department in various scientific exaggerated approaches of Latinism
branches (Curticpeanu 1968, 85). (Curticpeanu 1981, 10). The Transylvanian
The most important Transylvanian historiography of the second part of the 19th
historian that published in Transylvania century covered especially topics referring to the
magazine was, without a doubt, George Bariiu history of the 18th century, a century of good
(1). He led the magazine during its first twenty changes, marked by the national struggle in
years of existence. The second editor of the Transylvania (Racovian 1992, 225-226). This
Associations periodic, I. Popescu, did not have was due to the fact that the magazine was
historical preoccupations. As well as his supposed to have as an audience as many classes
predecessor during 1890-1891, he pushed the as it could. Some of them were not familiarized
magazine towards literature (Ardelean 2009, with the writings of a professionalized and
177). Zaharia Boiu, editor of the magazine systematized history. That is why in
during 1892-1895, wasnt also interested in Transylvania magazine there were published
history, leaning towards the publication of several popularization studies of the historical
articles referring to the Associations mission of writing during 1868-1895, covering subjects of
educational guidance through school and church vital importance for the understanding of the
(Dicionarul literaturii romne de la origini Romanian peoples history. The large number of
pn la 1900, 1979, 110; Dicionarul general al biographies published when a cultural and
literaturii romne, literele A/B, 2004, 586). political personality died or at the anniversary of
The historiography of the Associations a certain number of years from his/her birth or
periodic developed and revolved around death was not random. These studies/articles
important personalities like: Timotei Cipariu, were published with the purpose of developing a
Alexandru Papiu Ilarian and George Bariiu. We conscience and a national pride, characteristic to
can also mention the following: Iosif Hodo, the Romanians who lived in Transylvania.
tefan Moldovan, Silvestru Moldovan, I. Srbu, The studying and the publication of the
Augustin Bunea, N. Togan, T.V. Pcian, N. articles that referred to the medieval history and
Densuianu, A. Marienescu, I. Lupa, S. especially the ones referring to the continuity of
Dragomir, Viceniu Babe, Ioan Micu- Romanians in the former Dacian Kingdom was
Moldovan, Silvestru Moldovan, S. Mangiuca one of the struggle methods of the Romanians
etc. Almost all of them contributed to from Transylvania against the authorities
Transylvania magazine with historical studies. tendency of assimilating them. A veiled struggle
Although some of the above-mentioned was carried in this sense by the Associations
personalities were not treated favorably by periodic through the appearance of some studies
historiography, being considered to have used that referred to the ancient period, in the
outdated methods of analysis and of historical contemporary political field, namely for gaining
of some rights for the Romanians living in
Transylvania. The most important series of
(1) We did not want to analyze the historical writing
of Bariiu because it was already analyzed in
articles/studies were represented, as it was to be
numerous studies and volumes, of which the most
important being signed by V. Netea (1966) and (2) We refer to Iosif Hodo considered an amateur
George Em. Marica (1980). historian.
63
expected, by those referring to continuity and its s aa numita tabula peutingeriana
theories. (Transilvania 1891, 65-76; 97-110; 129-139;
While the magazine was edited by Ioan 161-173) analyses the tabula peutingeriana. In
Popescu, A. Marienescu1 wrote most of the this book, the author presents several villages in
studies referring to the medieval period. He Dacia which he wanted to identify with the most
began his series with: The Roman Emperor well-known ones from the contemporary period.
Aurelian and his retreat from Dacia The studies signed by the two authors mentioned
(Transilvania 1890, 341-365) and he continued above are more of linguistic style, seasoned with
with The Roman leaders in Dacia during the historical information.
Sarmatians (Transilvania 1890, 389-399; 421- During Zaharia Boiu, Transylvania
439), Caucaland in Dacia (2) (Transilvania periodic published the following studies
1891, 1-19; 33-45), From which parts of the referring to the medieval period: Are the
Roman Empire were brought the Roman Romans from Dacia descendants of the Roman
colonists that were settled in Dacia (3) colonists and of the Dacian people who
(Transilvania 1891, 354-364). The author, remained here after the Roman conquering or
a convinced Latinist, with concerns for folklore not? (Transilvania 1892, 117-127; 166-173),
and ethnography, proved to be a dogmatic spirit The result of the Dacian defeat by the Romans
in the history field, using outdated ideas (4) (Transilvania 1894, 15-27), Why did the
concerning the historical research (Zub 1985, Dacians romanize more easily than other
53). His Latinist conception can be deduced people? (5) (Transilvania 1894, 313-321). We
from the above-mentioned studies. In the case of can notice that during this period, Marienescu A.
the historical analysis, Marienescu turned to and Broteanu P. were not published anymore in
examples and linguistic targets, wanting to the magazine with studies referring to medieval
underline as often as possible the Latin character periods, Baiot B., which also had a strong
of the Romanians. Latinist faith, accordingly to the Transylvanian
Another author that published an article School, being now preferred.
referring to antiquity was P. Broteanu. His During 1868-1895, the majority of the
article Charta lumi (Orbis Pictus) de castoriu, article/studies referring to medieval history had
as a topic the continuity of the Romans on the
former territory of Dacia, Transylvania
(1) Although he studied law, he presented himself as a magazine giving this way an exhaustive answer
historian, philologist, folklorist and ethnographer. to Rslers theory. The purpose of these studies
As a historian he was attracted by the Latinity of was also linked to the struggle for winning
the Romanian people, approaching topics like: the
conquering of Dacia by the Romans, the Aurelian
political rights for the Romanians who lived in
retreat and the formation of the Romanian Transylvania in the last decade of the 19th
language. He also wrote a manual of history century. The focus on the popularization studies
which was used in Banat for 15 years.
Nevertheless, his primary concern was folklore, (4) The author tries to demonstrates that Romanian
gathering several Romanian carols. He became language comes from Latin, presenting several
a member of The Romanian Academy in 1881. Romanian and Latin words to support this theory.
(2) These studies present a more linguistic analysis, (5) The author sustained the idea according to which
but with more historical and geographical Dacia was founded by Illyrians and Italian
references. He does a linguistic and topographic populations and for this reason the Dacian
analysis of the word caucaland. These articles language was similar to that of Romanians. For
were a continuation of the first two, as the author the Latinisation of Dacia the author sustained that
declares. colonists were brought from of the corners of the
(3) He treats this subject because he considers that Roman Empire. To the support of the Latinisation
Romanians did not cover seriously this matter, the author presented the examples of Gaule
and that the foreigners who have studied it, treated (considering that during Antoniu almost all of it
it with malice in order to denigrate the medieval was romanized) and Spain (which during Neros
Romanian history. The study is based on many period had already been romanized). In these
quotations of the analyzed period but it also countries the Latin language was spoken in all
presents versions of other modern historians. He cities, while the local dialect gradually
interprets the word of Latin authors translating disappeared. The author questions the following:
several phrases from the original, because he if in 117 Gaule was romanized, couldnt Dacia do
considered that foreigners, out of hateful the same thing in 167 years? The article
purposes, wrongly translated certain expressions, represents a strong change in good of a Latinistic
in order to sustain their theories, depending on point of view in the tradition of the Transylvanian
what was their interest. School.
64
about the Aurelian retreat, the Romanization of these studies there are also remembered the
the Dacians and especially the colonization of Romanians from the other Romanian provinces
Dacia by the Romans is not random. If we tie (Transilvania 1876, 73-76; 89-91; 97-100; 109-
these studies to the Romanian struggle for 111), and neither the ones from the Balkans
political rights in the last part of the 19th were forgotten (Transilvania 1885, 68-71). An
century, we can understand much more easily interesting idea is the one that treats the
why during 1890-1895 the Associations Independence War of Romania during 1877-
periodic, which was forbidden to treat political 1878. In Transylvania magazine appeared many
subjects, published most part of the studies articles with this topic, most of them claiming
referring to the medieval period of Romanian the courage of the Romanian army in the battle
history. of Plevna (1) (Transilvania 1883, 157-160; 175-
During 1868-1889, Transylvania 177; Ibidem 1888, 17-21; 33-37; Ibidem 1881,
magazine was not concerned with the medieval 21-25; 39-42), intending this way to generate the
period, thus the published studies that referred to so-desired and so-clamed national changes for
this topic were close to none. This was due to Romanians.
the low interest of the Transylvanian historians Even though in the period when Bariiu
towards an age dominated by the feudal governed, the articles referring to the history of
aristocracy of Magyar and German origin. The the 17th-19th centuries were plenty, during Ioan
interest for this period was way under the level Popescu they were represented only by the
of research in the Romanian age, where the series: Information taken from foreign authors
Middle Age started to be studied with much (Transilvania 1890, 42-51; 65-72; 104-109; 271-
more interest. 280), while during Zaharia Boiu, they were
A pretty interesting study which referred entirely missing.
to the medieval period appeared while Ioan Even though a large pallet of issues was
Popescu was editor. The study written by approached and the culturalization of the
Atanasie Marienescu, The Arabia from the Romanian people was desired, Transylvania
Danubes outfall (Transilvania 1890, 225-237), magazine was not very appreciated, being
tries a geographical description of Arabia, neglected by a high percentage of Romanians,
presenting several data of its history with many which were supposed to be its audience. This
presentations and references made by medieval happened due also to the fact that it was
historians, but also from a closer period. The considered to be too academic and not so
study leans on Hadeus explanation about the accessible (Iorga 1989, 482; Dicionarul general
name of Bessarabia, which is supposed to have al literaturii romne, literele S/T, 2007, 763-
been composed of Bess and Arabia, thus it 764).
was known as The Arabia from the Danube. As a conclusion, we can notice the fact
This interpretation in presented at the end of the that the magazine of the Association retook into
study and it is neither contradicted nor adopted discussion certain issues of the Romanian
by the author. The interpretation is, without a peoples continuity, contradicting the theories
doubt, outdated in our days, being unanimously launched by Rsler. Wanting to create an
accepted that the name comes from the appropriate identity for the Romanians from
Bessarabian lords from the Wallachia. Transylvania, historians or, better said, pseudo
Nevertheless, the study is very interesting, historians who published studies in Transylvania
especially from the historical imaginary magazine relapsed into Latinism, this time being
evolutions point of view, which is not only considered a positive one. The authors of the
a characteristic of the authors article but more studies that leaned over modern and
likely of a generation. contemporary history topics wanted in return to
The studies that approached contemporary underline the greatness and the importance of
and modern history themes are not resolved Romanians in certain events, considered by them
either. Even though during 1868-1889, Bariiu as very significant ones.
approached various themes like the revolt of
Horia, Cloca and Crian, the history of
Romanian border regiments, especially the
events of 1848-1849. By studying these events
he wanted to draw the attention over the
importance of the Romanians in Transylvania, (1) It is a romanced description of the event,
who were, in certain moments, the champions of resembling more to a sketch, and not at all to a
the renewal demands and of modernization. In historical study.
65
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Academys Publishing Curticpeanu Curticpeanu, V., Astra i
House, 1979. 1981 dezvoltarea istoriografiei
Iorga 1989 Iorga, N., Istoria romnilor romneti [Astra and the
din Ardeal i Ungaria [The development of the Romanian
history of Romanians from historiography]. In Transil-
Transylvania and vania, 1981, X (LXXXVII),
Hungary], Bucureti, no. 11.
Scientific and Encyclopedic Mureanu Mureanu, Camil, Rolul
Publishing House, 1989. 2003 pregtirii teologice n
Marica 1980 Marica, George Em., Studii formarea intelectualitii ro-
de istoria i sociologia mneti din Transilvania
66
[The role of the theological the modern Romanian
preparation in forming the historiography]. In Memoriile
Romanian intellectuality from seciei de tiine istorice, IV,
Transylvania]. In Annales tom IX, 1984, Bucureti,
Universitatis Apulensis. Romanian Academys
Series Historica, 7, 2003. Publishing House, 1987.
Racovian Racovian, Mihai, Preocupri
1992 istoriografice ale Astrei ntre
1867-1918,
[Historiographical concerns
of Astra between 1867 and
1918]. In Astra 1861-1991.
130 de ani de la nfiinare,
Sibiu, 1992.
Zub 1987 Zub, Al., Spirit critic i
reconstrucie n istoriografia
romn modern [Critical
spirit and reconstruction in
67
Bessarabian Contributions to the Study of the Romanian Language
in the Context of Slavic Culture (the 19th Century)
Maria DANILOV
Associate Professor, PhD, National History Museum of Moldova
E-mail: danilovmaria@yahoo.com
Key words: Bessarabia, Russian Empire, Romanian language, Bessarabian Slavistics, Polihronie
Srcu
Those who, no matter the reasons, are the Romanian language in the context of the
interested in the issue of the Romanian language Slavic culture.
in the context of the Russian culture will It is not difficult to notice that, since at
necessarily face various information gaps, least a century, Polihronie Srcu's work has not
especially when it comes to the Bessarabian stirred any special interest, however
contributions to the matter. In the Bessarabian insignificant. We can only mention some studies
historiography there is no systematic analysis of in the Soviet period, and some bio-
this issue, even though from a historiographic bibliographical completions, signed by
point of view some well-known researchers, Alexandrina Matcovski (Matcovski 1976, 36)
such as Polihronie Srcu (1855-1905) and and a more recent study that belongs to the
Alexandru Iaimirski (1873-1925) can be found Russion historiography (Domosilekaia 2009,
in the reference lists. Furthermore, they are 52-151).
considered to be founders of the Bessarabian For now, our degree of knowledge on
Slavistics, as they imposed this area as an Polihronie Srcu's works remains to the level of
important reseach field (urcanu 2004, 35), at the ideologized surface of the Soviet regime. Far
the beginning of the 20th century. We know even from mentionning some hasty findings regarding
less about the contribution of the Bessarabian our matter, we must notice that Polihronie
people to the research of the old Romanian Srcu's writings have unfairly faded into
books. The current study can be considered oblivion.
rather a brief and synthetic approach on
Polihronie Srcu's research (1) on the matter of
of the Cpriana Monastery; a graduate of the
(1) Polihronie Srcu (July, 30, 1855, Streni June, History and Phylology Faculty of the Sankt
23, 1905, Sankt Petersburg), historian, Slavist, Petersburg University (1878); private docent of
and folklorist. He studied at the parochial school the same university (1883).
68
In Russia, the Romanian Studies emerged Slavic Science (Sircu 1884, 235-247) from
as a discipline belonging to the larger area of which we can easily notice the research
Slavistics. The Romanian language, folklore, the directions, related to the Romanian language, on
old Romanian books manuscripts or prints which the author insisted. Two aspects of the
were appreciated among the Russian matter deserve to be layed special emphasis on:
researchers, firstly from the point of view of First, we must notice the range of matters
some cultural links that always existed between related to the importance and/or impact of the
the Slavic and the Romanian spaces. At the end Romanian language on the Slavic/Russian
of the 20th century, well-known Slavists, such as science:
V.I. Grigorovici, I.I. Sreznevski and A.I. In a larger context it would be appropriate
Sobolevski, were close to conceiving, through to point out Polihronie Srcu's contributions to
their researches, a large perspective in the matter the research of the Romanian Phylology matters
of the cultural relations between the Romanian in the Russian Empire.
and Slavic peoples. Thus, Polihronie Srcu's We will notice that Polihronie Srcu's
researches and/or contributions in the pointed assessments are based on solid documentation
era, have perfectly matched the Russian people's and advocated by a matchless eloquence: The
area of scientific interests (Sircu 1896, 17; Sircu object of my conferences will be the Romanian
1914, 7). Or, this phenomenon can be followed language and literature. You can ask yourselves,
only to the extent to which the Bessarabian why would a philologist or a historian need to
personalities fitted into the Imperial Russian know this language and of what importance
scientific community. could this knowledge be for the Slavist, the
Polihronie Srcu has proved a constant historian or the Russian philologist? In order to
scientific interest for Slavic paleography, and answer these questions it is absolutely necessary
was considered a peerless knower of the old to follow both the historical destiny of the
Slavic texts, of the old church literature. The Romanian people, as well as the main stages of
Russian researcher V. Lamanski held him as a the birth of the Romanian language (Sircu,
living encyclopedia, a source of information for 1884, 235). But before bringing a historical
the universitary scientists, to whom he lavishly explanation to the discussed matters, Polihronie
offered consultations in matters of history, Srcu spoke about the existence of a Romanian
ethnography, geography, history and litterature language chair at the university: About 40 years
of the peoples of the Balcans (Matcovski, 1976, ago, at this chair, Iacob Hncu held a practical
54). In the purpose of researching old texts in course on the Romanian language. He also wrote
the Balkan area, Polihronie Srcu went for a textbook for this purpose and even a
documentation to the Romanian Principalities, crestomathy containing texts from the most
Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, Transylvania, advanced Romanian literature in the era. This
Bukovina, Athos, Constantinople (1884-1893) textbook is still useful up to this date (Sircu
(1). He contributed to the reopening of the Chair 1884, 234-241) (2). Let's follow on Polihronie
of Romanic Languages at the Sankt Petersburg Srcu's opinions on the Romanian people and
University. In 1883 he was a private lecturer at language's history.
the Chair of Slavic Phylology at the university, The territory inhabited by the Romanians.
where he lectured the Romanian language and Polihronie Srcu believed that the fact that the
literature course (Domosilekaia 2009, 78). Romanian people inhabited a Subcarpathian
We will furthermore refer to the matters area, which might very well have been the Slavs'
approached by Polihronie Srcu in his opening early homeland [...] was a false assumption:
lesson at the Chair of Romanian Language of the The actual Romanian kingdom
Imperial University of Sankt Petersburg - On the Transilvania, a part of the Banat, Bukovina and
Importance of the Romanian Language for the Bessarabia [...], these are all areas inhabited
by Romanians [...];
69
The Romanians also live in Macedonia, vocabulary from the Bulgarians, and after the
Moravia, where a whole region is called fall of the Bulgarian State, its place was taken by
Wallachia [...]: the Polish and Russian elements (Sircu 1884,
The territory situated at the left of the 238-239).
Dniester has not since long been ceded to the
Rusyns [...]; The Romanians an Orthodox Centre. The 15th-
The Danube is only a political border [...]. 17th centuries
From the Southern Bessarabia and beyond the P. Srcu properly considered that in those
Danube the population is mixed [...]. Towards difficult centuries for the destiny of the
the Macedonian frontier there is a whole Christianity, the Danubian Principalities became
ethnographical corridor inhabited by the a centre of Orthodox refuge, just like Italy was
Romanians - that has not yet been explored [!]. for the Byzantines and the Greeks. The
Or, the mentioned territories indicate clearly that Romanians theirselves invited scholars from the
the Romanians do live in the area of Slavic Slavic world and offered them good work
interests (Sircu 1884, 234-237). conditions for creating cultural works for the
And they are not only neighbors [...]. The whole Orthodox space. The holy places in
Byzantine and Russian chronicles both attest Transylvania, in Wallachia or in Moldova are
the Vlachs to be living in this area, argued P. full of monks [...]. Important cultural
Srcu. At the same time, he recalls the personalities, such as Nikodi, Grigore amblac
importance of the Vlach element in the and Paisie have created here. They have created
Bulgarians' wars, but also about the fact that their works for the entire Slavic world (Sircu
those admixtures of the Vlachs have woken up 1884, 239-261).
the Turcs' wrath. Or, the nobility of the Balkan
Slavs will find a permanent refuge in the The Romanians a Martyr People
Romanian Principalities. This element has been In the 15th-17th centuries, the Romanians,
romanized throughout the centuries, claims P. this martyr people, has carried on its shoulders
Srcu: The rulers of the Romanian and still carries a lot of political and social
Principalities, but also the boyars, have strongly difficulties. The distinguished professor praised
stood for the Christians in Serbia and Bulgaria, the names of some prominent cultural
from the moment these countries had been personalities of the Romanian people, who are at
invaded by the Osmans (Sircu 1884, 237). the same time big scholars not only for their
times, but for today's world as well. They were
Less Known Pages of Russian History highly knowledgeable in European languages,
In P. Srcu's opinion, the knowledge of in Eastern and European literature: Petru
Romanian history, and especially of the role it Movil, the founder of the Kiev Academy,
played in Eastern Christianity, will shed more Nicolae Milescu, Dimitrie Cantemir [...] (Sircu,
light upon some less known pages from 1884, 241).
Russians' history. And not only: the Romanians'
relations with the Polish people and the Kazachs The Romanian Principalities, at the Crossroads
are also a less known part of the history. of Two Cultural Worlds: the Slavic/Greek and
However, it is certain that a more careful Romanic/German Worlds
examination of the concepts P. Srcu employs In the above mentioned context, we will
on the historical events that took place in this also notice some working hypotheses, issued by
cultural space regarding the relations between Polihronie Srcu. In his opinion, the Romanian
the Romanians and their Slavic neighbors also Principalities were a point of conveyance, or,
reveals multiple interpretation errors. For more exactly, a centre of the literary links
example, P. Srcu incorrectly presumed that the between the Slavs and the Greeks. This centre is
Romanians have been strongly influenced by the known due to multiple acts of charity towards
Slavs, from a cultural point of view, due to some the Mount Athos and towards other Orthodox
strong historical links with them. Also, that once countries of the East. Furthermore, the
they entered the Bulgarian Kingdom, it seems, Romanian Principalities, located at the
they converted to Christianity together [] crossroads of two cultural worlds: Slavic/Greek
(Sircu 1884, 239) (1). Also that the Romanians and Romanic/German are equally marked, in
borrowed the chancery as well as the diplomatic their evolution by those political and cultural
influences. This space becomes an epicentre that
(1) The Bulgarians became Christans at 864 under the conserved traditions and permanent links, an
reign of the Tsar Boris [Mihail I] (852-889). epicentre where these links and traditions have
70
permanently collided, but where they have also church writings which, being still a weak
reconciled, on the Orthodox basis, directioning language, could not immediately set free from
and/or irradiating Christian traditions towards the Slavonic ties. But the first steps towards the
the whole Orthodox East. This way, the release from the Slavic model were slowly,
Romanians have culturally assumed the mission unsurely made [...]. The Slavonic alphabet, well
of being the successors of the Southern Slavs, adapted to the sounds of the Romanian
argues Srcu. Unfortunately, this brilliant language, served it for another long period of
cultural era of the Slavic literature is very little time. The first translations were made line by
researched (Sircu 1884, 240). line, just like a gloss. It is only after countless
language experiences and exercises that, towards
About the Romanian Language and Polihronie the second half of the 16th century, full writings
Srcu's Linguistic Amalgam were translated in Romanian, accompanied by
Almost two decades after the debates explanatory indices: what must be read at the
initiated by the Aacademy member I.I. liturgical service and how must it be done. A
Sreznevski (1) regarding the origins of the century had not yet passed when the people's
Romanian people and language, Polihronie language won a place at least equal to the Slavic
Srcu claimed that the Romanian nation was one, not only in the church, but also in court and
constituted of a number of ethnical elements: in the diplomatic world. The most ardent
Roman, Thracian and Slavic. Along the supporters of the Romanian language were two
centuries, to the Latin structure joined barbarian well-known sovereigns: Princes Vasile Lupu
elements: first some Thracian elements and then (1632-1654) and Matei Basarab (1633-1654).
some other byzantine ones, then entire Slavic Both wanted to gather the Romanian people in a
layers. An insignificant Hungarian element also single country (Sircu 1884, 243).
superposed, and, finally, a Turk one joined. The most important literary phenomenon
Such a linguistical symbiosis is wrongly defined of the period in Polihronie Srcu's opinion
as a linguistic amalgam (Sircu, 1884, 241). We was represented by the chronicles especially the
must also accent the fact that P. Srcu is the first ones from Moldova, that all the Romanians can
Slavist in the science of the Russian Phylology be proud of. In the Romanian chronicles
who recalls the existence of other Romanic priceless informations on the history of the
languages in the East: With only 10 millions of Southern Slavs, of those in Poland, Ukraine,
Romanians, the Romanian language has very Turkey or Greece, that cover the 15th-17th
little dialects only three: a Dacian one (in centuries, or the 18th century can be found
Wallachia, Bessarabia, Bukovina, Transilvania (Sircu 1884, 244). A lot of scholars-hierarchs,
and Banat), a Macedonian dialect and a Istro- who studied in Europe and in Poland, stood out:
Romanian one. This extremely valuable Dosoftei, Varlaam, Iacob Stamati, and the
linguistic material must be subject to a careful bishop Filaret. Besides their liturgical books,
analysis because it reflects a continuous struggle they also wrote treatises, dogmatic writings, and
between the languages and the victories that one Christian apologetics (Sircu 1884, 244).
won over the other. A solid research of the
phenomenon will not only help us understand Romanian Folklore
the culture of the peoples in the Balcans, but The Romanian folklore is considered by P.
also to penetrate the essence of the resistance Srcu to be a phenomenon unique of its kind, a
and survival force of the Romanian people synthesis of the European peoples of this area
(Sircu 1884, 242). (Sircu, 1884, 243). Doubtless, some of P. Srcu's
The formation of both the literary interpretations and/or conclusions are confuse.
language and the Romanian litterature is placed He states, for example, that the spiritual
by P. Srcu towards the 16th century: Until that community of the Romanians and the Slavs
time, the literary language was the one of the doesn't only consist in their language and in their
faith. Both the ritualic folkloric poetry, and the
lyrical and historical ones have a lot of affinities
(1) I.I. Sreznevski (1812-1880), without being a with the Slavic one, especially with the Southern
Romanist, has afforded some hasty conclusions on Slavic one (Sircu 1884, 243). Polihronie Srcu's
the origins of the origins of the Romanian findings were based on proofs gathered during
language that, in his opinion, abounds in Slavic
words, in such a way that writing and speaking
some recent researches in the Romanian
without them is just as impossible, as it is to Principalities. He had gathered a rich folkloric
express yourself in English without the root of the material: Romanian Christmas carols, that he
French origin word. considered being very similar to those
71
belonging to the Ukranian and Russian, historiography. Observations
Serbian ballads that praised the hajduks and the on the Bessarabian historical
Cossacks. He also gathered materials from the writing], Chiinu, 2004.
apocryphal litterature of the Southern Slavs, Ghinkulov Ghinkulov, Iakob, Naertanii
where he rediscovered a strong reflection of the 1840 pravil valahomoldavskoj gra-
Romanian folkloric works, that had gotten there matiki [The Wallachian Mol-
orally or in writing. davian grammar rules], St.
The 19th century is conceived as a modern Petersburg, 1840.
era, a new phase of the Romanian literature, Domosilekaia Domosilekaia, M.V.,
marked by its contact with the Western 2009 Izuenie rumynskogo jazyca i
European literatures. A new direction started kultury rumyn v Rossii (XIX
then, expressed through the tendency of the naealo XX , [The study
Romanian thinking to set free from the of the Romanian language
Slavonism and to get closer to the Latin West. and culture of the Romanians
P. Srcu concludes that the most representative in Russia (19th-early 20th c.)].
sons of the Romanian people, such as Hasdeu, In: Acta Linguistica
Odobescu, Xenopol, despite some ephemeral Petropolitana.Trdy Instituta
political views, realize more and more that the Lingvisteskih Isledovanij,
people who survived the Turkish and Phanariot tom I, otv. Redaktor N.N.
supremacy, has based its history on Byzantine Kayanskii, Sankt Peterburg,
models, among the Slavic peoples of the East, Nauka, 2009, p. 52-151.
and develops based on the byzantine Orthodoxy Matcovschi Matcovschi, Alexandrina,
(Sircu 1884, 246). At the end of his lecture On 1976 Personaliti care au
the importance of the Romanian language for the contribuit la consolidarea
Slavic science, Polihronie Srcu firmly states: relaiilor moldo-ruse.
We, the Slavists, will never be sure on a big Polihronie Agapievici Srcu
part of the Slavs' history without knowing the (1850-1905). In: Prezene
history, the litterature and the language of the moldoveneti n publicaiile
Romanians, just like the history of the latter will ruse din anii 1886-1905
not be clear enough without knowing the Slavs' [Personalities who contri-
history (Sircu 1884, 246). buted to the strengthening of
Moldavian-Russian relations.
Conclusions Polihronie Agapievich Srcu
The recovery and valorisation of (1850-1905). In: Moldavian
Polihronie Srcu's work have a special references in Russian publi-
importance for a better knowledge on the era of cations of 1886-1905], Chii-
the cultural Slavonism of the Romanian nu, Scientific and Encyclo-
people, and this, in its turn, can be classified pedic Publishing House,
among the Bessarabian contributions to the 1976.
research of the Romanian language and the Sircu 1914 Sircu, P., Iy byta
Romanian old writings. We will also notice that bessarabskih rumyn [From
Polihronie Srcu's works on the matter of the the life of the Bessarabian
Romanian language are marked by the Romanians] St. Petersburg,
uncertainty of the situation that the Russian 1914.
Slavistics was in, at the end of the 20th century. Sircu 1884 Sircu, P., O znaenie
All this scientific agitation was a clue that the rumynovedinja dlja
the academic environment in the Russian slaveanskoj nauki, v urnal
imperial society of Sankt Petersburg had a Ministerstva Narodnogo
certain level of knowledge of the Romanian Prosvescenia, avgust, east
language in the context of the Slavic culture. [On the importance of
Romanian Studies for Slavic
References Science. In: Zhurnal
Ministerstva Narodnogo
urcanu 2004 urcanu, Ion, Istoricitatea Prosveshcheniya [Journal of
istoriografiei. Observaii asu- the Ministry of National
pra scrisului istoric basa- Education], August, Part
rabean [The historicity of the CCXXXIV, SPb (1884).
72
The Emergence of a New Educational Model during the Long
Nineteenth Century. A Study Case: Childrens Education
Georgeta FODOR
Assistant Lecturer, PhD, Petru Maior University of Tirgu Mures, Romania
E-mail: georgeta.fodor@science.upm.ro
Abstract. Education was one of the domains which registered great changes - challenges too -
during the modern age. It is during this period of time while the bases of a modern institutionalized
educational system were set. This should be considered a consequence of the intellectual debates led by
Romanian scholars who were more than convinced that a nations progress lies in granting to its people
the right to education. Their interest materialized in an entire literature on the best model to be applied for
educating Romanian people in order to contribute and facilitate the societys progress towards
modernization. Thus, the study focuses on this kind of literature which was published during the second
half of the nineteenth century. Our aim is to find the patterns of this new educational model that emerged
as a consequence of the debate on the educations importance in the Romanian society during the long
nineteenth century. We are also interested in revealing the new perception on child which developed in
the context and as a consequence of the previous mentioned debate. We made a selection of the published
materials due to their great number, but we chose the ones which best reveal the features of this literary
genera.
Key words: educational model, nineteenth century, children, debate, school textbooks
In 1915 Direciunea Statisiticei Generale illiteracy was still higher among women
(The Institute of Statistics) published a survey compared with men and also that the law
on the literacy level of Romanians. The report making the elementary school compulsory for
was based on the figures from the final results of women was more difficult to impose for women
the General Census made by Romanian than men (Ibidem, XVIII, see also Fodor 2013).
authorities in 1912. The aim of the report was to Despite these figures, a progress was made. It
determine the cultural level of the nation as can be seen also as a result of the efforts made
literacy was seen as its indicator (Statistica by the State in order to expand the
1912, I). This study is also relevant for the institutionalised educational system. In fact, the
present approach as it makes reference, within State started to have a coherent politics in this
the Introduction, to the populations level of domain since 1864 when the Education Law was
literacy as this resulted from the census made in elaborated. According to it, the primary school
1899. Thus, we can have a better insight of all was made free and compulsory. This law was
the efforts made by the State and its intellectuals followed in the 90s by three other laws: Take
in order to increase the level of literacy among Ionescus Law, in 1893; Ponis Law, in 1896
citizens. According to the figures form 1899, and Spiru Harets Law, in 1898. Besides these
78% of the population over seven years old was formal decisions, the intellectuals tried by all
illiterate. From a gender point of view, the means, not only through the institutionalised
figures are even worst as almost 90% of female ones; to contribute to the progress of educational
population was illiterate. Comparing these level of ordinary men and women. As a
figures with the ones from 1912, and keeping in consequence of their interest, a real intellectual
mind the fact that the population registered a debate took place in Romanian society during
demographic growth, situation did change. We the second half of the nineteenth century.
can infer that progress was made by 1912, since Indeed, among the reasons of the debate one can
the percentage of literate women grew from mention the controversies caused by the
10.9% to 23.2%. Although a progress was education laws elaborated by the State.
registered, the dissatisfaction caused by these Alongside with this reason, we must mention the
figures was expressed by those who published intellectuals interest in the populations level of
the statistics. They laid stress on the finding that literacy. It is also a proof for their strong
73
involvement in the general effort of modernising authors but also by the perspective intellectuals
Romanian society. Form the intellectuals point had on education.
of view; this modernization could be made by Through educational model, we do not
increasing the populations cultural level, also. understand only the formal, State elaborated
This attitude explains the emergence of an entire one. We also refer to the education the parents
literature, and by literature we refer to journal were taught to give their children. Indeed, the
articles, school textbooks, translations etc. State has a great merit in this sense. In fact,
having as main subject the educational question. beginning with Spiru Haret, the idea of
We will try, in what follows, to give an extracurricular education for both children and
overview on the key aspects of this debate adults gains ground in Romanian society, too
aiming at an objective view on the new (Albulescu 2008).
educational model which resulted as a The documents of the age testify that there
consequence of this debate. As the information was a considerable effort to streamline and
is plenty, we will not insist on laws and statistics update the knowledge of child rearing. This
as they had already been subject of analysis in could be also considered as a result of the
other researches. Thus, we analysed different, modernization process. Thus, we could also
one can call them informal, types of documents discuss, in the more general context of
which can allow us to have a better view on the education, by the effort Romanian scholars made
complexity of the debate on the best model to for educating not only the children according to
educate a child. In fact, we chose three types of the imperatives of a modern society but parents
documents: the ones that had as subject of as well.
analysis the theory meaning those published The phrase educational model was also
studies or books written with the intention of chose due to the fact that it best describes a
teaching the parents how to raise their children feature of the long nineteenth century. It is this
according to the imperatives of a modern world. period while Romanian society, its intellectuals
We also focused on several textbooks as we are in fact, became aware of the great role education
interested in revealing how theory met with the has in a changing society. It is during this period
practical teaching. We also analysed translations of time Romania developed its modern
or adaptations from foreign authors. We chose educational system: primary free and
this type of texts in order to see the impact of the compulsory schools, secondary and higher
western scientific literature on Romanian society education institutions.
in what childrens education and care was In what the concept of child is
concern. This perspective of analysis is concerned, it also steps in its modern age. The
necessary in the context of the age and for the child will no longer be considered as a small
effort we make to identify the new educational adult, but a distinct human being who should be
model as well as the new perspective on children treated as like. This is also a consequence of the
that emerged under the impact of the scientific progress registered by psychology, pedagogy
progress registered in Western Europe. and medical sciences.
The present study will focus on two facts: Besides these conceptual delimitations, we
the new modern educational model and the new must also stress the fact that we made a selection
modern child as they both were designed based also on the professional background of the
during the long nineteenth century Romanian writers. For instance, we consider of great
society. relevance that university professor discussed the
In order to have a pertinent view on the educations problem in an effort of finding the
subject, two were the key terms we need to best suitable model for Romanians. We paid
define. attention to the gender of both the authors and of
First, we have to explain the concept of their public target, too. This aspect is to be taken
educational model and secondly, the concept of into consideration due to the fact that in the
child/children. context of the general debate on childrens
By new educational model, we make education a researcher cannot separate this issue
reference to the patterns of modern educational from the debate over the role a woman should
system as a result of the progress registered by play in the society. As we had proven in our
the science of pedagogy with the works of J. J. previous studies, women as mothers were the
Rousseau or Pestalozzi. Such works have also first called to set the bases of a childs education
been influential in Romanian society. The fact is (Fodor 2012 a., 200). Thus, it is no surprise that
proven both by Romanian translations of these during the nineteenth century in Romania were
published plenty of books for teaching women
74
whose mission in life was to raise the children Although the book focuses on the medical
according to the societys imperatives. No aspect aspects of a childs education it is relevant for
was left outside the analysis: from practical our present approach for several basic reasons: it
advice given for pregnant women up to the best underlines the central role of mothers in
rearing methods mothers should respect in order childrens education as well as for its effort of
to have a healthy, well educated child. The streamlining the best methods for educating
reasoning is the following: this child was not Romanian children. The author is very modern
only someones boy or girl; it also meant in fact in view as he considers that a childs health,
a healthy, well educated citizen. This is for education and future depend on mothers
instance the aim which motivated physician physical and intellectual features. Thus in the
Dimitrie Cantemir to publish a textbook in 1877. first chapter he insists on giving advice to future
Its target audience were the parents, in general, mothers. He does this by stressing some of the
and mothers in particular. The reason behind this bad practices which he considers to be harmful
initiative can be found in the fact that mothers to the child. He seems to respect a somehow
were seen as the ones called to preserve and chronological order as the first bad habit he
transmit a peoples legacy and tradition. This discusses is the early marriage. He considers that
attitude towards womens role in society can be a girl of 14-16 years old is not physically
considered as a consequence of the societys prepared for childbirth. The author questions
progress during the nineteenth century. But it is himself:
also truth that the same progress explains the
negative attitude against some of these traditions What can a young woman become when
and practices seen as no longer suitable or even married in such a tender age, before reaching
wrong. These are among the reasons which her physical maturity and without having her
made Dimitrie Cantemir write: Consilii reproductive system fully developed? (Ce pote
Hygenice pentru creterea copiilor (Hygiene deveni dar o tnr copil la o etate att de
Advice for Raising Children). The title suggests fraged, ntrat n viaa conjugal, nainte de a
a manual of parenting (Cantemir 1877). The fi luat o desvoltare complect a corpului, nainte
author tries to give parents, to mothers in the ca organele concepiunei s fie de ajuns
first place, a childs rearing textbook based on formate?) The best age for a woman to be
his experience as a physician. He considers that married should respect a physicians
mothers must have a guiding book in order to prescriptions: 18 years old says Cantemir to be
learn how they could best rear their children. the perfect age. This is the age when a woman
What is more significant is the authors intention riches her physical maturity (Ibidem, 3).
to correct the traditional wrong practices which
he noticed in childrens education. Once again But there should be made exceptions to
modernity and tradition are brought on the same this rule, for instance, if the woman was of
scene in an effort of conciliation. In fact, the weaker constitution she should wait until she
authors intentions were clearly stated from the was 21 before marrying. But both extremes
very beginning: as a physician his intention was should be avoided: neither an early marriage nor
that of correcting, and even eradicating, the bad a too older one.
habits mothers had in their childrens education: A threat to childs health is also
considered to be the alcoholism. On this subject
An eight years medical practice as well Cantemir is only one of many voices considering
as a deep interest for this subject, authorizes me it as being an endemic problem of Romanians.
to discuss all the bad practices of raising The following chapters of the book deal with
children preserved and transmitted as dogmas such matters as pregnant women; potential
by parents from one generation to another. I do dangers a woman could face while being
this as the society lacks such a book about pregnant (among these the author mentions the
Hygiene (O practic medical de opt ani i o corset women still used to wear). The author
osebit aplicaiune pentru acest studiu, me discusses other topics such as breastfeeding or
aotoirz de ami ridica vocea asupra tutror the colostrums. In the concluding chapter of the
obiceiurilor vtmtore, pe care tradiiunea le-a first part of the book, the author reiterates the
conservat, n creterea copiilor i pe care reasons for the advice he gave to young mothers:
mumele le transmit ca nite dogme motenite de due to the guidelines in his book,
la prinii lor, n lipsa unei cri speciale pentru
aceast parte important a Hygienei) (Ibidem, mother will no longer feel the need to ask for
III). advice from women living next door whose
75
advice could sometimes do more damage than blood thus their milk is not always protein rich
good (Aceste linii sper c vor fi cu att mai (In alegerea lor vom prefer tot-d-una o femee
folositoare cu ct mamele nu vor mai avea negricios, cu prul i ochii negri; femeile
nevoe de a cere sfaturi la tote femeele vecine, a blonde sunt n genere limphatice sau cu puin
cror povee sunt adese-ori forte contra- snge, i prin urmare cu un lapte nu ntot-d-una
zictore, i care le au fost impuse a le urma ca bogat n principii nutritive) (Ibidem, 35).
nite dogme venite de la persone ce au
prepteniunea de a le cunosce din esperian) Besides these key issues the author also
(Ibidem, 19). discusses the problem of the babys clothing; the
food diversification; the hygiene and other
Cantemir is actually among those Romanian aspects considered even nowadays as being
intellectuals considering that science should among the paediatricians major concern.
overcome tradition, not entirely of course, but If we try to evaluate the importance this
the latter should be purified of all those bad work has for the present scientific approach, we
practices transmitted through tradition: consider that it lies in all the points Cantemir
expressed within the books pages. It is also
Young women: beware of all the advices, valuable because, during the age, there are not
passed down from one generation to the next so many books of this kind and with so much
,considered by the science as being harmful and attention paid to every detail concerning the
hazardous (Ferii-ve dar, junelor femei, de tote pregnancy, the childbirth and the first years of a
acele consilii ce au fost transmise din generaie babys existence. Thus, its value is given by the
n generaie, i pe care tiina le condamn ca effort of setting the basis for the parenting
vtmtoare i periculose) (Ibidem). science. The author moves away from the
traditional practices of child rearing by replacing
The same seems to be the authors attitude them with scientific advice and practices.
towards breast feeding, subject analyzed in the Moreover, its value is increased by the authors
second part of the book. He criticizes another experience in childrens treatment as a
bad habit of young Romanian mothers, physician, so he speaks out of his own
especially of those from the high-class, who experience. It is also a proof that a new
deliberately chose not to breast feed the babies. conception on the child has emerged during the
He considers that this is not only a lack of XIX century. It is also a testimony of the effort
maternal love but also the equivalent of the doctors and school teachers made in order to
infanticide. The refuse of breast feeding is educate the parents, in general, and mothers in
considered to be an explanation for the highest particular. But not all the questions got there
rates of infant mortality. He describes this answer. There are still questions to be asked:
practice as being a controlled infanticide. This what was the impact this book had during the
view is nothing more than an argument for age. How many parents could have had access to
proving the fact that the traditional perception of it? The answer to this question should take into
children as small adults who do not need a consideration the illiteracy rate.
different or special attention has long gone. The This specific kind of textbooks dealing
stress weaves now towards the child understood with such subject matters as the childrens
as a distinct entity who needs to be treated rearing according to scientific rules are not so
accordingly. The tendency to put the maternal many during the period. We have a very
education on certain scientific bases is more than generous literature dealing with the moral and
obvious even when the author insists on the religious education children should be taught,
psychological side of mother-child relationship. instead. They are the proofs for Romanian elites
Besides this well-argued statements, some effort of trying to find a compromise between
pieces of advice seem to be rather traditional the modern influence on one side and the
than modern. For instance, he suggests that traditional features of Romanian family on the
women who could not breastfeed the baby other. They, as well as Romanians from
should better choose a dark complexion woman Transylvania too, feared that modern world and
as wet nurse. The author considers that this kind modern style of education will endanger the
of womans breast milk was healthier and richer basic cell of the society which was the family.
in proteins: How else could we explain the accent on the
moral and religious education? But these kinds
one should choose a brunet, with black eyes of prints are also valuable in the effort of
and hair; the blondes are lymphatic or with less constructing the features of Romanian child
76
during this time period. We intend to see if the in the social life but also with this modern view
tradition had changed in what the childrens on women understood as citizens of the nation,
education is concerned. Also, two facts must be not equal with men, but citizens indeed.
stress: that the authors of such texts are also Traditional is the fact that womans quality as a
prominent personalities of the Romanian cultural citizen is given by her basic feature as mother. It
life, and secondly that they had insisted mainly is the motherhood which gains a modern
on girls education. The latter fact can be definition: by this quality women fulfil their
explained by the new perception on women that social role. This seems to be also the authors
arose also during the XIX century. They were no point of view while considering that
longer seen and perceived just as loyal mens
subordinates but also as those who could a woman is one of the most important
determine a nations bright or dark future. member of the religious and civil society;
Everything was directly connected with their because a wise, caring and religious woman is
quality as mothers who took care not only of the soul of a house (pentru c femeea este unulu
their children but of the countrys future din cele mai puternice resorturi ale societei
citizens. This perspective is in fact both new and religioase i civile; pentru c o femee nelept,
old at the same time: these are the traditional bgtore de sem i religios, este sufletulu
roles a woman had for centuries. What is new is casei) (Ibidem, 5).
the interpretation the author gives, as these
traditional roles gain a modern perspective being Opposite to Cantemirs scientific
seen as womens social roles. This new approach, Constantinescu gives Romanian
perspective on women will be clearly affirmed readers a book of morals offering guidance to
in an entire literature dedicated to women. It is a the youth according to the religious
literature discussing the Romanian womens prescriptions. It is divided in three parts: the first
education in order to become a modern is centred on religious matters: a Christians
Romanian mother. On one hand, there was the dignity; a Christians duties; the prayers;
education a woman needed for meeting the celebrating the Sunday and the religious
families necessity, an education based on holidays. The second part, which is of great
religion and morality, and, on the other hand, value for our present study, consists of several
there was the school education for learning basic chapters dealing with parents-children
knowledge a woman needed in order to become relationship. The author is not interested in
a social player (Fodor 2012 a., 203). giving parents advice in the spirit Cantemir did,
This perspective is subject of another book but rather insist on religious and moral
published during the same period. The manners obligations they have to each other. Four were a
and morality, of both boys and girls, will be childs responsibilities to his/her parents: love;
discussed by I. Constantinescu in his reading respect; subordination and help (Ibidem, 40).
book titled: Carte de Citire pentru Formarea These were the constitutive elements of the
Moravurilor fiiloru si fiicelor crestine (A relation among family members inspired by the
Reading Book for Educating the Manners of Trinitarian model of the family: hierarchy and
Christians Sons and Daughters), published in love must govern earthly family as it governs the
Bucharest, in 1882 (Constantinescu 1882). relationship between the Persons of the Holy
Before making a content analysis of the text, we Trinity (Lung 2006, 140). The third part of the
must keep in mind not only the fact that the text keeps the same religious perspective when
author was a priest, but also that he was a discussing about the childrens educational best
professor to the girls school from Bucharest. He suited model and their Christian moral duties.
wrote the text as both a priest and a teacher. The Although the text somehow recalls the medieval
two qualities are in fact joined in order to set spirit, it cannot be considered outdated, on the
some reference points in the moral and religious contrary: in an age when liberty was
education of the youth. In fact, and this is sometimes seen as a potential threat to
explainable by the authors basic formation as traditional values, this book insists on the latter.
priest that moral education is deeply The author understands that, as both a priest and
influenced by the religious morale. It is not a a teacher, he must give children guidance in this
surprise that the book addresses to female public changing world. He tries somehow and in this
in the first place. The author, like many others, respect he is not the only one to preserve
explains why Romanian girls needed to be raised Romanian traditional values. Religious identity
with a strong moral base. Everything is related was among them.
with the mission women were supposed to have
77
These conclusions are valid for several in Craiova and proves the fact that same
printed editions of the textbooks used in girls concerns were preoccupying not only the
schools. They also seem to have as main intellectuals from Bucharest. The book is also
objective that of educating the girls for their relevant as it addresses to children in a very
future duty as wife and mothers. The authors, of simple language. It is a reading book specially
such materials, mostly priests, clearly specify designed for children - one more proof that
sometimes that the school books must be gender children are seen as distinct individuals that need
differentiated. Look for instance at the textbook not only a special care but also a specific
published by a school teacher, T. V. Stefanelli. education according to their level of
This time it is clearly specified in the title that understanding. This does not mean that we
the book is for Christian learning. The book is a stepped outside the moral and religious
girls only one and the author underlines this. education a child should accumulate. The
Not only the subject but also the layout is reading book remains in the same spirit:
designed for girls: teaching the kids by examples. The stress is now
on how important is for a child to go to school
This book is different from the other one and study. It respects somehow the educational
through the colour displacement so that the program of the State which was intended to
prologue, the text as well as the epilogue make a increase the literacy level of its citizens. Copilu
religious and moral impression on girls and care scie s citsc (The child who knows how
considering that, the boys do not need such a to read) versus Copilulu care nu scie s citsc
displacement, the epilogues being enough for (The child who does not know how to read) or
this purpose. Constantin versus Florea and Cezar; Copilulu
This book is different from the other one Ineleptu (The Wise Child) are some of the
because the message and the examples are subjects which appear in the book under the
adapted to the girls present and future form of short stories easily understandable for
situation. The reason for this consists in that the children. The moral aspect is inserted within the
girls will not be theologians or high rank text which underlines the benefits of
officials (Aceast carte se deosebesce de ceea- institutionalized learning. For instance, the story
l-alt prin propunerea acromatic; acesta se about the boy who knows how to read describes
face din motivul c att prologul i tratatul, ct a boy who listens to his teachers, who helps his
i epilogul, s produc simiri religiose i parents. This is opposed to Cezars story who is
morale durabile, care la bei au s se produc lazy, who does not want to learn preferring to
numai prin epilogurile respective). play games with his friends (Ibidem, 5-6).
Aceast carte se deosebesce de ceea-l- Between these two cases, going from one
alt, pentru c apelurile sunt adresate ctr extreme to another, the author describes the case
eleve i esemplele i cele-l-alte, ct cu putin, of another boy who cannot read because he does
acomodate starei presente i viitore. Acesta se not have the necessary means: his father died
face din motivul, c elevele nu vor fi nici teologi, and his mother could not afford to send him to
nici nu vor ocupa locuri de funciuni mai nalte school. It is a touching story, of impact to the
ale Statului) (Stefanelli 1887, V, VI). young minds, as it ends by describing the
The text proofs also that the difference unhappiness this boy turned into an adult will
between boys and girls, even at their capacities feel by not being able to write or read his
and level of understanding, still exists. mothers letters (Bietulu Florea nelege c mai
It is also a testimony for arguing that trziu cndu va fi departe nu va pute nici s
religion and morality seem to be among the scrie mumei sale, nici s citesc scrisorile cei
main concerns connected with the childrens va trimite ea. Bietulu biatu este nenorocitu)
education. Priests and school teachers make (Ibidem).
efforts in giving Romanian children the basic Much the same energy is put for
knowledge they needed for turning into adults. educating the parents. They are seen not only as
But not only priest - teachers shared this point of those who must provide for their children and
view. Laymen share the same opinion, too. cover their material needs. They are perceived,
George T. Buzoianu, a history and geography and this is an idea widely expressed in the age,
teacher had a similar vision on education. He is the ones to set the basis for the childrens
the author of a reading book Miculu colaru intellectual and cultural development. Another
(The Little School Boy) about a childs qualities author who could be included in this group is
and defects. The text seems to be an adaptation Ioan Slavici. He wrote a textbook on ethics and
from French (Buzoianu, 1883). It was published aesthetics while being a school teacher at the
78
girls school financed by Ioan Oteteleteanu. on how they should be treated by their parents
The school was financed with a clear purpose: and by the society. The family is seen as the
that of helping the students to become good natural result of a freely consented marriage
mothers and wives (ntru fericire pomenitul whose destiny is accomplished through children.
Ioan Oteteleteanu a luat n testamentul seu The author considers that a complete family
disposiiunea, ca fetele adpostite n insititutul consists of six members, three of each sex
susinut din averea lsat de densul s fie (Ibidem, 118). In what the parental relationships
crescute aa, ca ele s poat fi bune mume i were concerned, Slavici gives a modern view.
bune soii) (Slavici, 1897, III). We have The child is not seen just as his/her parents
another textbook for the fifth grade students. But flesh and blood but also as the inheritor of their
the textbook is very different form the texts we spiritual legacy. Thus, the parents love for their
had analyzed so far. It was deliberately made for children should include not only sympathy and
teaching morals and morality. These two were protection but also the interest towards the
transformed into a distinctive subject matter. He development of the childs individuality (Copilul
teaches ethics and aesthetics, which include nu e numai carne din carnea printelui i snge
notions concerning the childrens rearing also. din sngele lui, ci tot-o-dat i continuaiunea
The author was a school teacher appointed to lui sufleteasc. De aceea iubirea printeasc nu
teach these lessons. As a consequence, he e numai comptimire, nici numai simement de
published the text in order to help his future conservare, ci tot-o-dat i ambiiune pentru
students: desvoltarea propriei individualiti) (Ibidem).
We should not exaggerate: Slavici is more
they should focus not in copying it but modern in defining family relationships but he is
rather on the housework duties or in the not a revolutionary! He respects the traditional
activities done in the workshop (mi-am pregtit perspective of the family seen as a hierarchy led
caietul i lam dat la tipar, pentru ca elevele by the husband. Children must respect the
mele, care sunt foarte ocupate n gospodrie i paternal authority. Children must obey the
n atelier, s nu mai fie nevoite a-l copia) parents decision even in such problems as
(Ibidem, III). choosing a professional career or choosing a life
partner (copilul nu poate s primeasc nicio
But the author considers that not only nsrcinare fr de voia prinilor sei, nu s-i
students will benefit from the text but mothers aleag cariera, nici, mai ales s se
will found it useful too. (l pun la disposiiunea cstoreasc) (Ibidem, 122). The hierarchy is to
publicului att pentru ca mai muli s-l poat govern the relations among brothers and sisters
citi i corecta, ct i pentru c am convingerea too. Respecting this advice, the children will rich
fireasc, c ori-i-care mum poate s trag their best in both family and social life (Acela,
foloase din citirea lui) (Ibidem, IV). Moreover, care e bun fiiu, e i bun frate i are s fie i bun
Slavici considers that this kind of book is needed so i bun printe, om bun i bine deprins, care-
in Romanian society as it lacks this kind of i face n toate mpregiurrile datoria) (Ibidem,
literature. This textbook was his personal 124). We can imagine the impact this school
contribution to the development of such a subjects had on the minds of the future mothers.
literature (Noi avem trebuin de o asemenea This effort of educating the parents seems to be
carte, i ori eu voi fi ajutat s ntregesc i s among societies main objectives. A similar type
corectez pe aceasta, ori altul, care e mai bine of literature can be seen at Romanians from
pregtit i dispune de mai mult timp, va scrie Transylvania too. It must also be stressed the
alta mai bun) (Ibidem). fact that the tone and language seem to be
The third part of the book Morala social adapted to the readers social level. The leader
(Social Morality) discusses the family relations. of this campaign for increasing Romanians
By the social morality the author refers to cultural level was ASTRA, of course. Since
common life whose origins are to be found in 1861, when the association was established, it
the normal parents-children relationship (Ibidem, worked mainly for the purpose of educating the
118). nation. This aim was obviously even in the
The text resembles to the one of Cantemir organizations name, ASTRA being the
we previously analyzed. He is not so scientific abbreviation for Asociaia transilvan pentru
though. It definitely recalls the modern Literatura Romn i Cultura Poporului Romn
definitions and views on family and children. meaning an Association for Romanian literature
The text can offer also a better view on how and for Romanians culture (Fodor 2012, 24).
children were perceived in the society, as well as They also published books for educating the
79
parents which stressed the importance of respect and accomplish his/her social duties. All
educating the children. For instance, V. Gr. the texts we had analyzed within the present
Borgovanu will publish Ionel. Principii morale study are nothing else then a testimony of the
i cretineti de educaiune, (Ionel. Principles of fact that nineteenth century was the age
Moral and Christian Education). It is a series of witnessing the creation of a modern Romanian
volumes about the importance of education man. Both men and women are subject of
(Borgovanu 1904). The book is part of the transformation as G. L. Mosse stated in The
collection coordinated by Astras Library Image of Man. The Creation of Modern
(Bibilioteca poporal a Asociaiunii). It is a Masculinity (Mosse 1998). The author
serial of five volumes, analyzing general aspects considered that although it is impossible to point
of education: Principii morale i cretineti de to a precise moment when the ideal of modern
educaiune. Cartea I. Familia; Principii morale masculinity was born and became part of
i cretineti de educaiune. Cartea II. Ionel de modern history... it happened sometimes
un an; Principii morale i cretineti de between the second half of the eighteen century
educaiune. Cartea III. Ionel pn la ese ani; and the beginning of the nineteenth (Ibidem, 5).
Principii morale i cretineti de educaiune. We consider that the perception on children
Cartea IV. Ionel la coal; Principii morale i underwent a similar process. Alain Bidaud
cretineti de educaiune. Cartea V. Ionel la proved also through a historical analysis on the
coala vieii. evolution of the child shows that it is not a given
The fourth book starts with an epigraph fact, eternal and unchangeable, but a social
that perfectly mirrors the new perspective on product (Bidaud, 1985, 69). Thus he/she changes
children considering that the educated ones are and adapts to the societys evolution. The
the greatest assest (Copilul bine crescut e cea modern child is definitely a consequence of the
mai mare avuie) (Ibidem). In fact, the entire changes registered by the society within the
collection proofs the importance children and modernization process it was going through. We
their education were gaining as a result of the can definitely conclude that Romanian modern
modernization process. child and the educational model specially
Although, the latter references are made to designed for him is the result of a similar
a Transylvanian text whereas all the others were process. The assertion is supported by the books
from Romania, it does prove our point: that and manuals analysed in this study. Moreover,
during this period of time Romanian elites were we must also stress the fact that this change was
very deeply involved in the debate around caused also by the Western influence which
education. They made a real effort, under cannot be denied. Once again the previously
different paths: first they insist on the parents mentioned translations prove our statements.
education as they were the ones to set the bases. The translations form I. H. Pestalozzi, How
But a difference is being made in this case Gertrude Teaches Her Children, for instance is a
between boys and girls education. The majority good example in this sense. The text was well
of printed material addresses mainly to mothers. received by Romanian intellectuals. It even
This fact does not only reveal the important role generated a debate over the educational model
mothers are granted in their childrens developed by the author and reclaimed a reprint.
education, but also the progress made by the It was first published by Eniu L. Bltanu in a
debate around womens emancipation. journal with the main objective the
Secondly, they tried to change the educational enlightenment of the nation (Lumina 1886, 26).
system by enlarging the opportunities of getting The text was republished as a brochure few
into the system of institutionalized schools. They years later, in 1898. The initiative belonged to
also try to change it through the subject matters V. Gr. Borgovanu, a pedagogue who published a
taught in Romanian schools. critical edition and who stressed the utility of the
As a result of these efforts, a new educa- text for educating the future teachers
tional model has emerged during the second half (Borgovanu 1898).
of the XIX century. It is a more rationalized one, The change in the childrens education as
a more modern one for several reasons: first, well in what the perception of child in the
because it involves the parents in the process society is concerned is also due to the progresses
and secondly, because by child the elites mean made at a scientific level: in medicine and its
both boys and girls, who must gain an education new branches such as child care, paediatrics as
although, a gender differentiated one. Modern is well as pedagogy. They explain the changing in
also the utility given to this new educational perception toward children although it is not
model: it prepares the future citizens who must clear enough which is the cause and which is the
80
effect (Bidaud 72). The changing of perception change as the educational model is still a
definitely contributed to the development of such compromise between tradition and
new scientific branches as well as the progress modernisation. The school is the institution
of medical sciences influenced shaped the designed for progress it will also be used now
attitude toward children (Ibidem). Romanian for transmitting the nations features together
society does not remain outside these changes with the parents whose duties are also
and progress registered at the scientific level. D. subordinated to the States efforts for
Cantemirs book is a good example in this sense modernization.
as well as the pedagogy books which were quite
numerous (see for instance Brnuiu 1870). References
There is a chronological gap between
Western and Romanian societies in the Papers in periodical journals:
perception of child, indeed. In West, for Fodor Fodor Georgeta, Astras
instance, from around the middle of the eighteen 2012 b. Involvement in the Debate
century there emerged a new perception which Concerning the Necessity of
attached greater importance to the young child Educating the Romanian Women, in
aged between three and seven (Luc 1990, 69). Studia Universitatis Petru Maior.
Romanian society will try to recover this gap, Series Historia, 1, 2012, p. 24.
fact proven by the literature published during the Fodor Fodor, Georgeta, Romanian Women
second half of the nineteenth century and by the 2013 in the New Economic Context of the
effort made by authorities in order to increase 20th century, in Annales
the parents level of consciousness towards child Universitatis Apulensis. Series
care and education. historica, 17/I, 2013 (under print).
We should not exaggerate though: the Lung Ecaterina Lung, Imaginea familiei
progress made by Romanian society in order to 2006 ntre realitate i utopie n opera lui
create more careful parents and more educated Antim Ivireaunul [The Image of the
children has its limits. These are given by Family between Reality and Utopia
several motives: the limited access to the Reflected in Antim Ivireanuls
institutionalized educational system; the great Work], in Revista Istoric, Tom
level of illiteracy within the Romanians which XVII, No. 5-6, 2006.
turned into an obstacle against the process for Bidaud Bidaud A., Lenfant nouveau est
decreasing it. It is also a question of mentality, 1985 arriv? In Espaces Temps, 31-32,
of a certain opposition against allowing the 1985. Lenfant nexiste pas.
children to go to school. This fact is proven by Approche dune condition humaine,
the content of the books addressing to parents, as pp. 69-77. Source: http://www.
the one written by V. Gr. Borgovanu. It is also persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/
explained through the texts which stress the article/espat_0339_3267_1985_num
importance of educating the girls as they will _31_1_3289
turn into mothers. Lumina Lumina pentru toi. Revista ilustrat
But the texts we had analyzed so far, and 1886 de enciclopedie i de pedagogie
it was just a selection that we did, prove another pentru luminarea poporului, No. 10,
important fact: Romanian intellectuals had a 1-31 January, Bucureti, 1886.
deep concern for preserving the traditional Luc Luc, Jean-Nol, Une tape
values of the nation. This explains the important 1990 importante dans la valorisation de
role played by religion and morality in lenfance: la dcouverte du jeune
childrens education. Religion is still an enfant aux XVe et XIXe sicles. In
important feature in the Romanian society Enfance. Tome 43 n 1-2, 1990, 69-
during the XIX century and it still has a great 73. Source:http://www.persee.fr/
influence on the parents-children relations. It web/revues/home/prescript/article/
also explain the deep interest in giving the girls, enfant_0013-7545_1990_num_43_
in the first place, a moral education in order to 1_1917
make sure that the family will not be endangered
by modernity. As a result of their interest in the Books:
nations progress which could be achieved only Brnuiu Brnuiu, S., Pedagogia
through education we are the witnesses of a new 1870 [Pedagogy], Iai, Tipariulu
educational model as well as of a new Tribunei Romne, 1870.
perception on the child. It is not a revolutionary Borgovanu Borgovanu V. Gr., I. H.
81
1898 Pestalozzi, Cum i nva Stefanelli Stefanelli T., nvetur
Gertruda copiii [How Ger- 1887 cretineasc a Bisericei
trude Teaches Her Ortodoxe pentru coalele
Children] (translated by E. Superioare de Fete.
Blteanu), Bucuresci, Mod. Propus n Istoria i
Gr. Luis Typography, 1898. parabole din T. V. i N.
Borgovanu Borgovanu V. Gr., Ionel. [Christian teaching of
1904 Principii morale i Orthodox Church for Girl
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82
Multispeed Modernization in Interwar Romania. On Decadence and
Complexes of a Peripheral Province Norhtern Moldavia
Anca FILIPOVICI
PhD in History, Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
E-mail: anca.filipovici@yahoo.com
Abstract. Romanian culture faced over time its own decadences manifested as cultures of negation.
Nor the Romanian interwar was protected by the shadow of decline, despite of the todays perception on
the period as one of absolute glory. The feeling of decline is felt especially at the periphery and is
manifested on economic and political level, but also through the voices of some provincial intellectuals,
creators and animators of the local culture. In Moldavia, the phenomenon is associated to a specific
notion borrowed from the Italian culture: Moldavian crepuscularism as a specific form of decadentism.
In other words, we refer to the condition of minority allocated to peripheral regions, generating a
provincial complex expressed in the context of excessive centralization imposed from Bucharest on all
levels of social life.
Decadence is a gift of modernity, says and animators of a local culture (1). In Moldavia,
Pierre Chaunu in his exegetical journey through the phenomenon is associated to a specific
periods of decline over time (Chaunu 1995, 52). notion borrowed from the Italian culture:
A gift that history does not receive with open Moldavian crepuscularism as a specific form
arms, for this phenomena of nostalgia occurs of decadentism (Mitchievici 2011, 27). In other
during a decline or disequilibrium, as a words, we refer to the condition of cultural
transition from progress to regress. We consider minority allocated to peripheral regions,
here two types of antithetical modernity: on the generating a provincial complex expressed in the
one hand, the bourgeois modernity as a phase in context of interwar excessive centralization
the history of Western civilization, linked to the imposed from Bucharest on all levels of social
progress through science and technology and to life.
the transformations of capitalism; on the other 1918 Union reaches an old goal by
hand, we speak about modernity as an aesthetic coagulating the Romanian provinces in a nation-
notion with radical antibourgeois trends, state, doubling the territory and population and
showing an overt disgust to the values of the conferring the possibility of making the
middle class, from anarchist standpoints or from Romanian voice heard on the world stage. From
an aristocratic exile (Clinescu 2005, 52). Such a the national perspective, the gain is undoubtedly
modernity fighting its own crisis gives birth to enormous. Furthermore, the union itself without
avant-gardes and decadences. In terms of a subsequent unification would have been
aesthetic, decadence shows up in the 19th incomplete. Therefore, the tool for this purpose
century, as reverse side of progress. Its was the centralization on political,
manifestation is especially noticed in the administrative, institutional and cultural level.
decadent literature from France. The imposed harmonization often held in a
Romanian culture has also its own tense, that of an antagonistic networking
decadences manifested as cultures of negation. between center (the Capital) and peripheries (the
Nor the Romanian interwar was protected by the provinces). The provincial complex in Moldavia
shadow of decline, despite of the todays
perception on the period as one of absolute
glory. The feeling of decline is felt especially at (1) In Romanian literature, French decadentism is
the periphery and is manifested through the taken at first by translations, then proposing its
voices of some provincial intellectuals, creators own lyric and prose, with an ambiguous impact on
critics that often associate this trend with
symbolism. Main directions of this current
approach themes like artificiality, sickness and
rejection of modernity in a pessimistic note.
83
had though earlier origins, which preceded Capital, whose image described in an article
another union that of 1859 shifting the pole from Intellectual Work Week, at the beginning of
of the political power from Iai to Bucharest. If 1924, seemed not so different from that of a
Iai gradually erodes its fame, yet retaining the provincial town: This city is endless ugly. Look
status of the main city of Moldavia, the northern at all the streets full of some special kind of clay,
part of the region feels increasingly slighted. look to the passengers dirty to their neck in mud,
This status is perpetuated after the 1918 Union, splashed by cars like sprinklers, barely dragging
when northern Moldavia seems incapable of their coats and rubbers. [] Ten times downs
exceeding the condition of the place where the man from the sidewalk to go around a pit
nothing happened. with water gushing up again immediately so as
he doesnt get crushed by a car (Prvulescu
Was there Moldavia once the place where 2003, 112). Paved and lighted streets, wide
everything happened? boulevards, imposing buildings, bohemian cafes
At the turn of the 19th century, Romanian and shiny shops contrast with dirty ugly suburbs.
society begins to take small steps towards Extremely suggestive is the picture described by
modernization, reflected mainly by the process a Berliner photographer in 1939, capturing the
of urbanization. Imposing administrative mlange of West and Orient when crossing
buildings, theaters, schools and other cultural Brtianu Boulevard in Bucharest. Thus, till the
institutions, public roads, streets and gardens Brtianu Market the image seems imported
were built in the central areas of cities, following from America. Not only the skyscrapers, but
the Westerns architectural models, but in a high also the automotive shops, elegant gas stations,
contrast with the shabby homes in the suburbs. hotels, theaters and streets give this impression.
The capital benefits of the most important After crossing the market, this axis cutting
edifices becoming a space of reference for the Bucharest from north to south is dominated by
urban modernization (Georgescu, Velicu 2009, the oriental look. There are also blocks, but the
13). However, the image of a modern Bucharest specific note is provided by the long strings of
with cobbled streets was not to be found in the carpets merchants hang on groove (Prvulescu
provinces where cities changed their appearance 2003, 114). Discrepancies between cities and
in a much slower pace. Marked differences villages, between downtown and suburbs,
between the Capital and provincial towns and between cities and provincial towns sketch a
also between the central part of towns and Romanian society of contrasts on different
suburbs without sewage system or lightning levels.
installation confer the image of a discrepant In the 30s, urban area covered about 20 %
space to the Romanian society of the time. of the population, half of which concentrated in
Undoubtedly, the contrast is even striking the 20 major cities. Along with the development
between urban and rural areas, Romanian of industry, trade, transport and services, the
villages being trapped in an archaic world, influx of people from rural to urban has
undisturbed by modernization. The first signs of contributed massively to the growth of urban
modernization throughout Moldavia occur in population, Bucharest being the most significant
early 19th century, at fairly low level. The data case in this respect. Capital became a complex
provided by researches indicate significant structure controlling and influencing the rest of
differences between the city of Suceava the country. Other urban centers, including the
suffering consequences of the 1775 land provincial towns with 5 000-30 000 inhabitants,
division, or Dorohoi, with an urbanization rate developed institutional structures being the
of 4% and Botoani city with an urbanization proper space for cultural life.
rate of over 30%. The period 1821-1860 seems North-Moldavian cities do not appear
to be prolific for the mountain towns of northern with the intention of acting as complex urban
Moldavia that benefit from the developing of centers, but develop initially as towns at the
mining and wood industry, the level of crossroads of trade routes. Since its formation, in
urbanization exceeding 35%. In contrast, the 15th century, and until the First World War,
between 1860 and 1948, despite all Botoani acquires major industrial and economic
transformations, the average level of the country functions. However, after 1916, the trade
exceeds constantly the level of urbanization in becomes rural and the industry decades, the
Moldavia (Ungureanu 1980, 35). main destabilizing factor being the Capitals
Modernization begins to show its first decision of not connecting the town to the main
signs around the cities, especially in the central railway nodes (Tufescu 1938, 516). Although it
area. The early stage was also common for the appears as an upgrading element for road
84
structure, the development of railways proved cultural activities seem to be the only
unfavorable for Botoani which at this time will mechanism for getting out of the mist of time.
be isolated in a continuing economic downturn.
The landmarks of prestige in this northern corner Provincial cultural production in northern
are signaled by the four coryphaeus: Eminescu, Moldavia, between creative localism and
Iorga, Enescu, Luchian. Their de- crepuscularism
provincialization by leaving the native places for In most cases, provincial identity defines
good and their fame across the country or abroad itself under the spectrum of complexes of
deepened the sense of inertia in postwar periphery and through a negative comparison to
Botoani and also the provincial complex for the decadent center. The background of these
those intellectuals who chose to activate locally, complexes stands in comparing two unequal
especially from the cultural press stage. entities. On the other hand, ascertaining
19th century Dorohoi appears with clean, inferiority doesnt generate complexes
neat suburbs, like a well-kept village (Xenopol automatically, but proves a lucid self-criticism.
1910, 44), while, after the war, the faith of the A source of this state is the awareness of
town seems to follow that of neighboring weakness, the feeling of unreachable giving rise
Botoani, looking as a shabby city which hardly to resentment (Martin 2002, 32). Speaking of
deserves city status, but who apparently starts to Romanian literature as literature at the incipient
wake up, especially by school and intellectual stage, Mircea Martin argues that the provincial
activity (Simionescu 1925, 125). isolation geographical, temporal or linguistic
In Flticeni, town of Baia County, we find determines a series of complexes manifested
the same atmosphere: city buried in quite, naturally (1). Adrian Marino also talked about
forgotten by the world, where the numb souls the Dinicu Golescu complex with reference to
of locals could revive (Ibidem, 134). With a the substantial economic and cultural differences
population, in 1930, of more than 14000 comparing to the West (Ibidem, 20).
inhabitants, the small town remained part of Furthermore, provincialism manifests at
Moldavia province after the annexation of different scales. The role of periphery and center
Bukovina, representing a refuge for Romanians is translated on several levels: from East to
who refused Austrian rule. An agricultural area West, from capital to province, from rural to
with underdeveloped industry, shrouded in a urban, from suburbs to downtown area etc. The
silence favorable for creation, Flticeni was the literature of a province in this case, Moldavian
desirable place for the intellectual formation of province suffers from this load of complexes
personalities like Eugen Lovinescu, Mihail when comparing to the writings from the
Sadoveanu, Arthur Gorovei or Marcel Blecher. Capital.
At the turn of 19th-20th century, Suceava What are the bases on which we plead for
had a modern look, influenced by the Austrian a reading of the peripheral traditional creation
architectural style, but also preserving Romanian thorough the modernist grid of decadentism?
traditions. The city represented a center of The note of decadentism for these writings is
Romanianism in relation to a Czernowitz too translated by asserting own values in tandem
concentrated with the formalism of everyday. with the rejection of what the Capital imposes;
(Ibidem, 242) With a multi-ethnic population denunciation of the Capitals morals; accusing
engaged in agricultural area, Suceava lived in the central literature of promiscuity and
the same numb atmosphere characteristic for ignorance of peripherals. In fact, this is also the
northern Moldavia. However, a very rich slope of sliding (the slipping) of the traditional
cultural activity played an important role within semntorism towards decadentism: promoting
schools and cultural societies. tradition and a healthy rural in antithesis with a
Rdui, Siret, Cmpulung Moldovenesc, decadent, urban, capitalist and aggressive
Gura Humorului look all oppressive and modernity. Decadentism becomes the occasion
decadent. What we generic call as culture was for revealing contrasts and for manifesting a
the string northern Moldavia used for getting out
of the shadow and making its voice heard.
Without holding a university, such as the one (1) Mircea Martin analyses the following literary
from Iai, north-Moldavian area noted through a complexes: the complex of delay; the complex of
discontinuity; the complex of the rural; the
network of secondary schools around which complex of the continuous beginning; the
cultural mobilization of local intellectuals complex of imitation; the complex of the absence
manifested constantly. If slow pace of change of the top names; the complex of the lack of
fully characterizes this provincial corner, audience; the complex in front of the critics.
85
contemplative nostalgia of periphery opposing Any return of the illustrious is always
modernity. perceived with enthusiasm and nostalgia for a
The cultural press and writings in interwar fame surrounding the area which disappears
northern Moldavia follow two main directions: with the completion of the visit. In his memoirs,
some prints cover topics and trend from the the writer Eugen Pohonu, former student of
central media. Other exploit the local, with the Laurian High school from Botoani, remembers
literary tools circumscribed to a delayed a visit of the historian Nicolae Iorga at the
semntorism promoted in interwar period by school he also graduated. After a triumphant
Nicolae Iorga (1). Many works of north- reception, the students remain fascinated by a
Moldavian authors were being published in man perceived beyond genius. The fact that
journals sponsored by Iorga, following the Iorga studied at the same high school intensifies
traditionalistic principles of recovering tradition the mirage, but also the oppressive atmosphere
by invoking the idyllicism of rural life and the after the guests departure: I lived, as a high
glory of the national past, rejecting, in the same school student, the Iorga myth and mirage. For
time, the urban civilization. Perhaps its no our young generation he was more than a
coincidence that the Moldavian novels superman. He was an idol, because a superman,
representative for the crepuscular creation however high he may be, can be reached and
belong to Mihail Sadoveanu (Locul unde nu s-a even surpassed by other. We felt Iorga out of
ntmplat nimic) [The place where nothing any possibility of being outdone by anyone.
happened] and Ionel Teodoreanu (La Medeleni) Impossible of taken as a model, we sat him in
[At Medeleni], de-provincialized Moldavian our soul with extreme admiration (Analele
authors from Iai area. Frescoes of patriarchal Bucovinei 2000, 541).
society, the novels reveal the nostalgia of a The reference to the leading
world unadapt to modernity the peasantry personalities and the desire to overcome the
and of a world that is denied any chance to adapt provincial condition also occur in a note signed
the old nobility. Returning to the northern by the Laurian High school alumni association:
area, Moldavian crepuscularism is shaped on Of course, in the secret chamber of our heart we
several coordinates. worship those who, by the brilliance of their
Going through the press and memoires of culture, adorn the gate of European orient, but,
some intellectuals from this region, we find out turning our eyes around, we dont overlook
that the creators of the province cling often to those who swarm here, in this quite town, as we
the fame of personalities born there, but de- do. [] We are convinced that this proud
provincialized. The fame of the uprooted acute country is not only the work of genius,
the silence remaining behind them and the scientists, wise philosophers and victorious
complex of periphery that gave the world great generals, but is also the result of those who work
names, but failed to remove itself from the with obstinacy, with devotion, supporting the
shadow. Such complexes occur along with state building (Revista Moldovei 1924, 49).
exaggerated reductions or augmentations of Even if the provincial intellectual
proportions. Some articles from the local realizes his importance in the overall process for
interwar press drawing attention to the harsh the evolution of society, the discourse transpires
situation of province begin by invoking the high a certain degree of inferiority, especially when
class personalities originating in the area: what he relates himself to the intellectual from the
city of the Romanian country has a past as Capital. The self-perception of the provincial
glorious as the city of Eminescu? Such a fact intellectual playing the role of a regionalist
should be a source of regeneration for the city writer is depicted by C. D. Fortunescu in an
like Botoani who did not sin at all to be article about the reviews from provinces: If he
forsaken (Drimer 1935, 2). is really an intellectual, not an employer with a
pen he is interested in what it is written also in
Bucharest and in the province, his spirit not
(1) Junimea Moldovei de Nord, Revista Moldovei, being so professionally deformed that he would
Moldova literar, Tudor Pamfile, Revist de consider the Capital the umbilicus mundi of the
limb, literatur i art literar, eztoarea. Romanian mind [] the provincial man of
Revist pentru literatur i tradiiuni populare, letters lets himself less influenced by the
Junimea literar, Ft-Frumos, Freamtul literar,
Muguri, nmuguriri. Revist literar, artistic-
changing patterns and cliques of Bucharest []
social, Vestitorul satelor, Tinerimii. Organ de being more studious, unrushed, capable of
cultur al Societii Tinerimea, ndrumarea, choosing himself and descending into his own
Orion, Pan literar, Iconar etc. soul in search for originality which so many
86
thought to find in the neighbors backyard was also pretty violent, especially when
(Fortunescu 33, 2). expressing the support for the Iron Guard. The
With all this arsenal of more or less program of the movement is edited in 1934 and
objective attributes, the local creator is pleads for regionalism and for the emancipation
subsidiary of the center imposing cultural of Bukovina out of Bucharest publishing houses.
values, and although these values concern him, The authors from Iconar shared their belief that
he cannot influence them, his presence being the province is the only way to salvation of the
either ignored, or treaded with condescendence. ethnic being and the path for rebirth of the
The literature from the periphery is original patterns (Ibidem, 83). Thus in the pages
another coordinate of the Moldavian of the Iconar review from 1935-1937 there are
crepuscularism built around the complexes. creations pursuing the recovery of the provincial
Relevant in this context is the literary review values, but also articles and legionary praises
from Suceava, Ft-Frumos, edited since 1926 signed by local authors and also by writers from
under the leadership of Leca Morariu, one of the the Capital: Radu Gyr, Nae Ionescu, Mircea
most vocal supporters of provinces Eliade, Emil Cioran, Ion Marin, Vasile Moa etc
individuality. Focused on promoting the local (Niculic 2006).
folk creation, the review stigmatized from the Revealing these samples of crepuscular
beginning the mystification of modern creation we do not intend to throw all the
literature feeding the cult of pride and self- provincial writings under the yoke of
worship (Morariu 1926,1). The publication complexes. Without any doubt, masking the
define itself as a weapon of Romanian differences between Capital and peripheries was
authenticity fighting against the snobbery of the the appanage of many local personalities trying
Capital. For instance, in a chronic of an article to create a bridge between northern Moldavia
appeared in ara de Jos, Morariu disagrees one and Bucharest. We must mention here Ion
authors claim that provincial reviews Nistor, historian and unionist militant from
including Ft-Frumos from Suceava try to Bukovina, and George Tofan, editors of Junimea
copy the writing style from Bucharest, without literar. Published since 1904, the review
playing the spirit of the region: They say, for followed the line of semntorism promoting
instance, nothing from the regional folklore in Romanian culture and the awakening of national
the Ft-Frumos of Suceava whose only constant consciousness in the front of the black-yellow
concern is to get closer to the level of Bucharest spirit symbolized by the Austrian rule (Nistor
reviews! [] He should leave us alone, Mister 1923, 1). Since its inception, the review intended
N. N. Vasiliu from Bucharest, with his level [] to create a true literary movement with known
our regionalism [] doesnt need, doesnt need, authors like I.G. Sbiera, Simeon Florea Marian,
doesnt need that mentioned level! (Morariu T.V. Stefanelli, Sextil Pucariu and the youngers
1927, 24-25). Victor Morariu, Gabriel Rotic, Ion Grmad,
Travelling Moldavia towards the Traian Brileanu, Dimitrie Marmeliuc etc. After
Bukovinean counties, we find samples of the war, local intellectuals make efforts to
creative localism conferring other values to the reactivate the publication whose first number
provincial complexes. We refer here to the appears in 1923 with the hope of soul unification
Iconar group, created in 1931 in Rdui and through culture of all inhabitants from
moved five years later in Czernowitz. Iconarism Bukovina. This time, the program added a new
defined itself as Moldavian gothic opposed to goal: We want to be the organ of an intellectual
aesthetics and modernism from Christian-ethic and spiritual connection between periphery and
views and it was generated by a series of center, striving to spread here the Romanian
grievances manifested within a complex of culture and to enrich it with our literary
periphery somehow different from that one of productions (Ibidem, 6). The movement around
the north-Moldavian cities from the Old the liberal Ion Nistor intended to be consistent
Kingdom. After the 1918 Union, the writers with cultural activities from the Capital, while
from Bukovina showed a sense of superiority, the creative localism developed within the
overshadowed by marginalization, by the lack of review was not so touched by the provincial
a well-strengthen Romanian tradition in a multi- complex. Actually, Nistor always rejected the
ethnic space and by the presence of foreigners idea of regionalism, pleading for unification at
perceived as enemies (Diaconu 1999, 21). In all levels and believing that emphasizing the
such an atmosphere, maybe the xenophobic and local values does not express regionalist
anti-Semitic tendencies should not surprise. The tendencies.
language practiced by this literary movement
87
The problem of the provincial complex lifting the marginalized provinces by means of
and the efforts for overcoming this statute was culture. For this reason, local dictionaries and
also frequently approached by the liberal monographs promotes its intellectuality often
newspaper Glasul Bucovinei, although the paper apologetic, while, at the center, local creation is
always rejected any claims of regionalism, reviewed with condescendence. This is just one
promoting integration and unification. From the pillar explaining that modernization and
cultural stand point, Glasul Bucovinei unification had different speeds within the same
encouraged local culture, advocating for the borders and that for every gain there is always a
asserting of a new provincial literature that reverse.
couldnt pierce the shadow: Its true, our young
writers work much, perhaps more than they References
work in other annexed provinces, but the result
of their labor is not known. [] With so many Papers in periodical journals:
writers, and some real talented ones, real Analele Analele Bucovinei [Bukovinas
encyclopedic spirits, we cannot remain without a Bucovinei Annals], VII, no. 2, 2000.
real literature (Putneanu 1933, 3). 2000
In a review on a poetry anthology, the Drimer Drimer, Carol, Weimarul
writer George Drumur from northern Moldavia 1935 culturii romneti [Weimar of
praises poetry in this corner of the country, but Romanian Culture]. In tirea
blaming the attitude of various failed critics, [The News], VII, no. 266, 1935.
housed at the mercy of various publishers from Drumur Drumur, George, Cronici
Bucharest which print lately a fantastic scrap 1934 literare [Literary Chronicles].
(Drumur 1934, 2). We see here two paradoxical In Glasul Bucovinei [The Voice
attitudes: the assertion of superiority in relation of Bukovina], XVII, no. 4263,
to the center dealing with a complex generated 1934.
by ignorance and unfounded critics. The Fortunescu Fortunescu, C. D., Reviste de
explanation of an erroneous reception of the 1933 provincie [Provincial
creation from this province is taught to be Reviews]. In Provincia literar
conferred by the unique regional identity: [Literary Province], I, no. 4-5,
northern affinities in Bukovina form the 1933.
border point between Orientalism, Byzantine in Morariu Morariu Leca, Poliie literar!
shape, Oltenia and Muntenia. Hence the 1926 [Literary Police!]. In Ft-
repugnance for everything that is Bukovina Frumos [Prince Charming] I,
which indicates that the millennial dream of no. 1, 1926.
union is more territorial (Ibidem). Morariu Regionalism i capitalism
1927 [Regionalism and Capitalism].
Conclusions In Ft-Frumos [Prince
An overview on interwar north-Moldavian Charming] II, no. 3, 1927.
creation reveals undoubtedly its minor character. Nistor 1923 Nistor, I., Dup nou ani de
Intellectual production in the province limits zile [After Nine Years]. In
itself especially to the literary or opinion press. Junimea Literar, XII, no. 1-2,
Press enjoys constant attention from about 60 1923.
names who sign constantly in the interwar Putneanu Putneanu, Aurel, Simple
decades. The following area for north- 1933 prezumii [Simple
Moldavian creators is lyrics and prose, although Assumptions]. In Glasul
the relevance of these writings according to the Bucovinei [The Voice of
literary criticism is not that high: out of 121 Bukovina], XVI, no. 4045,
creators we have counted only 50 appear in main 1933.
Romanian anthologies, while the other 71 are Revista Revista Moldovei [Review of
listed only in local or regional dictionaries Moldovei Moldavia] IV, no. 3-4-5, 1924.
(Filipovici 2012, manuscript). 1924
Romanian literature and science is Tufescu Tufescu, Victor, Ora n
propelled by the work of great creators who 1938 declin: Botoanii [A City in
manage to become landmarks of the national Decline: Botoani]. In
culture. Creative localism, in its crepuscular Sociologie romneasc
note, contributes to strengthening this culture, [Romanian Sociology] III, no.
especially by constructing a local identity and 10-12, 1938.
88
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[G. Clinescu and the Early 20th Century], Trgovite,
Complexes of the Romanian Cetatea de Scaun, 2009.
Literature], 2nd edition, Piteti,
Paralela 45, 2002. Unpublished thesis:
Mitchievici Mitchievici Angelo, Decaden Filipovici Filipovici Anca,
2011 i decadentism n contextul 2012 Intelectualitatea interbelic din
modernitii romneti i manuscript nordul Moldovei [Interwar
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89
Two Patriarchs in Jerusalem (1927)
Valeria SOROTINEANU
Associate professor, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania
E-mail: valeria.sorostineanu@ulbsibiu.ro
Abstract. The pilgrimage of the first Romanian Patriarch, Miron Cristea, in 1927, to Jerusalem,
exceeded the characteristics of a protocol visit, as it also meant an evaluation of the position of the
Romanian Orthodox Church after 1918. Although it did not benefit from a large scale promotion except
for the detailed account on the pilgrimage published in the Biserica Ortodox Romn [The Romanian
Orthodox Church] periodical its significance was indisputable. The most representative aspects were
those regarding the situation of the Romanian Orthodoxy after the instalment in 1925 of the
Romanian Patriarchy, the involvement of the first Patriarch, Miron Cristea, in promoting an open attitude
of the Orthodox towards the Protestant and Anglican churches as well as a re-evaluation of the traditional
and profound connections to the Eastern Christianity, the latter having constantly benefitted from
Romanian (especially material) support. The pilgrimage to the Holy Land was assessed not only in terms
of personal experience but also through the context in which the Romanian community was expected to
be represented especially in Jerusalem as well as the rest of the Christian communities through a
church and a shelter for Romanian pilgrims. Just as in the case of the Patriarchate of Constantinople on
behalf of which he pleaded against the authoritarian tendencies of Mustafa Kemals Turkish state in
Jerusalem, Miron Cristea advocated for the need that the traditional Eastern Patriarchates should support
in a modern way the Greek cultural superiority in the foundation of the old Byzantium. He argued
however that this should only concern the dogma and not the perpetual affirmation of the importance of
the Greek element at the expense of other Orthodox communities.
90
and we have to be interested in it and cherish it The year 1925 also meant the celebration
even when it passes the borders of Romania. of 1600 years since the First Nicaea Ecumenical
However, precisely in order to manifest itself in Council, and the European Christian Churches,
the above mentioned manner, the Romanian especially the Protestant and the Anglican
Orthodox Church took upon itself a new, more Churches, along with the Orthodox Church, held
active role (Scriban 1924). at London a Congress for the reassessment of
Considered to have been a time of great the importance of the First Ecumenical Council.
achievements, particularly through the This generated a broad ecumenical movement, a
instalment of the Romanian Patriarchy in 1925, noble idea in itself, but especially complicated
the interwar period was one of initiatives on due to the time required to clarify and achieve
behalf of the Romanian Orthodox Church, joint Christian church reunification actions.
among them the efforts to support the traditional Becoming a Patriarch in 1925, Miron Cristea
Eastern Orthodox Patriarchies. This placed the had already initiated fruitful relations with the
former in a significant position, including in its Protestant areas, being the first Romanian
relations with the Patriarchate of Constantinople. hierarch who visited England and the first
We must however mention that the new image, initiator of the ecumenical movement in the
more dynamic, of the Romanian Orthodox Orthodox area.
Church as well as the obvious weakness of some Along with Metropolitan Nicolae Blan of
of the Eastern Patriarchies did not result in the Transylvania also a supporter of this cause -
expected balance. attended or sent delegates to the ecumenical
The years of crisis during the conflict conferences organised since 1920 at Chicago
between Greece and Turkey meant a difficult and Geneva, and followed by the better known
period, not only regarding the two countries, but ones that took place in London and Stockholm
also for them in relation to the Patriarchate of in 1925 (Plmdeal 1987, 47).
Constantinople, this requiring several Besides the debates that took place in
international conferences of which the most London, the Christian congress organised in
important was that organised in Lausanne in Stockholm generated what is now officially
order to clarify the problems, namely territorial, known as the ecumenical movement, and among
between the two countries. At the above the other initiators we must not forget to
mentioned conference, the Romanian Minister mention again the Romanian Patriarch Miron
of Foreign Affairs, I.G. Duca interceded - at Cristea.
Miron Cristeas request and benefiting from the Although pleased with the Romanian
support of the U.K. in favour of the Greeks representatives contributions at these first
claims not to have the Orthodox Patriarchate of ecumenical conferences, Cristea believed that
Constantinople relocated and, as a result, the the Orthodox world should review its discourse
Patriarch Meletios IV officially expressed his about society and, moreover, take a stand against
thanks (Abrudeanu 1929, 315-317). its problems. That is why he answered
Thus, the location of the Patriarchate enthusiastically to the idea of organising an
remained there since the Turks had the situation ecumenical pan-Orthodox council.
under control anyway. The latter also manifested Although in general the Orthodox world
benevolence towards establishing cordial has always appeared to be connected to an
diplomatic relations, including with Romania. immutable tradition, one must say that in the
Besides this context of the conflict taking place context described above the Romanian Orthodox
in Asia Minor between Greece and Turkey, we Church established a number of issues to be
must add that the diminishing of the prestige of discussed and reviewed at a potential
the Patriarchate of Constantinople took place ecumenical Orthodox council: the calendar, the
after the transformation of tsarist Russia into the adaptation of the religious service to the needs
Soviet Union (Petcu 2009, 206). of the churches and the revision of fasting, also
Since in the period of 1917-1925 the the remarriage of widowed priests, the
Patriarchate of Constantinople was in a very reassessment of the relations between all the
vulnerable position and the voice of Russian Orthodox Churches, as well as the emergence of
Orthodoxy had been silenced by the Bolshevik common institutions to serve the cause of
regime, Miron Cristea triggered an action plan Orthodoxy and raising the Orthodox
that sought to impose, instead, the Romanian monasticism to its former glory (Plmdeal
Orthodoxy in supporting the cause of Orthodoxy 1987, 20).
itself at the official level (Plmdeal 1987, 349- Miron Cristeas intentions went however
350). beyond all these plans, significant as they were.
91
A pragmatic nature, he wished that the Council the writing, in 1642 by Petru Movil of Kiev
of Nicaea was celebrated by a new ecumenical of the Orthodox Confession of Faith, in the
council and that the Orthodox Patriarchate of presence of Prince Vasile Lupu and
Constantinople became a representative of the Metropolitan Varlaam, in a time when the
Orthodox faith, following the desire of some Protestant Church wanted to win on its side
national patriarchs, who had declared that they more territories besides Transylvania. At the
wanted to feel the spiritual leaders of a Christian above mentioned celebrations, the Patriarchate
church, without any ethnic, national or political of Constantinople chose only to send delegates,
threats and pressures (Cristea, 1920). while the other Eastern patriarchs, of Alexandria
Despite initial difficulties, between 1923 and of Jerusalem, later expressed their interest in
and 1932, two conferences took place in order to visiting Romania (Abrudeanu 1929, 419-420).
prepare the pan-Orthodox synod. The first took There have also been successful attempts
place in Constantinople in 1923, being convened to establish friendly relations between the
by the Patriarch Meletios IV, and discussed a Patriarchate of Constantinople and two of the
sensitive issue the calendar but without Orthodox churches: one, the Bulgarian Orthodox
reaching an agreement. It was followed in 1930 Church, having been considered schismatic for a
by the conference of Vatopedi/ Athos, which long time, and the other, the Albanian Orthodox
was to prepare the future works of the pan- Church, being a newly founded one. However,
Orthodox synod for which the new patriarch, despite their importance, these contributions did
Photios II, established the year 1932 - but for not receive the expected recognition (Petcu,
various reasons, the council did not take place 2009, 203-204, Dron 1926).
(Petcu 2009, 210-211). Between the visit of Patriarch Damianos
In the same period, the Romanian of Jerusalem in Romania in 1924 and Miron
historian Nicolae Iorga advocated for a real Cristeas pilgrimage to the Holy Land as well
transformation of the Patriarchate into a federal as the Patriarchates of Constantinople, Jerusalem
body, detaching itself at some point - for the and Alexandria, in 1927 the emergence of the
benefit of all the Orthodox Churches - from Romanian Patriarchy was meant to strengthen
what the Greeks were trying to put into practice, the institution through many innovative ideas,
through the Megali Idea: the Great Greece, which however remained at the level of plain
dominating the Balkan Peninsula. debates.
Also departing from an ancient structure Officially travelling to confer the Order of
and benefiting only temporarily from the support the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem to the
of the European Powers, besides being internally Romanian royal family, to some ministers and
divided into royalists and republicans, Greece the Metropolitan-Primate Miron Cristea, the
also failed in its political plan while the Patriarch of Jerusalem considered natural that an
Patriarchate of Constantinople made no efforts eventual Orthodox ecumenical synod should
to modernize its general image. In fact, in his take place in the Holy City, while he did not
pilgrimage to the republican Greece, Miron hide his dissatisfaction with the new British
Cristea observed the tense relations between the authorities in Palestine who sought by means of
political leader E.Venizelos and the Orthodox a commission to oversee the pilgrimages to the
Church, the latter being considered a supporter Holy Land. As a result, Miron Cristea interceded
of the monarchy (Cristea 1927). with the Archbishop of Canterbury for a better
It was in this context that, according to understanding of common problems
Miron Cristea and other interwar Romanian (Plmdeal 1987, 365).
intellectuals that the Romanian Orthodox Following the impressive pilgrimage of
Church needed a patriarch, being the only 154 pilgrims organised by Metropolitan Nicolae
country preserving the metropolitan as the Blan in 1925, the one organised by Miron
highest religious level, although it had the Cristea in 1927 can thus be included in a series
largest number of Orthodox believers, after of personal and official travels of a similar kind.
Russia (Petcu 2009, 405). The main source of information on this
Miron Cristea left on a pilgrimage after pilgrimage is the report that he prepared, at his
officially becoming a patriarch (on January 11, return, for the Romanian Orthodox Church
1925), having participated in Iai at what was Synod.
meant to be a preamble to a synod of the Just as in previous pilgrimages, the visit
Orthodox world. We refer here to the Iai included the traditional stages: leaving from
Celebrations, dedicated not only to the Council Constana harbour to Constantinople, Athens,
of Nicaea in 325 but also to the significance of Alexandria, Cairo, and then Jerusalem. The only
92
regret he expressed was that, because of the lack such as Patriarch Damianos welcome at the
of time, they could not visit the Patriarchate of entrance of the Holy Sepulchre. After the
Antioch (Cristea 1927, Abrudeanu 1929, 443). common service held there by the two
Regarding the first major stop, there is not patriarchs, Miron Cristea expressed his wish to
much to say except mentioning his previously give his thanks for the blessings towards our
expressed sadness regarding the fact that in Motherland and our Church but also for King
Constantinople there were increasingly fewer Ferdinands health, [as he was] seriously ill. At
aspects to remind them that for the followers of the Calvary chapel he performed a memorial
this religion, the city remained the Capital of service for the Romanian heroes in World War I
the Orthodox faith. Arriving there on May 23, as well as for those who had been on pilgrimage
1927, Miron Cristea offered his support to there in 1925 (Ploieteanul 1940).
militant Orthodoxy, expressing - in his talks Another important moment, filled with
with Patriarch Basil the belief that a pan- religious significance, was that of the baptism in
Orthodox movement was desirable and that they the Jordan River, symbolising the conviction of
must strive to stop the Turks from perceiving the sin and the hope in the future. Personally, Miron
Patriarchy as just a representation of the Cristea consecrated with holy water from the
interests of the Greeks (Abrudeanu 1929, 315- Jordan River a number of five icons, which he
317). later sent to the hermitage he had built in his
Athens was considered a special stop in hometown, Toplia. Other important stops
the pilgrimage, although the first part of the visit during the pilgrimage took place in Bethlehem,
was focused on official aspects, including the the Mount of Olives, Bethany, the Dead Sea,
meeting with the President of the Republic, the Jericho and Nazareth, Cana of Galilee, all filled
reunion with the Synod of the Greek Orthodox with biblical meaning related to Jesus life in
Church and the service held in the Cathedral of that part of the world.
Athens. However, these could not compete with Another special moment was the visit to
the manner in which Miron Cristea felt and the Transylvania colony, inhabited by Hebrews
described the moment at the rock of the originated from Romania. Officially, in
Areopagus, where I read - our heads uncovered Jerusalem the diplomatic issues did not prevail,
the speech given by the Apostle Paul to the except for an official meeting with the governor
Athenians (Cristea 1927). of Palestine from which just one diplomatic
The next visit took place at the representative that of Turkey was absent.
Patriarchate of Alexandria, on which the account For the Romanian Patriarch, it was
offers details about Patriarch Meletios kind important to solve three aspects concerning the
welcome, as well as observations about the Patriarchate he was visiting: the relationship
evolution of the Orthodox community there. with the Christian Arab community - on which
Miron Cristea was primarily interested in the he correctly noticed a strong Arab
relations between the Greek community consciousness, the reassessment of the many
dominant not only numerically but also through properties of the Patriarchate that were not
the position it had in the choosing the Patriarch valorised properly, having as a result the
from among its hierarchs and the political accumulation of large debts and, finally,
aspirations of the Arab community - particularly establishing a balance in the relationship they
of the Orthodox one which could not be had with other Christian churches, present at the
ignored. A special role was still played by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in particular with
Copts. Even more so, in the visits performed to the Roman Catholic Church and the Armenian
the Patriarchate school in Ramleh he noticed that or Coptic Church (Cristea 1927).
there were young Syrians among its students But what was the situation of Romanians
(Cristea1927). in Jerusalem? In 1927, the year of the
The last aspects of his journey were rather pilgrimage, their situation was complicated, in
focused on touristic aspects, illustrated by the the sense that the building of a Romanian
photos taken at the Museum of Antiquities in institution in Jerusalem (consisting of a church
Cairo and of course at the pyramids and the and a hostel for pilgrims) was still at the
Sphinx. beginning. The situation was all the sadder, as
In fact, the visit to Alexandria prepared the Romanian donations to support the Holy
Miron Cristea for the most important part of the Places were recognised as significant, due to the
pilgrimage, namely the visit to Jerusalem, where special symbolism Jerusalem had for the
he remained between May 30 and June 4, 1927. Romanian Orthodox. Concerning pilgrimages,
It was associated to some touching moments Romanians started this practice rather late,
93
particularly if one considers the non-clerical Following the first fundraising in 1906,
pilgrims, as monks and nuns were mentioned in the initiators of this project could rent a location
many sources to have been at the Jordan River, for housing Romanian pilgrims and in 1908
Mount Tabor and Jerusalem (Creu 2007, purchase some land for the construction of a
Al.A.Botez 1971). Romanian church (the location of which being
Returning in 1927 to Jerusalem, Miron established in 1912). Patriarch Damianos initial
Cristea noticed that Romanians, despite the consent had been given but the works could not
sacrifices they had made, had no shelter of their start because, according to the legislation of the
own, although they deserved - for everything Ottoman Empire, a request on behalf of the
they did the gratitude of Christianity and Patriarchate of Jerusalem was necessary,
Orthodoxy (Cristea 1927). justifying the need to build a Romanian
The model followed until then in Orthodox church there, followed by an imperial
everything related to pilgrimages was the decree on the matter. In order to perform an
Russian one, pilgrimages being organised in the analysis on the field, the Romanian Orthodox
period 1900-1914 by the Palestinian Church sent to Jerusalem, in April 1914, a
Archaeological Society of St. Petersburg that commission headed by Father Demetrescu,
also built monasteries and shelters for pilgrims along with Dionisie Simionescu, abbot of the
on the route OdessaJaffa, and organised 2 monastery of Sinaia, the architect George Lupu
travels per month (Veniamin 1933). and Theodor Burada (Demetrescu 1914).
In the nineteenth century, there had been a In the same context, around the year 1918,
number of important initiatives of some the priest Florea from Dobrogea and his wife -
clergymen as well as non-clericals, who actually who had decided to spend the rest of their lives
contributed to the foundation for what was to in Jerusalem tried to reunite the entire
become later the Romanian settlement in Romanian community in Jerusalem and rented a
Jerusalem. Among them we could mention: the house with this purpose, one room being
monk Theodor Rosetti and his disciple Irinarh, converted into a chapel (Negoi 1941).
who built a Romanian monastery on Mount In the meanwhile, in 1930, Patriarch
Tabor (1859-1862), and Sister Porfiria from Miron Cristea received the support of the Royal
Rinari, who turned a deserted chapel of the family for a new initiative committee, consisting
Holy Archangels Monastery in the so-called of the two queens - Queen Marie and Queen
Romanian chapel, consecrated in 1926 (Pocitan Helen -, following their pilgrimage to the Holy
1927, 335). Land (Ploieteanul 1940).
A special case was that of Theodor After solving the political and canonical
Burada, Professor at the Conservatory in Iai, formalities, there was still the need to clarify the
and a well-known ethnologist and folklorist, situation of the estate purchased by Theodor
who after the pilgrimage made in 1884 dedicated Burada on behalf of an Arab Christian and
himself to the mission of fundraising in order to which was going to enter into the property of the
build a settlement for the Romanian pilgrims. He Romanian Patriarchy. Regarding this issue,
received help from Queen Elizabeth, who, Miron Cristea, on returning home, convinced the
between 1906 and 1914, supervised the work of Ministry of Religious Affairs to pay the
the initiative committee, whose president she remaining taxes on behalf of the owner of the
was. The committee consisted of the estate. Moreover, as in British Palestine the
Metropolitan-Primate Conon Armescu, the institutions of other states could not own
Metropolitan of Moldova and Suceava, Pimen, properties this right being limited only to
the Sinaia Monastery Archimandrite, Dionisie, citizens, after the payment of remaining debt of
and the architect Ghica-Budeti. The initiative 6633 lei, the priest-vicar of Bucharest, Tit
was supported by the Romanian state through a Simedrea bought the land in question and
grant of 200 000 lei. In the call issued by the donated it to the Patriarchy in 1935.
committee and addressing the Romanian people, Between 1930 and 1935, the issue of the
there was a sentence worth mentioning, Romanian settlement in Jerusalem was
suggesting that the action was meant to unite all advocated by Athanasie Negoi, a young and
efforts, from the oblation of the poor, to the ambitious scholar that had received a fellowship
talent of the rich, as a proof of Christian love of from the Romanian state and who studied
the Romanian people (O biseric romneasc Biblical Studies at the French School of
n Ierusalim din iniiativa Majestei Sale, Archaeology-Biblical Studies. It was he who
Reginei Elisaveta, 1914). provided perhaps the most eloquent and concise
opinion on the disproportion between the
94
donations made by the Romanian to Jerusalem The establishment in Jerusalem of a
and their actual presence there. Thus, Athanasie Romanian consulate, led since 1932 by Marcu
Negoi argued that he had found traces of the Beza represented in its turn more support in this
passage of Romanian pilgrims in Jerusalem only respect, including for the church. Marcu Bezas
at the Archangels Monastery, where one could appointment was worthwhile because although
find Romanian inscriptions on the stone floor of well intended, in general the previous
the cloister yard. An enthusiastic nature, he (honorary) consul, Gherasimos, of Greek
found in Father Gherasim Luca who had nationality, showed neither the feeling nor the
retired to Jerusalem, after a long period of being behaviour necessary to support Romanian
a priest in America a great supporter of the interests (Negoi 1941).
cause. The year 1935 meant a significant change
Together they initiated a committee and in Jerusalem: on August 15, 1935, the
fundraising in Jerusalem as well, their appeal foundation of the Romanian settlement was laid,
addressing all Romanians, including those living gathering representatives of both Patriarchates
in America, where an Orthodox diocese was but later, in 1939, the works were stopped due to
founded in 1934. In order not to create the war.
impression of parallel actions and for a better At the Jordan River, the foundation to the
coordination at least that was the official hermitage St. John the Baptist was laid on
version the Romanian Patriarchy took the March 28, 1935 and the solemn consecration
initiative in 1931 and placed the action under the took place on April 25, the works being
direction of Father C. Constantin Dron (Negoi completed the following year. On this occasion,
1941). 150 pilgrims arrived in the country, among them
Father Gerasim Lucas initiatives went the Bishop of Roman, Lucian Tritean. A solemn
however further: he purchased some land on the moment was that of signing the charter, when,
shore of the Jordan River from a Romanian who alongside clergymen and all pilgrims,
had come from America, Nicolae Zvanciuc, representatives of the Jerusalem Patriarchate
followed by another in Nazareth - in the Hebrew participated unlike in Jerusalem -, after some
colony Afuleia in 1931. Finally, he hesitation. The best period of the monastic
purchased in 1937 an estate- which was community there was that of 1947-1953, when
allegedly on the place of Zacchaeus house the latter was headed by John Jacob the
with an area of 1,500 square meters, all these Romanian (in Romanian, Ioan Iacob Romnul)
being subsequently donated to the Romanian from the wilderness Hozeva, a monk who was
Patriarchy. Moreover, in his will he left all his later canonized as the Father John (Jacob) the
movable and immovable property to the Romanian. As a reaction to what was considered
Romanian Patriarchy (Ploieteanul 1940). to be an unexpected offensive of the Romanian
Disappointed with Patriarch Damianos Orthodoxy, the Patriarchate of Jerusalem agreed
delays regarding the Romanian project, Miron to consecrate the Romanian church in Jerusalem
Cristea sent another delegation to Jerusalem, led but not the one in Jericho. Concerning the efforts
by the Bishop of Hotin, Visarion Puiu, with a to build the church and the Romanian Settlement
totally unexpected mission: the request to in Jerusalem one must mention in addition the
transfer or sell the Holy Archangels Monastery financial contributions of the Bishop of Hotin,
to the Romanian Orthodox Church, request Visarion Puiu, who also undertook a pilgrimage
motivated by the latters ability to provide real to Jerusalem in 1927, and also the special
support to the Orthodox cause at Jerusalem, in support of General Cornel Beza and the use of
the context of the Catholic, Muslim, Coptic and the money obtained from projections of Mount
Protestant claims. The refusal quite predictable Athos made in the country with a mobile
- was motivated by the fact that the Archangels cinema (Petcu 2010).
Monastery was part of the heritage of the Holy In 1938, the church was finished but its
Sepulchre, or as Athanasie Negoi wrote of consecration and of the entire establishment in
the Greek Heritage. Despite the negative Jerusalem then passed to the care of another
response, Bishop Visarion bought, before patriarch, Nicodim Munteanu, and King Carol
leaving, some land, as the other churches had II. Actually, due to the conflicts between Israel
done, especially the Catholic Church, in and the Arabs in general, only in 1975 Patriarch
Nikeforia, the newest neighbourhood of Justinian Marina could consecrate the Romanian
Jerusalem, an estate originally owned by the church there (Creu 2000).
Patriarchate of Jerusalem. At Jericho, the building of a settlement
considered nowadays for organised pilgrimage
95
was the most delayed and this also because it atives, and demonstrating the ability of the latter
was placed, similarly to the Jordan River, in an to exceed the national recently stabilised (in
area always disputed by Israel and Jordan. In 1918) borders.
that area the Romanian presence was also
known, and there was a Samoil family who References
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[Romanian Orthodox Pilgrims 2007 romneti de la Ierusalim, Ierihon
to the Holy Land] In: i Iordan [Romanian Settlements in
Mitropolia Moldovei i Sucevei Jerusalem, Jericho and Jordan]. In:
(Metropolitan of Moldova and Romnii i ara Sfnt [Romanians
Suceava), XLVII, March-April and the Holy Land], 3rd edition,
(1971), p. 278. Brila, Istros, 2007.
Books: Webpages:
Abrudeanu Abrudeanu, Ion Russu, Creu 2007
1929 Patriarhul Romniei, dr. http://www.crestinortodox.ro/carti-ortodoxe/
Miron Cristea, nalt regent, romanii-tara-sfanta/asezamintele-romanesti-
[Patriarch of Romania, Dr. la-ierusalim-iordan-ierihon-82419.html
Miron Cristea, High regent], (1.10.2013)
Bucureti, Cartea Rom- Demetrescu 1914
neasc, 1929. http://www.crestinortodox.ro/carti-
Cristea Cristea, Miron, Chestiunea ortodoxe/romanii-tara-sfanta/demersuri-
1920 unui nou sinod ecumenic al pentru-biserica-romaneasca-ierusalim-
Bisericii Ortodoxe Rsritene 82415.html (26.9.2013)
i hotrrea Sf. Sinod al Negoi 1941
Bisericii Autocefale Romne, http://www.crestinortodox.ro/carti-
[The Issue a New Ecumenical ortodoxe/romanii-tara-sfanta/locasurile-
Synod of the Eastern Orthodox inchinare-romanesti-la-locurile-sfinte-
Church and The Decision of 82418.html (26.9.2013)
the Holy Synod of the Veniamin 1933
Romanian Autocephalous http://www.crestinortodox.ro/carti-
Church], Bucureti, Imprime- ortodoxe/romanii-tara-sfanta/referatul-
ria Ministerului Cultelor, 1920. comisiei-pentru-dobandirea-unui-camin-
Dron 1926 Dron, C., Amintirea Soborului romanesc-ierusalim-82416.html (26.9.2013)
de la Niceea. Serbrile de la Petcu 2010
Iai, [Remembering the http://ziarullumina.ro/memoria-bisericii/
Council of Nicaea. Cele- asezamantul-romanesc-de-la-ierusalim
brations of Iasi], Iai, (11.10.2013)
Monastery Neamu, 1926.
97
Carlist Propaganda and National Holiday: Restoration and Youths
Day (1938-1940)
Diana-Mihaela PUNOIU
Researcher, PhD, Romanian Academy, C.S. Nicolescu-Plopor
Institute for Studies in Social Sciences and Humanities from Craiova, Romania
Department of Archaeology and History
E-mail: dianamihaelapaunoiu@yahoo.com
Abstract (1). National holidays, Royal Familys celebrations and, generally, any festive
manifestation have been turned, during the regime of authoritarian monarchy of King Carol II (February
10th/11th, 1938- September 6th, 1940), into instruments for official propaganda, with the purpose of
spreading the Carlist ideology among the audience. The ideology was based, in essence, on the principle
of national solidarity and citizens fidelity towards the King Carol II and the new regime, established
through the coupe dtat from February 1938. In this context, the present study reconstructs and analyses
the organization and deployment of one of the most important national holiday during the Carlist regime,
The Youth and Restorations Day, celebrated on June 8th. The investigated archival documents revealed
the inter-dependence between the official propaganda and the staging of the analyzed festive event,
translated into: the concern of the central power to ensure a climate of celebration all over the country,
respecting the pre-established programs, making the speeches held by the central and local authorities or
by various personalities of the times, following the pattern of the official speech (that presumed the
apology of the new regime, the praise of the King Carol II etc.) the exacerbation of the personality cult of
King Carol II.
Key words: official propaganda, national holiday, the cult of the Ruler, King Carol II, youth
98
with the time of national rebirth [the Carlist Principalities, 1859 and of all Romanians, 1918,
regime our note] (National Archives, Vlcea, The Day of May 10th Anniversary of
fund Vlcea County Prefecture, file no. 87/1939, Independence Proclamation in 1877 and of the
f. 45). A document relevant for the way the Kingdom 1881/Day of Nation etc.), Royal
central authorities understood to guide the Familys anniversaries (the most important
propaganda actions is the one from August 16th, being October 16th, the birthday of King Carol
1939 representing the instructions that the II), holidays with double significance, national
undersecretary for propaganda has sent to the and religious, (the Heroes Day, national
territorial authorities. You can see below a holiday with variable date, celebrated in the
fragment from that document: [] in the same day with the religious holiday Ascension
future, we will be informed in time of any of the Lord; on August 6th, in the same time
propaganda manifestation that will take place with the religious holiday Transfiguration it
within your county and we will receive the was celebrated, all around the country, The
program and all the details, so we can study victory from Mreti/Day of Romanian
them in detail, in order to intervene under any Glory), the important religious celebrations etc.
way we consider it appropriate, to grant the size (National Archives, Vlcea, fund The National
and importance that the event deserves. [...] Guard of the National Renaissance Front, Vlcea
using the right moment, to be in the middle of County, file No. 1/1939-1940, f. 197). This
them, with all the necessary elements and all calendar was enriched with two holidays
useful material to form a unity in thought, a specific to King Carol IIs reign: The
unity in action and a single ideal of new times Restoration Day (June 8th) and, from 1938, The
(Ibidem, f. 45-45v.). Day of Constitution King Carol II (February
The creation of a powerful propaganda 27th).
mechanism (Scurtu 2001, 260-261, 269-270; All these major festive events were under
Istoria romnilor, vol. VIII, 2003, 396-397) had the monopoly of the central power and
the role to mask the real situation in Romania of transformed into important propagandistic
those times and to inoculate the public mass moments, having the purpose of spreading of the
with the idea that the King Carol II, the creator new regimes ideology and of praising the King
of a new Romania, and his regime enjoyed the Carol II, the saviour of the country and the
total adhesion of the population, ending up in creator of the new Romania.
such a point where even the state spirit of the In this context, our study intends to
population was regulated: The popular reconstruct and analyse the organisation and the
Enthusiasm was deployed after a rigorous deployment of one of the most important
scenario conceived by the Ministry of the national holiday during the Carlist regime, The
National Propaganda, created on October 3rd, Restoration Day (1). The archival documents
1939. The ministry sent instructions regarding
the materials that were about to be published on
the occasion of some anniversaries and kings (1) The first two festivities dedicated to The Day of
visits, of his speeches, of what it had to be Restoration that symbolized the arrival, on June
written about the sovereigns way of life: all had 8th, 1930, of King Carol II on the Throne of
the purpose of presenting the King Carol II as Romania, were organized, in 1931, by the
the symbol of human virtues [] (Istoria government of national union, presided by
Nicolae Iorga (April 18th, 1931 May 31st, 1932).
romnilor, vol. VIII, 2003, 401-402).
This national holiday started with thanksgivings
Inside this mechanism, the national in Bucharest and in the countys capitals. The
holidays represented one of the main program for the activities in that day, for the
instruments to spread the Carlist ideology entire country, was conceived and executed by the
around population, and also to manifest the institution in charge with the youths education:
popular adhesion towards the new regime and initially The Office for the Education of
towards its main partisan, King Carol II, the Romanian Youth (O.E.T.R.), then the Guardians
epicenter of any festive manifestations. The of the Motherland, after the reorganisation from
image that had to be shaped on these events was December 1938. In Bucharest, the celebration was
one of a disciplined and obedient national deployed on the Cotroceni plateau. The
Presidency of the Ministry Council was the one
community, united around its Ruler.
sending the invitations, received from O.E.T.R. /
The calendar of the Carlist Royal The Guardians of the Motherland, to the officials
Holidays had important and decisive moments that assisted those festivities from the Presidency
for the formation of the modern Romanian state Tribune (Istoria romnilor, vol. VIII, 2003, 303;
(the Day of January 24th Unification of the National Archives, Vlcea, fund The National
99
investigated revealed the inter-dependence and from the town and it will be spoken of the
between the official propaganda and the staging guardian soul in the action of Kinds ascension
of the analysed festive event, translated in: the and strengthening (Guardians of the
concern of the central power to ensure a climate Motherland, 1939, 203-207).
of celebration all over the country, respecting The Week of the Guardians was
the pre-established programs, making the completed with the day of June 8th, when The
speeches held by the central and local authorities Great Holiday of Youth and Restoration was
or by various personalities of the times, celebrated. In that day, the guardians
following the pattern of the official speech (that everywhere lift an altar of praise to the Great
presumed the apology of the new regime, the Protector and Ruler of our national destinies
praise of the King Carol II etc.) the exacerbation [our underline] and the entire manifestation
of the personality cult of King Carol II. was made in a frame of imposing greatness
The day of June 8th received a double (Ibidem, 182).
signification, celebrating the Youth and The general scenario for the day of June
Restoration Day, spreading this way the idea 8th had 3 main stages: In the morning, reviews of
that the reign of King Carol II represented the the guardians units, the ceremony of raising the
future of the country. This was underlined also national flag, demonstrations of sport, choirs and
in the times press. In the newspaper The national dances took place; in the afternoon
National Conscience from 1938, it was open air sportive activities, and in the evening,
underlined the fact that the celebration of the retreat with torches and camp fires (Ibidem,
Restoration The Day of Romanian Kind in 208).
Craiova had made a powerful impression on The Week of the Guardians and The
population, the gush of enthusiasm coming Great Holiday of Youth and Restoration
from ebullience of hot love, of uncontained symbolized the main ideas of the new regimes
patriotic expansion of the youth enlisted with doctrine; considered as indispensable for
such divine goodwill in the white army of the forming the young people, the future citizens of
guardian, and from the fact that all this Romania, the ones that had to ensure the
precious holy devotion, of heroism in continuous persistence of the new regime, in the conception
and overwhelming ebullition is for Him, for the of Carlists protagonists.
Voivode of National Culture, King Carol II The pattern for organizing the day of
(The National Conscience, year XIV, no. 1-2, June 8th was similar with the ones of the great
June 28th, 1938). national holidays, with the difference that there
The holiday of Youth and Restoration was also organized major deployment of
(June 8th) was preceded by the Week of the troops of the guardians that were prepared
Guardians (June 1st-7th), and it was considered intensely for that day.
to be the concretization of the work in a Therefore, on May 6th, 1938, the Ministry
guardians year. Every day was dedicated to a of Interior sent a notice to the prefects of the
specific problem, that had to be lived intensely, counties, with instructions for celebration of the
in all its characteristic aspects, as follows: June day of June 8th, dedicated to H.M.S. King Carol
1st was Day dedicate to the town, when the II, The Great Guardian of our Kind and for
guardians did voluntary work for the use of the arranging the competitions between towns and
community they belong to; June 2nd Day counties during May.
dedicated to Church and family; June 3rd Day According to those, all prefects had to call
dedicated to nature and health; June 4th Day in, urgently, the committee for preparation and
dedicated to guardians solidarity; June 5th organisation of the established program for the
Day dedicated to the preparation for the major day of June 8th, formed out of the commander of
celebrations from June 8th, when the last the legion and of a representative of the local
rehearsals for the celebrations from June 8th took administration, police, health service, church,
place, in the presence of the authorities, families school, fire department etc. On the meeting, they
and guardians friends; June 6th Day dedicated had to established, in detail, the exact program
to heroes and great people; June 7th Day and delegate the attributions and responsibilities
dedicated to work and guardian soul, was the so that everything will happen in the most
day when there were highlighted the perfect order, discipline and safety. The people
achievements of the guardians from everywhere had to be selected initially and the ones that did
not inspire confidence had to be removed. This
Guard of the National Renaissance Front Vlcea committee had to gather as often it was needed
County, file no. 1/1939 1940, f. 197). in order to be informed on the status of
100
preparations (National Archives, Olt, fund Olt in the ceremony practiced by the youth in the
County Prefecture, file No. 23/1938, f. 4). Guardians of the Motherland: the divine service,
The camp fires mentioned in the Bulletin singing the Royal anthem, the prayer Our
of The Guardians of the Motherland (The Father, and the biblical Text, the speech of the
Guardians of the Motherland Bulletin, No. 1- Great Guardian, King Carol II, guardians songs,
2/1938, 83) were to be held only in the towns guardians gymnastic and the march of the
that were countys residency and in the major Guardians of the Motherland. (Istoria romnilor,
cities, where the police supervision could be vol. VIII, 2003, 397). All these had to highlight
ensured (National Archives, Olt, fund Olt the love and devotion for the king and his
County Prefecture, file No. 23/1938, f. 4). regime (Cristea 2011, 171).
Also, while it was considered that the In 1939, the celebration of Restoration
units of guardians were inspired by a spirit of and Youth was held with a special fast all over
discipline and, generally, they could be trusted, the country, being prepared in the smallest detail
the prefects were being asked to make a serious by the Carlist authorities. So, on June 5th,
selection: [] still, to avoid any surprises, undersecretary for propaganda, Eugen Titeanu
please collect checked information over the units (1), was sending to the counties prefects precise
that will travel to Bucharest for the restoration instructions for the decoration of urban and rural
celebrations and in case you have doubts over settlements. These had to be cleaned, decorated
some of them communicate [them] to the with many national flags and in bright colours.
Prefecture of Capital Police, and also to the In the same time, the windows of the shops had
Commandment of the Guardians (Ibidem, f. to be decorated with the portrait of King Carol II
4v.5; National Archives, Vlcea, fund Vlcea and the Great Voievod Mihai, and also with
County Prefecture, file No. 58/1938, f. 11v. guardians materials (National Archives, Olt,
12). fund Olt Countys Prefecture, file No. 62/1939,
Other measures that had to be taken by f. 86).
the prefects, in the territory they ruled over, In the same time, the prefects had to take
aimed to maintain the public order, organise the measures that in those towns and villages where
traffic on the main public streets and check the there was no equipment, radios had to be
stages so nothing could shadow this beautiful installed in such a manner that the special
celebration with any unfortunate incident broadcast of the Radio Bucharest could be heard
(National Archives, Olt, fund Olt County by the entire population (Ibidem).
Prefecture, file no. 23/1938, f. 5). In the same day, the commander of the
With all the safety measures that National Guard of the National Renaissance
authorities took The Day of Youth and Front gave the local Guard units instructions to
Restoration in 1938 was shadowed because of participate at the Restoration Day: 1) Where the
atmospheric conditions. The festivities, local authorities have organized the celebration,
deployed partially for two hours, were you will fit in their program, participating with
postponed for the next day. Nevertheless, the the entire formation (those in uniform and those
delegations that came from overseas were without uniform). 2) In the cities (countys
impressed by the kids discipline under the rain capitals) where the authorities will not organize
(Carol II, vol. I, 249). anything, you will take the initiative of
Restarted on June 9th, The Day of Rain officiating a Thanksgiving, inviting the
and Welfare Restoration, as it was named by authorities. In both cases, the local formation of
Eugen Titeanu, undersecretary for propaganda, the N[ational] G[uard] will march [our
finished in a real holiday atmosphere. The King underline]. In the same day, you will send on
wrote in his journal the following: Yesterdays behalf of the National Guard from that county,
celebration continues today with all the glamour. an homage telegram to H.M.S. the King
The program is executed wonderful, all as good (National Archives, Vlcea, fund National
as possible. The boys have made great progress, Guard of the national Renaissance Front Vlcea
almost reaching the perfection of the girls. [] County, file No. 4/1939-1940, f. 29).
The march is to be compared with the Armys
best. Excellent are the guardians bands;
(1) On May 27th, 1939, Eugen Titeanu and Nissa
bagpipes raise many applauses (Ibidem, 491,
Cmreanu, the commander of girls guardians
250). units arrived in Craiova to do an inspection for the
The pre-established program of the day of June 8th (National Archives, Dolj, fund
manifestation from the A.N.E.F. stadium in Royal Residency of Olt County, Administrative
Bucharest had the following stages, identifiable Service, file No. 28/1939, f. 108).
101
On May 24th, 1939, The Royal Aeronautic very big soul satisfaction (Carol II, vol. I, 2003,
Federation of Romania sent a notice to 259).
representatives of the central power in the field, Also, in the rest of the country, according
informing that during the celebrations of the to pre-established programs, altars of praise to
Restoration from June 8th, the federation will the King Carol II were raised. For example, in
organize an air race called The 2nd Great Prize Olt County, celebration of June 8th took place
of Tourism Aviation King Carol II that will with special fast. In Craiova, in the afternoon,
connect in flight, using tourism airplanes, the after the morning festivities from the towns
countrys provinces with the capital, symbolizing stadium, there were national games played by
this way the durable and permanent connections the guardians from the town, two football
that unite the entire country around the Throne matches and the taking down of the national flag
[our underline] (National Archives, Dolj, fund (National Archives, Dolj, fund Royal Residency
The Royal Residency of Olt County, of Olt County, Administrative Service, file No.
Administrative Service, file No. 53/1939, f. 28/1939, f. 38, 4040v.).
200). In the evening, at 21:00 hours, there was
This is why, in the cities where the planes the retreat with torches in the square of the
were taking off to Bucharest, necessary residential palace, forming the closing formation
measures had to be imposed so that the action of the Week of the Guardians. With this
could develop in special conditions, with the opportunity, His Excellency Mister Royal
participation of authorities, army and students. Resident spoke from the balcony of the
Also, it was suggested that a representative gift Residential palace, presenting an homage to
from that respective province could be offered to H.M.S. King Carol II and to the Great Voievod
the pilot (a bouquet of flowers, a sheaf of wheat of Alba Iulia, Mihai, thanking the guardians and
etc.), to be brought to Bucharest as an homage their commanders for all the work they did and
from that region (National Archives, Olt, fund for the beautiful success of the national holiday
Romanai Countys Prefecture, file No. 46/1939, of June 8th (Ibidem, 40v.).
f. 85). According to the report made by the
In Bucharest, the festivities started with colonel Romulus Dimitriu, the prefect of Dolj
the traditional celebration of youth on the county, during the entire of guardians
A.N.E.F stadium, in the presence of military, celebrations there was a good mood and an
religious and civil authorities, foreign indescribable enthusiasm, the thoughts of
delegations from Greece, Germany, France, everyone, from small to big, being directed
Poland, Portugal, Italy and Spain (Carol II, vol deeply grateful towards H.M.S. King Carol II,
I, 2003, 258259; Buhman, 2006, 471). The Great Guardian, the ruler of Great
The celebration program of the Guardians Romanias destiny and maker of all national
of the Motherland, deployed between 8th and hopes and aspirations (National Archives, Dolj,
13th, had 3 stages. In the first stage, the fund Dolj Countys Prefecture, Administrative
guardians were aligned on the stadium, the King Service, file no.3/1939, p.8)
arrived, and a review of the guardians units was In the day of June 8th, great day for
executed together with the religious service and Romanian kind, Drgani city from Vlcea
the ceremony for raising the national flag. In the county was decorated with tricolours flags, with
second stage, gymnastic demonstrations and portraits of King Carol II and the Great Voivode
national dances of the guardians Legions from of Alba Iulia, national carpets, flowers and
Bucharest took place. In the last stage, there was grass, and the public from small to big gave this
the guardians march lasting an hour holiday a special attention, taking part briskly at
(S.A.N.I.C., fund Presidency of Ministry the manifestations organized by the guardians
Council Ceremony, file No. 287/1939, f. 214). units and by the entire mechanism of police and
After the youths celebration on the stadium, it Administrative authorities (National Archives,
followed the dinner at the Royal Palace and, in Vlcea, fund Vlcea Countys Prefecture, file
the evening, the reception given by Teofil No. 84/1939, f. 29).
Sidorovici at the Military Centre (Buhman, The priest Gh. Sachelarie, in the speech he
2006, p. 471). held during the ceremony for raising the national
King Carol II wrote in his journal the flag, has underlined the fact that the day of June
following: The Guardians celebrations were 8th is the day of Romanian solidarity, and the
very successful and made a great impression on National Renaissance Front is the organism in
the foreigners. [] Seeing this strengthening of which all the Romanians energies have to
the movement for youths education was a very, gather (Ibidem).
102
The national holiday ended, in the Country, a liberty of progress making discipline.
Drgani city, at 23:00 hours, when the The rhythm of future Romania will have to be
spectators remained deeply touched by the the one of faith that will be infused to you [the
mentioning of the highest moments and living guardians authors note]. [...] I wish that these
memory of our ancestors and of our kind and all words go beyond their margins, as wide as they
that, with an indescribable enthusiasm for could be of the organisation [The Guard of the
participating at the celebration of the highest day Motherland authors note] and be seeded
of June 8th, day of start and straightening of deeply in the soul of every Motherland lovers.
rebirth of the Country and Romanian kind [our The beliefs and sayings of the guardians will
underline] (Ibidem, p. 28v.). become the beliefs and sayings of my entire
Petre P. Popescu, the commander of the people. A true moral cannot be chained inside a
guardians stole from the city of Govora, Vlcea small number of souls; it has to be spread in the
county, showed in his speech that the day of subconscious of every one for the good of a
June 8th means for all Romanians, the day in Romanian Romania [our underline] (Negulescu,
which we praise the King H.M.S. Carol II, 1938, 37-39).
protector of the entire Romanian nation and
specially the guardians, of whom he is the This speech was considered by the
supreme commander and who he loves with all theorists of the regime as underlining the
the warmth of his heart (Ibidem, p. 31). essential points of doctrine of national
According to the report regarding the reconstruction (Ibidem, 39), in the name of
deployment of the day of June 8th, done by the which King Carol II started the authoritarian
prefect of Romanai County, M. A. Dobriceanu, regime.
the manifestation was grandiose, very well In 1940, because of the situation from the
prepared, took place in order and punctuality, international stage, the Restoration festivities
generating enthusiasm for the public []. have been organized with less fast than in the
Thanks to those beautiful achievements of these previous year, although, in this year, there would
manifestations of guardian youth, the day of have been 10 years of King Carols II ruling.
June 8th remained in the soul of citizens as the Nevertheless, the youngsters prepared
greatest National day (National Archives, Olt, intensively for the Day of Youth and
fund Romanai Countys Prefecture, file No. Restoration. In March 1940, the Ministry of
46/1939. f. 106). National Education sent to the authorities under
Besides the eulogies brought to King their control instructions so that the celebrations
Carol II, the speech of the third Romanian to take place with special fast. Taking into
monarch from June 8th, 1939 synthesized the account that the preparations and all preventive
socio-cultural and political standards, necessary measures must be taken care of in time, we ask
for the new model of citizen. Below is a you to make it clear to the secondary and
fragment from the respective speech: industrial schools in your County that during
[...] The Guardians mentioned in their March, April and May 1940, the classes for
creed the primate of work, the primate of sport and music will be used to prepare the
prosperity through all that is healthy in our demonstration programs and guardian songs
people. In the soul of every guardian nowadays (National Archives, Dolj, fund Elena Cuza
had to be implanted the saying that all individual Highschool Craiova, file No. 1/1939-1940, f.
accomplishments are for general use. The merit 262).
of everyone is an addition to the progress of the Also, the school doctors had to start a
Romanian national entity. In this lies our moral detailed examination of the students for a more
power: individuality inside the community. This exigent physically selection, and, if necessary,
is the true constructive nationalism; this is the those who might not support eventual
warrant of our progress. [...] We do not make difficulties of the rehearsals program can be
parades, we shape souls [in the way of creating eliminated from rehearsals prepared for
sentiments, moral features authors note] and participation on the celebrations of day of June
these souls have to be tempered in a creed, this 8th (Ibidem, f. 265).
creed is the real patriotism: gathering all efforts The Kings interdiction for organising
each according to his powers for elevation major festivities on the occasion of the Day of
and straighten the true creative romanianism. Youth and Restoration was provided towards the
[...] A new layout has been given to end of May (urlea, 2006, 147), when youths
Romania, placed on the foundation of work and preparation for the great day was nearly
faith: a new liberty has been given to the complete.
103
On June 5th 1939, the Ministry of Interior beginning of the second decade of glorious
sent a notice to authorities under its control reign, the FRN Guards lay at the feet of the
notifying them that, on June 8th, thanksgivings Throne to mark the priceless devotion for their
will be officiated in the entire country where all Sovereign, of whos thoughts and desires they
civil and military authorities had to assist. fulfill for the good of the Motherland
Therefore, the schools, civil and military (Romania, June 12, 1940; urlea, 2006, 147
institutions, including court houses, had to 148).
suspend their activity. Also, the shops, markets, In Craiova, the residence of Olt County,
factories, except the ones working for the army, The Day of Restoration and Youth started at
were closed. National flags had to be displayed 11 with a thanksgiving at the metropolitan
everywhere (National Archives, Vlcea, fund Cathedral, officiated by the mitropolit of
Vlcea Countys Prefecture, file No. 32/1940, f. Oltenia, Nifon, and by a synod of priests, in the
19). presence of all civil and military authorities
The Education and Propaganda from the (National Archives, Dolj, fund Royal Residency
General Commandment of the National Guards of Olt County, Administrative Service, file No.
of F.R.N. sent on June 8th, to the local Guard 38/1940, f. 69).
units, instructions regarding the way of After the end of the divine service, of the
participating at the festivities for the celebration mitropolits speech and the review of the
of ten years of peaceful and prolific reign of company with the flag honour by the royal
King Carol II: Day of June 8th had to be the day resident, the mitropolit along with the
when we dress our soul with purity. We march, commander of the 30th Infantry division and the
with no delay and with all enthusiasm, on the entire assistance went into the park near the
road that His Majesty The King has opened, on mitropoly, where all the guardians from the
the road of duty, that lead towards the town were gathered. The royal resident, Dinu
consolidation of the motherland (National Simian, held a speech about the meaning of the
Archives, Olt, fund National Guard of National June 8th for the Romanian kind (Ibidem).
Renaissance Front Olt County, file No. 27/1940, The official telegram sent to King Carol II
f. 75). Also, all local Guard units had order to by Dinu Simian, on behalf of the entire Oltenian
present telegraphic praises to King Carol II population had the following content: Together
(Ibidem, file No. 39/1940, f. 92v.). with the entire Romanian nation, the Olt County
All over the country, June 8th was presents, in this holy day, its sentiments of deep
celebrated through thanksgivings, marches, respect and wide devotion and asks Your
speeches of the authorities, retreats with torches Majesty to receive the guarantee of the most
etc. keeping, though, a certain sobriety. respectful love, desirous of any sacrifice for the
In Bucharest, a small gathering took place, strengthening of the Country and for Your
at the Royal Palace, in the presence of patriarch Highness satisfaction. May the days to come
and civil and military authorities from the capital will be for Your Majesty the coronation of every
(members of government, royal advisers and the days struggle, to keep Romania from any
commanders of military units from the capital). dangers and raise it to unsuspected heights. May
In the evening of June 8th, the National God All Mighty protect Your Majestys steps
Guard from Bucharest organized an imposing and give you a long and immortal Reign. Long
manifestation in the square of the Royal Palace, live Your Majesty!, Long live His Majesty
the march being watched by the King from the Mihai, the Great Voievod of Alba Iulia!, Long
palaces balcony (National Archives, Olt, fund Live Romania! (The Official Bulletin of Olt
The National Guard of the National Renaissance County, year III, no. 12, June 15, 1940, p. 42).
Front Olt County, file No. 27/1940, f. 80). At 12 oclock, the march of the band and
On the occasion of ten years of reign, a the guardians started in the Unification Square,
delegation from the National Guard of the and, at the end, the guardians sang the royal
National Renaissance Front, led by general Petre anthem and two guardians songs. The festivities
Georgescu, presented the King Carol II the ended at 13:00 hours. In the evening, at 21:00
homage of the National Guards, under the form hours, the retreat with torches took place
of a parchment artistically handcraft, having the (National Archives, Dolj, fund Royal Residency
signatures of all Guards commanders from the of Olt County, Administrative Service, file No.
counties (Ibidem). 37/1940, f. 43 43v.)
The text written on the parchment was the Starting with the afternoon until midnight,
following: June 8th, 1930 June 8th, 1940. the fanfares of Regiments 1 and 6 Dorobani
Homage to H[is] M[ajesty] King Carol II. At the sang in the Unification Square various tunes of
104
national music and marches (Ibidem, file No. The Day of Restoration and Youth
38/1940, f. 69v.). represented, between 1938 and 1940, the
In the rest of the Olt County, June 8th was affirmation of the cult personality of King Carol
celebrated through thanksgivings, with II and the association of youth the citizens of
participation of civil and military authorities, the tomorrow, the new man of Romania with
army, guardians units, pre-militaries, and a the regime enforced on February 10th/11th, 1938.
numerous public. All over the place, the Staging the pre-established holiday programs
ceremonies ended with speeches and marches allowed the display within wide public, of some
in the publics enthusiasm, and in the evening disciplined cores and propagation, of the idea
there was the retreat with torches (Ibidem, file of united nation around the Throne, devoted to
No. 37/1940, f. 43v.). King Carol II and his regime.
From the numerous speeches held in 1940, The monopoly of the central power over
on the occasion of June 8th, we keep the one of the organisation and deployment of the national
the royal resident of Olt County, which holidays deteriorated the initial message of the
constitutes a real homage to his sovereign and anniversary events the one of perpetuation at
his regime. Below is a fragment: Today we the level of collective mentality, of the important
celebrate ten years of reign of H.M.S King Carol moments from Romanias history by exacer-
II. All over Romania, praises to God are being bation, of the Rulers cult materialized in the
raised, that he has seen us worthy to live in these homages to King Carol II and the new regime.
times under the wisest and the most Romanian
leadership that our Kind has ever enjoyed over References
the ages. [...]
Descendent of a noble and great Dynasty Unpublished documents:
[]; Born and raised on Romanian land [], Service of Central Historical National Archives
gifted with superior intelligence was meant by (S.A.N.I.C.), fund The Presidency of
God to be a great Romanian and the most Ministrys Council Ceremonial, file
admired and loved King of Romanians from all No. 287/1939.
times [our underline]. [...] The operas achieved National Archives, Dolj, fund Royal Residency
in this decade cannot be comprised in a speech. of Olt County, Administrative Service,
His Majesty King Carol II was called starting files No. 28/1939, 53/1939, 37/1940,
that moment The Consolidator [our underline]. 38/1940.
[...] This is why, today let us be happy, in Idem, fund Elena Cuza Highschool Craiova,
the way the Christian is happy in front of the file No. 1/19391940.
altar, [], to promise and swear in silence that, Idem, fund Dolj Countys Prefecture,
neither with the word, nor with the thought will Administrative Service, file No. 3/1939.
not disturb now, nor in the future, that we will National Archives, Olt, fund The National
make our life a living example for those to come Guard of the National Renaissance Front
after us: that we love and we will sacrifice for Olt County, file No. 27/1940.
the Kind and King with the same passion with Idem, fund Romanai Countys Prefecture, file
which the King rules and loves his people [] No. 46/1939.
(The official Bulletin of Olt County, year III, Idem, fund Olt Countys Prefecture, files No.:
no. 12, June 15, 1940, p. 40-42). 23/1938, 62/1939.
King Carol II declared itself satisfied with National Archives, Vlcea, fund Vlcea
the fact that he decided not to organize major Countys Prefecture, files No.: 58/1938,
celebrations on the occasion of Restoration, 84/1939, 87/1939, 32/1940.
and also with the fact that so many Idem, fund The National Guard of the National
manifestations of sympathy from all the corners Renaissance Front Vlcea County, files
[of the Country] and from every layers No. 1/1939-1940, 4/1939-1940.
appeared. Also, evaluating the decade of reign,
the king noted the following: Here it came this Press:
day, which means 10 years of reign, 10 years of The Official Bulletin of Olt County, year III,
hard work and never ending worries. I have the no. 12, June 15, 1940.
conscience that I have done all that my powers The Guardians of the Motherland Bulletin, no.
allowed me to do and by the coup dtat from 1-2/1938.
two years ago I have saved the country from The National Conscience, year XIV, no. 1-2,
destruction (Carol II, vol. III, 1998, 196). June 28, 1938.
Romania, 12 June, 1940.
105
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106
Death and the System Perceptions of the Leaders Death in Stalinist
Romania
Mihaela GRANCEA
Professor, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania
E-mail: mihaela_grancea2004@yahoo.com
Abstract. For Marxists, death had a collective signification, an eschatological finality determined
by the cosmology of the social universe. This atheistic alternative to the salvation advanced by universal
religions was realized in and through the mundane world and involved the victory of social space over the
individual, everyones participation to the building of the golden age of global communism, and the
minimization of individual and ordinary (common, banal) death. The social fulfillment of the individual
was the secular equivalent to the salvation promised by religion. Such eschatology completed, in a
fortunate manner as it was believed, the system of continuity through biological reproduction, a
reproduction accomplished in the idyllic environment of the socialist family, seen as the nucleus of
society. The fear of death, seen as physical decomposition and definitive dissolution was compensated by
the belief in the immortality of the human race, in nature and in history, in the perpetuation (in the
collective memory) of the images of individuals who applied (exemplarily) the social communist norm
and who were involved in the accomplishment of the communist project, sometimes with great personal
sacrifices, including their life. Moreover, death as a natural and objective phenomenon was considered a
necessity, because only death made possible the renewal of generations, the emergence of individuals
with new socio-creative abilities; the assumption of this representation was claimed by the process of
individual and collective maturing, by the accomplishment of the communist vision about the world,
history, and society. Communist death, as a variant of democratic death, was a product of discourse, a
segment of ideology, an application of the fraternalist and egalitarian conceptions, a means/occasion to
cultivate solidarities specific to the internationalist and/or national-communist project (the old axiology
that exalted heroism and honor were transformed according to the new intentions of legitimization of a
political project or a representative personality for the egalitarian ideology). Any commemorative
initiative took place (emblematically) under the ideological and discursive patronage of state ethics,
determining the individual to take refuge (at best!) in ritualism, mimicking the acceptance of communist
mythologies, which, in fact, meant only conformism and alienation. This study encompasses several
directions of investigation and analysis: the scenography of communist death, obsequies as founding
elements and manifestations of communist identity, commemoration, communist death as heroic death,
the death of the Enemy, the communist epitaph. Various sources: official documents, the press.
107
faith in the immortality of the human species in attributes (1) and eponyms (doctrinal and
nature and in history (Durand 1985) in the institutional founders) such as Marx, Engels,
perpetuation (in collective memory) of the Lenin, or Stalin. The funerals and
image of individuals who applied (in an commemorations of these founders were
exemplary way) the communist social norm and opportunities of public reinforcements of
were involved in the achievement of the communist axiology. As an example, on the
communist project, sometimes at the expense of occasion of his periodical commemorations,
great personal sacrifices, including even their Lenin was defined as the guide of the
lives. In addition, death as a natural, objective progressing mankind [], founder of the
phenomenon was considered a necessity, as it glorious Communist Bolshevik Party, founder of
was only death that made possible the renewal the first socialist state, the state of the most
of the society, and the emergence of people with accomplished democracy (Chinevschi 1946,
new social and creative skills; this representation 1). In fact, in the years of the building of
was acknowledged in the process of individual socialism, Marx, Engels and Lenin (and until
and collective maturation and the his death and disavowal Stalin as well, as a
accomplishment of the communist ideal of the father of communism) became emblematic
world, history and society. figures of communist ideology and practice.
Communist death as a version of Lenin, as the absolute representative of the
democratic death was a discursive product, a Soviet Union, dominated this period, undergoing
segment of ideology, an application of the a process of abstractization (as any other
fraternalistic and egalitarian concepts, a means / character in fact who represented the motif of
opportunity to cultivate solidarities specific to the eponymic hero). The idealization of Lenins
the international and/or national-communist figure was most significantly occasioned in
project; the old axiology which exalted heroism Romania by the 1949 commemorations of the
and honor was transformed based on the new Soviet leader. In a festive framework at the
legitimating intentions of the political project or Romanian Atheneum, on the 21st of January, in
of a personality representative for egalitarian front of the leaders of the young popular
ideology. republic, they eulogized the genius of the
Any commemorative initiative happened working class and the great teacher of the
emblematically under the ideological and revolutionary proletariat. (These words were to
discursive patronage of state ethics, be promoted by the entire press the following
determining the individual to take refuge in day, and applied, successively, to all future
rituals, mime the acceptance of ceremonies communist leaders). The death of the founding
which, in fact, was nothing else than parent also occasioned the installation of certain
conformism and alienation. corners dedicated to the memory of Lenin (2)
(that is to say, places of memory); more than
Communist funerals as foundation event that, such corners would be dedicated to other
The ideologists of communism, through heroes from various echelons as well:
narratives and ceremonies (secular feasts), international, national, or local. After the
fabricated and circulated the new mythologies elimination of Stalins cult, Lenins monument
and images of communist and messianic heroes in front of the Casa Scnteii in Bucharest went
(set up by mythological motifs such as the soviet on to dominate the space until March 1990,
soldier, the civilizing hero, the illegalist demonstrating that Lenin had kept his status of
communist, the altruistic hero as an expression eponymic hero of communism regardless of
of humanist communism, the hero who has the instabilities of the system, and preserved it
sacrificed himself for the happiness of others) as even in the time of national communism. The
well as that of the Leader with demiurgic Soviet leaders death was transformed into a
founding event of party- and state funerals (Petre
1997, 277), and his corpse became an important
108
symbolic body (1). The fact that after almost according to it, these deaths caused an ocean of
thirty years the ritual was repeated at Stalins pain, because those who left only physically
death (evidently, without the element of the life of the community were the most human
mummification, and with a couple of new details of all people, just like Lenin about whom the
in the script of the funeral ceremony) Russian poet stated in 1924 that he was the
demonstrates that this particular cult form was most human of all humans who have lived on
central to the communist political rites and earth. Adrian Cioroianu thinks however that
constituted the substance of communist Stalins funerals were the primordial model,
funerary anthropology (as a form of symbolic copied at the ceremonies of other natural deaths
legitimacy, then for Stalin and later for other (2). Whether worshipped, hated, or regarded with
communist leaders). It also functioned as a certain detachment by his Romanian
funerary cult which consecrated the pattern of contemporaries, Stalins death marked, at least
heroic communist death in its essence, even if for a few days, the life of the Romanian society.
communist leaders passed away simply as a Taking the risk that it may dilute the subject
result of the trivial manifestation of natural under scrutiny, I will still give some details
death. This approach seemed quite unequivocal, about Stalins funeral, unpublished interviews as
at least from the perspective of the logic of well as information from published sources. The
communism as an inaugural system. The cult of texts I have reproduced in this study display the
the founder / patron / eponymic hero became a ways how the perception of funerary events and
source of political legitimation and infallibility. (most times approximate) chronologies vary,
Lenins mummy was kept in a mausoleum with and how mental cut-outs functioned
a threefold function: a funeral monument, a (determined, of course, by the intellectual and
place of memory functioning as a pilgrimage political background of the informer). The first
site for the Soviets and tourists from socialist account, short and relevant primarily for the
countries, and a tribune for official parades. The manner in which the simple and quite
corporeal immortality of the founder hero uninhibited person perceived the event, indicates
preserved through mummification is however an a certain kind of indifference and affective
abuse of any eschatological initiative. The distance (the witness seems to be bothered
mummified Lenin (functional as a protective more by the Russian cold weather than by the
and ubiquitous figure) was conceived as an funerary event): I did my army service for 3
expression of the perennial communist years, from 1952 to 1955. When Stalin died, we
pantheon, a proof of the systems were sent to Moscow, we even sentinelled at his
indestructibility (the process of building bier. Stalin died in March, it was a frosty winter,
communism was considered an irreversible one, the snow was thick. I remember we wore padded
a Time in time, a Time that would radically coats and caps with ear protectors. There was a
change the course of history), and an essential huge crowd. The funeral wasnt a usual one,
place of collective memory. Lenins image was Stalin was guarded by the army, he was kept at
created by formulas such as father of the Kremlin, and buried at daytime. He didnt
communism (alongside Marx, Engels and really have any family to mourn for him. Stalin
Stalin), a giant of thought and will, Lenin had no parents, wasnt married any longer,
the prototype of the future man. These samples people knew he had a babe in Romanian, the so-
of political liturgy came to be used obsessively, called Lupoaica [She-wolf]; some people
to saturation, any time a communist leader died were sorry for his death, others were happy for
who managed to keep his place in the system it. He was clothed in army clothes, had his
nomenclature until his death, and who by his weapon with him too, his face was uncovered,
image applied the eponymic and eschatological
model. At least this is how things look like from (2) The author compares some sequences of the
the perspective of propaganda. The language of funeral of Gheorghe Gheorghiu Dej with the
obituaries practiced in the Soviet power space canonic ceremony imposed after Stalins death:
became a source of inspiration. Expressions guard at the mournful painting in the office of
from V. Mayakovskys poem Lenin were Dej in the building of the Central Committee,
adapted or even copied in texts in the press guard at the bier, the blazon of the RCP
[Romanian Communist Party] placed higher than
written for the death of other communist leaders;
the blazon of the Republic, the meeting of
mourning at the official tribune in the Piaa
(1) This is a concept used by anthropologist Katherine Republicii, the funeral cortege, and the visiting of
Verdery in relation to the funerals of political the monument in Parcul Libertii. See Cioroianu
leaders, in Verdery, 1999. 2005, 389.
109
he could be seen by anyone. The army carried Stalin, the author of the Red Holocaust, for
him on their shoulders to the bier, that is, the Stalin, the failed seminary student who became a
place where he was buried, the mausoleum. We communist leader and killed thousands of priests
stayed six days in Moscow, until he was buried and leaders of the Orthodox Church on the
(1). There are plenty of complementary territory of the Soviet Union, demolished
testimonies about the Romanian reactions as churches or transformed them into warehouses,
well, at thousands of kilometers away from the silos, recreational areas for the working people
event. A memorial fragment by Dan Ciachir (ballrooms, halls for performances or sports), or,
stands as evidence for the double discourse at best, into museums (only a small part of them,
prevalent in Romania on Stalins death: 4 those for which their age or architectural-artistic
March 1953 Finally. The news that humanity value justified this status). Officially, it was
had been expecting for years, the news for which suggested that collective suffering prevailed.
our people with other peoples condemned to The grief was imposed by the official party
the same suffering had been imploring the press; in fact the only press there was in the
heavens day and night, desperately, with tears of country (2). The Scnteia and other dailies like
blood has arrived. Stalin was hit by the wings Romnia Liber and Contemporanul announced
of death. He is not dead yet, but can be counted national mourning for the days of 69 March.
as dead. () At 8 in the evening, everyone For that period, all radios of the communist
knew: the communiqu on the serious illness of camp only broadcast funeral music. Petre Zoe,
comrade Stalin was broadcast on the radio. referring to this aspect of the funerals, claims
General rejoicing, jubilation, shouting in the that any symphonic music seemed too difficult
families [] In Bucharest, of course, there is and depressing to the culturniks, but since it
official grievance. But the people of Bucharest induced a state of sadness, it was considered
rejoice. Although the selling of alcoholic appropriate for the period of mourning (Petre
beverages was suspended so that people 1997, 272). However, it could have also been the
shouldnt get drunk for happiness I saw on the need for legitimation, for seeking similarities
tram a drunken citizen who could barely stand with state funerals as they were organized in
on his feet. He stank of wine from miles. He got Europe and America ever since the modernity,
off at a bus stop. Our father died, thats all he with all possible solemnity. Articles about Stalin
could say, and bang! fell off the stairs of the were published for a whole week (from the
tram. But he got up quickly and while the tram announcement of the dictators death until 13
was about to leave, the citizen greeted from the March). Among those who wrote the obituaries
middle of the street the vehicle and the crowd on in the name of the Party and the working class,
it with a long and significant Hurray! Nobody there were also Romanian writers who made
said a word, but everybody approved (Pericle compromises with the system and accepted to be
Martinescu apud Ciachir 2008, 5). The context the public voices of communist ideology,
produced other hilarious situations as well, crediting it with the prestige they had gained in
because the 6th of March, when Stalins death the time of inter-war democracy. Mihail
was announced, was also a day of national Sadoveanu, for instance, wrote about The great
celebration for the Romanians (the Petru Groza genius of progressing mankind, G. Clinescu
government was imposed on 6 March 1945, about A gigantic figure of history. Writers
which thus meant the outset of Romanias com- Camil Petrescu, Geo Bogza, Cezar Petrescu,
munization); therefore the authorities were poet Eugen Jebeleanu (in addition to a host of
hesitating should they decorate in celebration official and minor poets), scientists C.I. Parhon
the places of memory of communism or should
they lower the flag at half-mast? The death of (2) The Scnteia, the organ of the Central Committee
the tyrannical Stalin, the oppressor of the of the Romanian Labor Party, announced on the
Russian Orthodox Church, led to confusion also first page, in black frame: Comrade Iosif Vissa-
among the priesthood. Concretely, the priests of rionovich Stalin passed away. Under the title
the Romanian Patriarchy should have had to ring there was the communiqu of Moscow and on the
the bells like for any funeral, they had to do it, right side the photograph of Stalin, with an
and they did it on the indications of Patriarchal unsigned text below it, written in bold: For the
Romanian people, I.V. Stalin is the dear friend,
Vicar Bishop Antim Nica; they rang the bells for
the liberator, the provider, who has opened wide
their way to happiness, helping with parental care
(1) The informer Petre Rdulescu is a 76-year-old to build a new, socialist life. Scnteia, no. 2006
pensioner from Caracal, Olt county, attended (6 March 1953).
seven classes (interview made on 22 June 2007).
110
and Traian Svulescu constructed the image of a where long queues of people dressed in
collective apocalypse with the pathos specific to mourning were paying homage to Stalin. They
wooden language, as if Stalins death had been all walked in silence as it is proper for Christians
a milestone, a fundamental chronological to go to a funeral. Here and there one can see
reference point in the history of humanity. It was participants crying. Some women and children
as if the world existed in two eras, before and shed true tears. On our way back, we see that no
after the death of Stalin; it conveyed the more are seen of these forms of hysteria or
impression that a global existential crisis had perversion of the souls of some by those who,
been unleashed. When Stalins body was laid to regarding themselves as opinion formers, were
rest in the mausoleum near the Kremlin on 9 paid to glorify Stalin. (Oprea 2006, 117-118).
May 1953, 11 oclock in the morning The writer of the memoir, as well as the author
(Moscows time), in Bucharest a meeting of of this paper, finds interesting the opinion of a
mourning was held in the Piaa I.V. Stalin participant (an elderly man) about the way
(today, the Aviators Boulevard), where at that people relate to the death of politicians,
time there was a statue of Stalin (at the entrance therefore to this substitute funeral: You are
to Herstru Parc, which back then was still young, have no life experience, so you probably
called I.V. Stalin Park for Culture and dont know that the people who cry today for
Relaxation). During this while, any activity Stalins death tomorrow may recognize their
halted (in factories and plants, in schools, even naivety. Its not only about Stalin. Generally
circulation stopped). Thousands of seemingly speaking, no tears must be shed on the day a
grievous people participated at the meeting. politician dies, only later, after you find out who
Commemorative speeches were uttered and the this man really was and if he deserves to be
usual gun salute was fired. In Moscow, the mourned
delegation of the Romanian Labor Party took Stalins funerals, regardless of whether he
part at the funerals, led by the three most was worshiped or hated, offered not only a
important people of party and state, Gheorghe- highly ritualistic political scenario copied as any
Gheorghiu Dej (president of the Council of foundational event, but also a memorable event
Ministers), Gheorghe Apostol (First Secretary of which marked the end of an age. This is the
the Party), and Petru Groza (president of the approach of one of the journalists of the time, a
Presidium of the Great National Assembly). participant and witness to Stalins funerals
Although many analysts of the time argued that (Toma, 2004): Stalins death was perceived in
the Romanians were not affected by the death of the communist world which then, in 1953,
Stalin, there are some testimonies to demonstrate comprised a third of the worlds population as
that ideology and Russian influence was still a gigantic cataclysm. It was almost
efficient to some degree, and for some of the incomprehensible for many people. How could
Romanians Stalin had indeed been a paternal He have disappeared, the Leader, the Friend, the
figure: One of the members of the party Teacher of the worlds proletariat, of the Soviet
committee in the factory, a simple man who people, and the peoples of the popular
could barely read, was crying and while his tears democratic countries? How will it be without
were running down his face, he lamented: <Why him? Members of one and the same family,
him, our father, why did he have to die?> (from some were truly grieving. Others, on the
the memoirs of tefnescu, 2005, 42). Apart contrary, sighed relieved. Personally I see no
from the anecdotic, another fragment of reason to hide it I was very impressed. [] A
memoirs catches the essence of the Romanian huge crowd headed to one hall (the Columns
perceptions on the significance of Stalins death: Hall, a.n.) to bid farewell to the great leader. The
Here, lots of people and big fuss (the author, streets were blocked by big military trucks,
graduate of the Faculty of Economic Sciences, ordered <face to face>, only leaving a narrow
was in the faculty building to receive his passage fitting only one, or at most two persons.
graduation diploma, a.n.). Some have gloomy, if Our delegation had the honor to stand guard
not really sad faces, and look as if struck by a twice near the bier, at a distance of six hours
deep pain. Others however, after composing a (this is the delegation led by the political leaders
sad face, and ostentatiously displaying it, lighten of the time, the leaders of the party and the
up when they meet an acquaintance. You can state, a.n.). An endless crowd passed in front of
never tell who experiences truly the graveness of the bier: men, women, soldiers, pupils. Many
the moment when they heard that Stalin exists were weeping, especially women. After the
no longer, and who simulates only this funeral there were rumors that at some passage
experience [] We arrive at the Casa Scnteii, points at the above mentioned barriers so many
111
people gathered in time that the usual police of the Soviet Union on Kiseleff Boulevard,
forces couldnt stand up to them and called the displaying their grief over Stalins death. There
militia cavalry. I found out much later, from a were meetings of mourning everywhere in the
novel of a Soviet writer, what had happened in country, collective and individual letters were
fact. She emphasized the contrast between the sent to the editorial offices of daily newspapers
calm and grave atmosphere of the farewell (5). The editorials, commemorative articles,
ceremony in the Columns Hall and the brutality obituaries, poems (6) kept repeating the same
of the street, where the militia cavalry ran over, words and formulas over and over again as a
beat, crushed with the hooves of their horses the litany, speaking about the genial teachings of
people who came to honor the deceased. The the deceased, about the shining example he
writer saw this horrible contrast as a symbol of embodied (considering that the exemplarity of
the age that was coming to an end. (). It the famous Leader urged the surviving peoples
seemed that both for the Soviets and the other to unity and celebration through Stakhanovite
peoples of the Eastern camp Stalin was the work.)
Patriarch cementing the global empire of Those who definitely exulted on hearing
communism, an eponymic and tutelary figure the news about Stalins death were, no doubt,
(1), a mythological synthesis of a promethean the political prisoners. For them, the news was
epitome and the power of the Fisher King (2). the equivalent of hope and salvation: the earth
The communist press of Romania seemed to be has taken daddy, let the devil have his cursed
overtaken by a delirious pro-Stalinist discourse soul, the prisoners at the Danube Channel kept
over the death of the dictator, the overloaded repeating this, in their anticipation of the
language being the most efficient part of the collapse of the global empire (Crj 1993, 478).
joint action of commemorating the Leader. The Stalins funerals are a generous subject for
regional committees of the Romanian Labor documentaries on malefic characters of 20th-
Party decided the structure of the mourning century totalitarian regimes (see, for instance,
manifestations even in the most insignificant films such as those produced by Discovery
settlements. Moreover, for small towns this was Channel) (7). For us, they offer the chance of
an opportunity to showcase the eager efficiency studying how the witnesses of the
of their local party and state organs (3). commemorative event related to the emotional
Evidently, on the large scale it has been load, real (let us think of phenomena of
attempted to connect consensually to the events emotional contagion) or simulated, during the
in Moscow, where the days of 6-9 March 1953 displays of mourning (meetings) occasioned in
were days of mourning. Therefore, starting with Romania by the funeral of Stalin, a different
the 6th of March, in Bucharest tens of thousands kind of funeral, performed without the physical
of people (4) signed the Register of the Embassy body of the deceased.
In most cases of communist funeral
ceremonies, the death of the Leader meant his
(1) Dej himself glorified Stalin, calling him: The
liberator and beloved father of peoples, our
unforgettable leader and teacher, the genius of the
working people (see the text in Pravda no. 66, society towards celebrations, commemorations
1953, reproduced in the central and local press in and funerals.
Romania, too: Flacra Sibiului, vol. X, no. 2287, (5) See also the letter of Iosif Cioni, the Stakhanovite
Tuesday, 10 March 1953, p. 1. locksmith (Balana factory of Sibiu) or the
(2) Before the time of the great terror when the fear telegram of Ioan Pau (member of the Tractorul
contributed to the sublimation of the dictator, Rou agricultural husbandry of Cristian, Sibiu
Stalin was worshiped as an ancient deity, a god of county). These texts were published in Flacra
fertility. Sibiului, vol. X, no. 2287, Tuesday, 10 March
(3) See in this respect a document issued during the 1953, p. 3.
days of mourning by the RLP Regional (6) See: Tonight the dear light at the familiar
Committee Vlcea (see Raport de Activitate window of the Kremlin, that we got used to
[Activity report] Fond. 17, folder. no. 6, fl. 17. silently watch over us until dawn, didnt light up.
(4) This phrase (tens of thousands), a consecrated We know that tonight the hottest heart ceased to
approximation, was favored in all official beat; a heart that for years, relentlessly, beat with
documents and in the communist press, any time a fathers love. Our face is petrified with pain and
the number of participants to epochal events our gaze is sad and dewy [] takes an Oath to
had to be assessed; this participation had to take the inheritance further. (Avram 1953)
express, to translate, in the language and (7) See such documentaries at: http://documentare.
perception of the age, the positive attitude of the digitalarena.ro
112
leaving the field of the profane and entering the Napoca, Casa Crii de tiin,
space of political mythology. 2007.
Moscovici Moscovici, Serge, Epoca maselor
References 2001 [The age of masses], Iai,
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Papers in periodical journals: Oprea Oprea, Ion M., nsemnri din
Avram Avram, Mircea, O inim a 2006 coala Tcerii [Notes from the
1953 ncetat s bat [A heart has School of Silence], Chiinu, Prut
stopped to beat]. In: Flacra Internaional, 2006.
Sibiului 2288 (1953), p. 4. tefnescu tefnescu, Gheorghe Rafael,
Chinevschi Chinevschi, Iosif, Lenin. In 2005 Amintiri din Romnia socialist
1946 Scnteia, 20 January (1946), [Memories from socialist
Bucureti, p. 1. Romania], Arad, Mirador, 2005.
Ciachir Ciachir, Dan, Moartea lui Toma 2004 Toma, Sorin, Privind napoi.
2008 Stalin, bucuria romnilor? Amintirile unui fost ziarist
[Stalins death, the happiness of [Looking back. Memories of a
Romanians?]. In: Ziua 4182, former journalist], Bucureti,
Thursday (13 martie 2008), p. 5. Compania, 2004.
Verdery Verdery, Katherine, The Political
Books: 1999 Lives of Dead Bodies, New York,
Crj 1993 Crj, Ion, Canalul morii [The Columbia University Press, 1999.
channel of death], Bucureti,
Cartea Romneasc, 1993. Chapters in books:
Cioroianu Cioroianu, Adrian, Pe urmele lui Durand Durand, Guy, Lexprience de la
2005 Marx. O introducere n istoria 1985 mort. In Guy Couturier, Essais sur la
comunismului romnesc [In mort, Montral, Ed. Fides, 1985.
Marxs footsteps. Introduction in Petre Petre, Zoe, Adio, scump tovar!
the history of Romanian 1997 Schi de antropologie funerar
communism], Bucureti, Curtea comunist [Adios, dear comrade! A
Veche, 2005. sketch of communist funerary
Grancea Grancea, Mihaela, Reprezentri anthropology]. In Lucian Boia,
2007 ale morii n Romnia epocii Miturile comunismului romnesc
comuniste. Trei studii de [Myths of Romanian communism],
antropologie funerar [Death vol. II, Bucharest University Press,
Representations during 1997, p. 272-284.
Communist Romania], Cluj-
113
The Soviet Hero-Making Process. Aspects of the Soviet Heroism
Olga GRDINARU
PhD Student, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj, Romania
Comparative Literature Department
E-mail: olgagradinaru@gmail.com
Abstract. The present work is focused on revealing the heroic ingredient in the Soviet prose,
tracing its origin back to the medieval heroic poem The Tale of Igors Campaign, Russian folklore and
continued by Russian writers of the 19th century that brought a change of accent. A conceptual evolution
of the heroic deed (podvig) is provided, as well as the analysis of the most important changes of the
heroic and heroism in the Soviet literature, taking into account the great importance of L. Tolstoys novel
War and Peace and its defining traits, while depicting the Russian national character. The study analyzes
the semantic and representational changes of heroism from L. Tolstoys war prose to revolutionary prose,
civil war prose and prose of the Second World War, highlighting the Soviet hero-making process.
Key words: Soviet heroism, heroic deed, Socialist Realism, Second World War, representation
The Slavic and Russian heroism is not an Heroic deed Conceptual Evolution
issue separated from the Indo-European heroic Before approaching the aspects of the
matters and heroism, since it has been Soviet heroism we must take into consideration
influenced and shaped by both ancient Asian and the specificity of the Russian concept podvig,
European heroic epics and songs. Heroic accents which is usually translated as heroic deed. In
from the Epic of Gilgamesh, passing through his historical-linguistic study, V. V. Vinogradov
Homers epics and the Greek tragedy are to be reveals the meaning changes of the verb
identified in the Slavic heroic epics and Russian podvigat` and podvignut` related to other words
Romantic poetry with patriotic tunes. The from the same family podvizhnik,
Russian pre-revolution writings and the Soviet podvizhnichestvo, podvizhnicheskij, related
times had contributed to some semantic changes words that generated in Russian language terms
of the heroic matters, leaving some ideological like podvizhnicheskaja literatura (translated
and political traces in the literary texts and in the probably closer to its meaning as ascetic
mental perception of the people. Hegelian literature) and podvizhnicheskij geroizm
heroic century gave birth to different (Vinogradov 1989, 253-263). The word comes
perceptions of the hero related to great from Slavic and it is of bookish origin from the
historical personalities, and this is relevant on 11-15th centuries, although the cognate words
the Russian soil, as we have Leninism (and and phrases have usage in the spoken language
leniniada in literature), Stalinist era (and even as well, aspect that contributes to the multitude
Stalinist civilization), Khrushchev era (and of meanings and usage contexts (especially in
Khrushchevs Thaw), Gorbachev era (and his the case of the verb podvizhat`sia and the noun
glasnost` and perestroika). It is obvious that podvig. The author of the study mentions that
despite Marxist conception of the state as an along the 19th century takes place a gradual
instrument of the class rule and despite the extinction of the meanings of the verb favouring
French Annals School vision focused more on the one accepted and used nowadays to come
civilization then on individual role certain to the front in a certain area, to act, to work, fact
personalities of the Soviet Union left their that generated the semantic break between the
personal trace on certain historical periods. The verb and the noun. As for the noun podvig, it
undertaken perspective of this study is situated had a different semantic area, and a clear
rather on a balanced vision between various example of this would be A. S. Pushkins poems
heterogeneous elements of history with an where the noun has the meaning heroic deed,
accent on the literary area. dignified deed with some nuances that are also
gradually forgotten. In order to testify this
perspective, we might say that Slovar`
114
tserkovno-slavjansogo i russkogo jazyka of the possible without the necessary propaganda of
1847 recognizes only one meaning of the related the daily heroic deed, presented in the Soviet
verb realizing an important, difficult task, the product novels with subject from the daily
meaning becoming widely used and being Soviet reality. Making literature and art
related to something great and significant (1847, accessible to the masses was the main aim of the
251). Socialist Realism doctrine and this involved the
Another researcher highlights that the change of the subjects, motives and way of
Russian meaning of the word podvig is oriented representing reality. Refusing the nuances,
toward the change of the negative state of things, Katerina Clark mentions the fact that the
having the echo of the mythical beginnings (and Socialist Realist novel is a case of modal
thus presenting a godly hero) or of the schizophrenia, as it is based on a fatal split:
absoluteness of non-personal mythical figures depicting what is and what ought to be (Clark
(and presenting a diminished role of creative 2000, 36-45). The daily heroic deed from
powers) (Trofimova 2007, 49). Trofimova points product novels coexisted with the literature of
out the main Russian thinkers to approach the revolutionary inspiration and with the literature
subject of the heros podvig N. Mikhailovsky, of the civil war with the revolutionary heroic
P. Lavrov and then developed by S. Bulgakov, deed.
N. Lossky, S. Frank who reflected mostly This dual parentage of the Soviet heroic
Dostoevskys creative influence, concluding that deed (of medieval war origin and daily building
in Russian national conscience the hero is future of revolutionary origin) is the explanation
destined not only for society education, but also for the ambiguous and guileful character of what
for its energy mobilization. The hero and podvig became in the Soviet prose in general
heroism issue is regarded from the Marxist and war prose in particular. Actually, the Soviet
position at the end of the 19th century and the literary discourse took over the form and gave it
beginning of the 20th century. Relevant a new semantic meaning of ideological nature so
approaches to be mentioned are G. Plekhanovs that the result is a concept with strong patriotic
work and A. Lunacharskys study with meaning with different overtones than in the
incorporated revolutionary ideals. The dissonant case of Leo Tolstoy.
note in this context is N. Berdyaevs spiritual- The Soviet Encyclopedia (Bol`shaja
mystical approach on podvig, its trigger and Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija) points out the fact
functioning. N. Karamzin points out the that greatness of the heroic deed is not
importance of being prepared to heroic deed in conferred by the abstract self-sacrifice of
Russian mentality, this fact being linked to the personality, but by its historic international
historical necessity of defending the land content, participation at the progressive
(Karamzin 1980). movement of peoples for the victory of
The category of the heroic deed podvig Communism, which ensures peace, work and
or of the great deed at war has a double liberty to man (1971, 423). The heroic deed of
origin: the epic-historical origin with the climax war times becomes daily, accessible, and
in the realistic prose of L. N. Tolstoy and the peaceful and lacking the original heroism,
revolutionary origin in the 19th century in the brought in the environment of the daily fights
revolutionary writings, especially in the case of and patriotic motivations of a questionable
Chernyshevskys novel What Is to Be Done? exuberance. The transmutation that intervened at
(1863). The latter had a special development the level of war actions is the result of the
later with an ideological connotation. Modifying mental and emotional change of the category of
the meaning of the heroic deed from the new men a transformation like metanoia of
battlefield to the daily peaceful context takes homo sovieticus. The newly formed so-called
place in the period of forming and introducing Soviet people as the main character of the war
the Socialist Realism as the official method, writings is characterized by the heroic deed of
doctrine and manner of representation in the the new type with its new multiple ingredients,
Soviet Union. The daily reality of contributing having its origin in the new
to the construction of the desirable golden Soviet patriotism.
future of communism is characterized by the
daily heroic deed of the simple Soviet worker Introductory Elements
or peasant, being involved in this so-called Speaking about the Slavic context, the
glorious process. The strategy of involving the main source of heroism may be considered The
masses in building something great, Tale of Igors Campaign (claimed to be from the
ideologically speaking, couldnt have been 12th century) along with heroic tales (byliny) of
115
local heroes (bogatyr`) and heroic elements that his great qualities and military capacities. The
pervade the Russian fairy-tales. According to V. patriotic theme is the central one in the literature
Propp the Russian byliny reflect not only of the 19th century in the case of Nekrasov,
historical events, but also peoples ideals over Lermontov, depicting the outstanding heroism of
centuries (Propp 1958, 7). On the folkloric realm the Russian soldier in battle and the heroism of
we talk about military heroism and the heroes the Russian people. Borodino poem brings into
(bogatyri meaning God searcher, defender of the foreground the glorious deeds of the Russian
God of Asian origin or vityaz` meaning soldiers who died in 1812, becoming the symbol
powerful, courageous man probably of of victory in the conscience of the Russian
Sanskrit origin) are warriors, represented people and a source of inspiration for Tolstoy
according to certain literary norms comparable and the battle scenes in War and Peace (1869).
to hagiographical norms. A slight semantic change on the notions of
Igors portrait from the mentioned epic heroic and heroism is brought by Chernyshevsky
poem is built according to the traditions of the and his novel What is to Be Done? (1863), due
epic style of the medieval chronicles, to the suggested directions in the social-political
representing the image of the knyaz` in area and searching of the traits of new men.
superlative tone with highly valued traits. Even Thus, we may talk about heroism in the case of
though the attitude toward the expedition is a fighting against the cultural stereotypes,
critical one, the heroic perspective even in the especially in the case of womans place in
case of Igors death is the one that may be society. Chernyshevskys heroism is of a
considered partly responsible for the later Soviet polemic nature due to doubting the bourgeois
conviction that heroic doesnt admit failures, cultural norms of the 19th century, making place
that there are no defeated dying people, only to other meanings and directions to follow
heroes, and there are no minor deeds at war, ideally and ideologically. This modification that
only great deeds. The character of a symbol of aims to presents another social order is
the hero dying in battle is depicted in this heroic responsible, along with other writings of those
poem with the help of the folkloric elements, times, for a major cultural mutation that made
and of great significance is Jaroslavnas mourn possible the implementation of the socialist
lament. The patriotism is present due to two revolutionary ideas on the Russian soil, the
main devices the greatness of the Russian land Russian Revolution and, together with this, the
(Russia-mother Rus`-matushka) and nature, redefinition of heroism and its proclamation as
and the people represented as being in close national trait for the new Soviet man.
connection with the land so that Russia seems a
living creature, an organism. As for the authors L. Tolstoys Heroic Heritage
intention, it was interpreted later that it exceeded The heroism represented by Leo Tolstoy
the simple presentation of the military campaign not only in War and Peace, but also in
in 1185. The patriotic tones may be the ones to Sevastopol Sketches is connected to the Russian
contribute to the unification of the Slavic tribes, national character, becoming a national feeling
represented as being scattered and tormented by and hidden aspect of patriotism. The main
conflicts, also expressing the ideal of brothers character of Sevastopol Sketches (1855) is,
love (bratoljubie). Trofimova mentions in her according to the author, the truth itself about
article that Russian patriotism is always about the man at war, aspect that, among others,
defending Motherland, but although this may be culminated in Tolstoys supreme artistic
true concerning the two world wars, it cant be achievement in War and Peace. The spiritual
true regarding Igors military campaign and victory in Borodino battle from the mentioned
regarding the Soviet expanding political novel is depicted as part of the patriotic feeling
influence and Russian geographical borders of the Russian people. The individual dimension
(Trofimova 2007, 50). The Soviet return to and the personal deed (that became specific to
medieval times and narratives is not an the Soviet war prose) are lost in the bigger
accidental approach, as the same strategy of picture of a fighting people as united entity
representing Russia as the elder brother and all against the enemy. The fact that Andrei
other republics as smaller sisters was used in the Bolkonskis soldiers continue to fight despite the
Soviet times. lack of food and rest, loosing lives continuously,
The Russian heroism and patriotism of the represents evidence of determination to fight and
later century was represented in the Kulikov full dedication to the cause of Motherland
cycle, especially in The Tale of Mamaev Battle, defence. Accomplishing the duty of citizen and
where the central figure is Dmitry Donskoy and soldier is transformed in heroic deed when
116
people who were of the upper class refused the the totalitarian and chivalrous war by
comfort and protection offered by the social recognizing the human value of the enemy, an
status and, as Bolkonski, got involved on the aspect that not only is not present in the Soviet
battlefield. We have access through Pierre war prose, but it is also replaced by the patterns
Bezukhov to Raevskis heroism and we witness and ideological models of war.
Bezukhovs amazement while losing personal Tolstoys patriotism is, at the same time,
identity in the army that is represented as a related to humanism, an aspect that may be
heroic entity and unity facing danger. attributed to the veracious and plausible
The image of the common man involved character of the classic Russian Realism,
in battle reveals the ideologically unstained distorted later ideologically by the Socialist
patriotism and the power of will and the Russian Realism. The element of affective and patriotic
spirit. Inhabitants leaving their towns, soldiers unity of the man with the people is present in
being united by the desire to see their country at War and Peace especially in case of Pierre
peace, partisans fighting in dangerous operations Bezukhov who realizes that the authentic
against the invaders, soldiers dying on the happiness relies in this merger with the simple
battlefield are as many aspects of a complete people, being part of its destiny. The fate of the
picture of the novel that became as many facets Russian people in a difficult historic period, as
and arguments of the prevailing heroic discourse well as the role of the people in overcoming this
of the Soviet literary critics. situation, is one of the main preoccupations of
The profile of Mikhail Kutuzov, the author, being the reflection of his historical
characterized by the interest for his fighters conception and his convictions regarding the
more than the victory itself, is used as an importance of the people in modeling the
example and a prototype in the prose of the history. In Tolstoys vision, it is not the
Second World War due to this sensibility to historical personalities who play the decisive
soldiers needs and humanism (1). Kutuzov is role at war, but the will and involvement of the
characterized by common traits of the old man people, peoples fighting spirit and unity
and an essential trait popular feeling that fighting the enemy, aspects that contributed to
contributed to a successful recovery of Russian perceiving the novel in the Soviet era as national
territories. This commander is the embodiment epic of the heroic deed of the Russian people in
of the simple Russian man; he appeared to be the 1812.
simple and common man, talking simply and The patriotism of the Russian people is not
doing simple things, urging and encouraging represented by various decisions of the simple
through his closeness toward the people and people facing the attackers, while the patriotic
powerful patriotic feeling. Kutuzov may be feeling is not depicted in superlatives and
regarded as the ideal of the historical personality ideological explanations, but through direct and
and ideal of the Russian man due to this simple words and deeds. The war may be
inclination toward the Russian people and spirit regarded as the supreme test that reveals national
of the army. He himself urges the soldiers to traits and highlights the spiritual strength of the
show mercy for the captures enemies, saying Russian people, offering the status of the victor.
that when the enemies were strong, they needed While many Soviet writers pretended to have
to be defeated, but now they need to be shown written in Tolstoys tradition and many literary
mercy. In Berdyaevs reading this urge is the critics have praised similar attempts, few are
mirror of the Russian peoples superiority, those writers who may truly claim this literary
mentioning the biggest human temptation as the parentage, being given the social and political
temptation of victory and referring to the changes, as well as the instauration of the
paradox of dialectics of power and victory Socialist Realism and its patterns of
(Berdyaev 1993, 306-311). While the victory representation that were bearers of ideological
supposes power and moral power, it can also content.
transform itself easily in violence, destroying the
moral character of power, leading to the central The Russian-Soviet Transition. Brief Analysis
theme of the relationship between spirit and of the Key Soviet Literary Works
power. Berdyaev reveals the difference between The transition and transfer age of Russian
national values on the politically new born
(1) An example would be Vaskov from B. Vasilyevs
Soviet people were made with the help of
The Dawns Here Are Quiet (1972), who supports some important names in shaping the image of
and trains the members of his troop, encouraging the Soviet man M. Gorky, A. Fadeyev, N.
and admonishing equally when it was the case. Ostrovsky, A. Tolstoy are just several names
117
from the literary area to begin with. They while the symbol from the people gained
contributed not only to modifying the role and acceptance and popularity through official
nature of literature on the Soviet ground, but propaganda. The researcher argues that these are
also to building a different type of literary hero the defining mechanism of the Russian wars of
to serve to newly established literary and the 20th century so that the literary characters
ideological goals. became means of re-affirming the social
Before analyzing some literary examples of heroism in the conscience of the
ideologized aspects of the most important Soviet people, transforming real events in symbol.
novels, we must state that most of the novel To begin the brief analysis of the main
subjects were inspired by real events, real people Soviet literary heroic works, we must admit that
and tend to represent the Soviet reality adding a decisive role in establishing the literary and
the structural opposition of ideal events and ideological method of the Socialist Realism was
ideal people and disregarding some aspects of played by M. Gorkys novel entitled Mother
truthfulness and plausibility. In other words, the (1906) where we may find the seeds of the
common men and women were considered modified type of heroism. Moreover, the daily
heroes due to the new political and historical revolutionary heroic deed is installed by the
events and in order to popularize these singular typical hero Pavel Vlasov of this novel, a fact
and exceptional heroes literature, and especially that later became part of the instauration of a
novel, was used as being the most suitable Soviet literary canon.
literary form, contributing to the rise of the new The revolutionary deed as a lifestyle may
type of popular novel such is the case of the be found in the case of N. Ostrovskys novel
popular detective or erotic novels. Besides, the How the Steel Was Tempered (1932), defined
role of the literary critics was to welcome such according to main characters (Pavel Korchagin)
heroes and to present a generalized image of adherence to Bolsheviks. Ostrovskys heroism
such simple heroes as being the norm and the played an important role in defining the Soviet
usual phenomenon in the so-called greatest identity and patriotic conscience of many young
country of all. generations, having an accessible didactic style
Popularizing such simple men and women and serving well the main idea of the Socialist
and their deeds (pretending heroic deeds) Realism to educate the masses. Nevertheless, the
through media, literature and re-presenting heroism of this novel may be regarded with
everything in a patriotic and ideal manner aimed skepticism due to its final textual references
to contribute to the change in mentality of the concerning the protagonists involvement in the
Soviet citizens, regardless of their ethnicity or noble cause for social equality, neglecting his
nationality. This cycle of taking popular or well- own health: It proved that theres no heroism in
known heroes from reality and transforming this. For most readers of the 30s, Pavel was
them into literary heroes and symbols proved to the national hero or the embodiment of
be a tricky and complicated one, because the courage, unconditional dedication to the Party
heroes and events underwent some ideological and victory of the new social order. The main
and idealistic changes, but it worked flawlessly hero was described in Soviet textbooks as the
concerning the designated role of shaping the typical representative of the young guard of
Soviet character and conscience of membership. Bolsheviks, while the novel was considered the
This mass-copying phenomenon is part biography of an entire generation.
of the task of Soviet literature the myth- The transformation of the heroism
making or generating official myths to support ingredients of the Second World War prose has
the new social order. E. S. Seniavskaia mentions as their basis the socio-political and cultural
that the mass-copying process of literary changes and the installment of the Socialist
examples (inspired by real life) resembled the Realism. Although many Soviet writers claim
mass edition of heroic deed, distinguishing their parentage from Lev Tolstoy, the
between the prototype of the heroic symbol introduction of the new literary ideologized
and the symbol itself (Seniavskaia 1999, 214- canon of the master plot1 and positive character
216). In the case of creating a symbol the social construction contribute to perceiving false notes
aspects were of no importance compared to the in the heroic notes. Each decade after the Second
represented reality and the officially recognized
events canonized by the social conscience. In (1) See Katherina Clarks comprehensive analysis of
order to become phenomenon of mass the master plot as the defining trait of the Soviet
conscience the symbol became popular among novel in her book The Soviet Novel: History as
the people if the symbol was of literary origin, Ritual.
118
World War, entitled Great Fatherland became symbols and were canonized by the
Liberation War or Great Patriotic War brings social conscience. Although the heroism of the
new literary devices and elements to the second version should have seemed complete,
established canon, as well as liberating attempts offering the explanations of the moral springs
from the censorship. The climax of this process and party membership motivations, it appears
may be considered V. Grossmans novel Life false and too ideologically charged. Regardless
and Fate written in 1959 and published on of the rewriting fact, the novel fits into
Russian soil in 1988. An important literary event Fadeyevs work due to authors aim of
of the after war period is considered I. representing heroic aspects that characterize
Ehrenburgs novel The Thaw (1954), which gave Soviet people (Bushmin 1983, 178-179).
the name to the Soviet cultural movement after After Stalins death (1953) the cultural
Stalins death. Other important literary events of atmosphere changes and the censorship is less
the Soviet Union are Aleksandr Solzhenitsyns vigilant in imposing the established literary
novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich canon, a fact that made possible for many Soviet
(1962) and Boris Pasternaks Doctor Zhivago novels to offer a realistic representation of war
(1957), which determined Geoffrey Hosking to and heroism, influenced by the psychological
divide the Soviet literature until this period and trend and by the desire for authenticity.
after it, mentioning relevant cultural and literary Sholokhovs novel They Fought for Their
changes (Hosking 1980, 29-49). Country (1969) brings a change in the
As for illustrating the change between representation of the Soviet fighter, being
only two decades of hero making characteristics, focused on the destiny of simple Russian people,
two important war writings may be brought into their heroism and, according to Soviet literary
our attention V. Kataevs Son of the Regiment critics, well-known Suvorovist qualities,
(1944) and I. Bogomolovs Ivan (1957) (with revealing potential readiness for the heroic
the famous film adaptation by A. Tarkovsky in deed (Zhuravljiova 1978, 99-100).
1962) that are examples of opposite types of K. Simonov is considered the founder of
heroism depicted and understood. We underline the panoramic novel of the Second World War,
a romantic perspective in Kataevs case continuing his vision from the short story Days
representing a child hero on the battlefield with and Nights in his trilogy The Alive and the Dead
his heroic deeds, while in Bogomolovs case we (1959-1971) where heroism is the daily element
witness a silent and restrained heroism. In both of the battles, not only the expression of the final
cases we may discuss about the heroic deed at battle or of successive victories. To mention
war, but its components are different and so are only several relevant facts on the reception of
the trigger factors that contribute to child the depicted heroism in this trilogy we may
characters involvement in the battle. highlight the dual criticism either the artistic
A special case of the literary poverty, the lack of heroism (Kuzmichev 1973,
representation of the Soviet heroism is A. 203) or convincing depiction of heroism due to
Fadeyevs The Young Guard with two versions representation of various facets and conflicts of
1946 and 1951 depicting the real events in reality (Fink 1983, 267-268). The second
Krasnodon in 1942. The second version of the approach is far more dangerous, because it tends
novel was written due to the harsh criticism to generalize and to claim a heroization of
regarding the absence of the mature communist almost all the characters and ignores the Soviet
leaders to support the activities of the traditional and canonically demanded
underground organization fighting against the heroization, de-heroizing by presenting the
German occupiers in Krasnodon. The author truth of the trenches (okopnaja pravda). The
added ten chapters to respond to this ideological reason for the first critical approach is
necessity, creating new heroes near those who Simonovs concept of the harsh truth that
were inspired from real teenagers and pupils. modifies the heroic vision and brings important
The artistic creativity was directed and restricted changes in shaping the Soviet heroism.
at the same time although the author had full Bondarev is part of a new stage of the
access to all documents that presented the Soviet war literature and due to his temporal
events, the category of what ought to be gained distance concerning Stalinism his novels The
more importance in the propaganda view. Hence Hot Snow (1969), The Shore (1975), The Choice
the non-historical and ideologically inspired (in (1980) reflect the echoes of psychological
the strict sense of the word) heroes of the novel. literary trend and are more focused on the war
On the other hand, only the characters inspired consequences and its social-philosophical issues
from real heroes of those historical events than on the war matters. In I. Bondarevs novels
119
heroic is associated with tragic with the focus on people can and must be questioned from
the ethic and philosophic aspects of war (Fed` various perspectives. According to the
1988, 13). The critical reception of his works dictionary Nauchnyj Komunizm the Soviet
during the Soviet period was a biased people is a new historical, social and
ideological one, with heavy reminiscences of the international community that appeared in URSS
established canon of the Socialist Realism, based on the Socialism victory, overcoming the
situating Bondarevs heroism in a far more class and national oppositions, coming near to
depreciative position than in Simonovs case. various classes, social groups, nations and
We reach what we entitle the climax of the ethnicity, and harmonious relations among
literary Soviet demystification of the heroic them (1983, 278-280). It is clear that this
reality Vasily Grossmans Life and Fate definition is situated more on the what ought to
(1969, published in 1988). We consider that only be side than on what is, mixing the reality
in this case a truly literary and ideational with the ideal and mythical people. The same
parentage from Tolstoy and Chekhov is real, source states that the formation process of this
given the fact that both authors are interested in people was long, difficult and complex in two
loyalty toward truth, no matter what its essential stages: the transition process from
bitterness is (Lazarev 1990 in Grossman 1990, capitalism to socialism and the period of
661). Grossman offers a representation of the building the evolved socialism. Another
heroism of the war and the national misery with relevant aspect is the mentioning of the national
its forbidden facets, taboo zones of the Soviet pride, which is the main source of heroism in
war reality. We witness a drastic change of case of facing the enemy, be it the class enemy
presenting the heroic deed, as well as a change or the external enemy.
of the patriotic tone everything being minimal, The contemporary critical approach
authentic and direct. The simplicity of proposed by A. Lazarevich on the so-called
Grossmans heroes and the special character Soviet people supports the element of the
construction determined the critics to admit that cultural isolation as being necessary to the
the hero is a man among people (chelovek ethno-genesis of the last people that appeared
sredi ljudej). on the planet, reaching its maturity in the
Taking over the Russian national traits and Stalinist era1. Nevertheless, the politicized name
assuming them to the Soviet people may be of a presumed new people raises questions
analyzed in the context of taking over the ideas concerning the process of ethno-genesis, while
of the 19th century Pan-Slavism before the First the mentioned two staged process of formation
World War and cultivating intensively these from official Soviet sources reveals no will of
ideas during the Second World War. The feeling the involved peoples and ethnic groups, which
of unity and national membership as a reaction situates this ethno-genesis in the active (or even
to the French influence in the 19th century are aggressive) category with inclusive policy
Pan-Slavism ingredients that are used as towards other nationalities, but imposing a
political tool by the Soviet Union giving the strong Russification process. From this critical
impression of security by belonging to the new perspective we may talk about a Russian
people as a reaction to the German threat during socialist military and political heroism with
the two world wars. The artificially formed new various literary and ideological patterns of
Soviet people couldnt miss the heroic trait, implementing heroic prose and changing the
being given the great national interest facing the mentality regarding heroism, while bringing new
double threat territorially and ideologically. politicized semantic meanings to the existing
Berdyaev mentioned the fact that heroic trait and cultural and mental forms.
other great human qualities are closely
connected to wars that trigger the high instincts Preliminary Conclusions
of the human nature, the self-sacrifice and love The dynamics of heroism on Russian and
for the country, requiring a fearless attitude then Soviet soil is a comprehensive process,
toward death. Aspects of this discourse are to be captured in historical periods mainly according
found in the Soviet ideological discourse that to the ruling political figures with greater
supports the heroism and greatness of the influence on Soviet literature Stalin and
Soviet people in the Great Fatherland Khrushchev. The reflections of the 19th century
Liberation War and in the proclamation of the hero-revolutionist literary type are briefly
heroic united people against the enemy.
While the Russian national cohesion and (1) http://technocosm.narod.ru/k2f/Sovietia_toc.htm
spirit cant be questioned, the collocation Soviet Accessed on October 10, 2013.
120
analyzed in the pre-revolutionary and Fadeev 1967 Fadeev, A., Molodaja
revolutionary years together with the semantic gvardija, Minsk, 1967.
changes to heroism itself, while the formation Fed` 1988 Fed`, N., Khudozhestvennye
and installment of the Socialist Realism canon otkrytia Bondareva, Moskva,
(1932-1934) stabilizes the new heroic patterns. Sovremennik, 1988.
Each decade after this literary ideologized event Fink 1983 Fink, L., Konstantin Simonov.
has specific heroic representations and the Tvorceskij put`. 2nd edition,
Second World War literature takes over the Moskva, Sovetskij pisatel`,
existing matrices of dual nature (military and 1983.
ideological). After the cultural Thaw we may Gorky 1970 Gorky, M., Mat`. In: Polnoe
speak about stages of ideological de-heroization sobranie socinenij, vol. 8,
and recovery of the patriotic heroism in Moskva, Nauka, 1970.
Tolstoys perception, while assisting to a shift in Grossman Grossman, V., Zhizn` i sud`ba,
the literary heros construction from the 1990 Moskva, Sovetskij pisatel`,
positive character from Chernyshevskys 1990.
tradition to the character reflecting the classic Hosking Hosking, G., Beyond Socialist
Russian Realism canon with several 1980 Realism. Soviet Fiction since
psychological insights and moral-philosophical Ivan Denisovich, New York,
tendencies. From Kataev to Grossman weve Holmes & Meier Publishers,
analyzed the main transmutations of the heroic Inc., 1980.
and heroism, offering a glimpse of Soviet hero- Karamzin Karamzin, N. M., Istorija
making process. 1980 gosudarstva Rossijskogo,
Leninzdat, Leningrad, 1980.
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122
The Intellectuals in the Evangelical Churches during the
Communist regime
Marius SILVEAN
PhD, Theological Baptist Institute of Bucharest
E-mail: marius.silvesan@yahoo.com
Abstract. This study addresses aspects of cultural life in Communist Romania with specific
reference to evangelical intellectuals. For the purpose of discussing this subject, I used original
documents from the Archive of the Department of Religious Affairs, which provided information about
neo-Protestant (evangelical) intellectuals, their actions, attitudes and statistics. The information in the
archival documents was supplemented with those provided by monographs, articles, and interviews with
evangelical intellectuals who had a cultural activity during the communist period.
Key words: neo-Protestant intellectuals, neo-Protestant cults, Department of Religious Affairs, cult
Inspector, communism in Romania
It is important to know our past, which is Adventists (2). The term suggests that they did
why I provide an insight, through this study, into not come to Romania at the same time as the
the cultural life of the evangelical communities Reformed church and the Lutheran one
in Communist Romania, analyzed through a (Hancock-Stefan 2003, 21).
short history of representative intellectuals. Because we refer to evangelical cults, a
Therefore, in addition to the information related term with different meanings within the
to cultural life, in this study there are also issues Romanian territory as compared to the West, we
related to the freedom of expression, and, in must know when and how they appeared in
some cases, even to persecution. I mentioned Romania.
this because many times these two elements are Thus, the first church whose history I shall
intertwined in the life of evangelical intellectuals present is the Baptist one which was founded in
during the communist period. Since the direction Amsterdam, Holland, in 1609. The first Baptist
of research aims at aspects of cultural life, I Church in modern Romania was established in
sought to present in this study both general and 1856 in Bucharest. In the interwar period,
specific issues, by highlighting the fact that, in Romanian Baptists faced persecution, although
the communist period, evangelicals (or neo- they had the legal status of a religious
Protestants) had a cultural life and did not limit association even after the passing of the Law of
themselves to religious matters. Neo-Protestant Cults in 1928. They were able to obtain the
intellectuals were noted both in the areas in status of a religious cult, for the first time, in
which they were educated (theology, medicine, 1940. Shortly after that, between 1942 and 1944,
Romanian language and literature, music) and in in the context of the international circumstances
defending religious rights and freedoms from the and domestic pressures, the Baptists were
inside or the outside of their community, banned, but after August 23rd they regained their
irrespective of the denomination. legal rights. In the fall of 1944, their religious
To highlight the Zeitgeist (1), in this study cult status was recognized by royal decree and
I chose the terms neo-Protestants and this recognition was reiterated by the Law of
evangelicals. According to a definition given by Cults of 1948 and the Decree 1203 of 1950. The
George Hancock-Stefan, neo-Protestantism is a latter legal norm enshrined the operation and
term for Romanian Baptists, Nazarenes, organizations status made in accordance with
Pentecostals, Evangelicals and Seventh-day the Law of Cults of 1948 (Silvean, Rdu
manuscris; Silvean 2012, 40-80).
Seventh-day Adventists appeared in 1870
(1) Zeitgeist (spirit of the age or spirit of the time),
with the visit of the Polish pastor (former
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist, accessed on
17.07.2013. By using this term, we wish to
rebuild, to highlight issues related to the mood of (2) The Seventh-day Adventists are not part of our
the era under consideration. study.
123
Catholic priest) Michael Bellina Chehonsky. there were also persecutions of the Baptist
(History, http://www.adventist.ro/index/). From intellectuals caused by the fact that the
the Adventist Cult, two groups emerged: communist regime was afraid of them. The
reformist Adventists and protestant Adventists, communists feared the power of the personal
both outlawed by Decision no 1636 of 3 July example which was taken as a model by the
1951 of the Ministry of Justice (Rdu 2010, 93). believers; they also feared they could create
The Brethren came at the end of the year opponency to the regime. Moreover, since they
1899 as a result of Eduard H. Broadbents were educated, they had a different
mission from England and of Francis Berney understanding of the political, social and
and Charles Auberts mission from Switzerland. economic events. The communist state
Bucharest hosted the first meeting of preaching considered religion to be opium of the people,
the Gospel originally in French, and then it and this should also be taken into consideration.
spread throughout Romania. In 1939, under The Marxists thought that that religion is the
pressure of the authorities, they agreed to merge opium of the people. They carried on agitation at
with Christians according to the Scripture1, but every level to discredit religion and the Church.
the latter broke away in 1990 to form the Intellectuals were told that to hold any religious
Romanian Evangelical Church (Rdu, 2012, 34- beliefs is to regress to superstition (Raikin
39). 1984, 281). The mentioned aspects can be found
The onset of communism had various summarized in a document of the Department of
consequences on neo-Protestants. Thus, in Religious Affairs of the year 1980. It labeled as
addition to maintaining the recognition of this negative a series of general manifestations of
religious cult, the state interfered with the neo-Protestant intellectuals (Baptists, Evan-
internal life of the Church, which affected the gelicals, Pentecostals and Adventists). The
functioning of the institution, the religious document refers to the following: the negative
service, the believers and the religious influence on youth, the advocacy of the religious
personnel. The intellectuals were directly freedom in America, attempts to send memories
targeted, monitored by the Department of abroad. (ASSC 1980, Ponderea elementelor inte-
Religious Affairs and the Securitate (2). lectuale, ff. 2-3). The fight for the freedom of
The intellectuals are the elite of a country thought, worship and expression of neo-
or community, in this case, of the neo-Protestant Protestant intellectuals is a feature of the years
churches in Romania. For a clearer 1970-1980 of Romanian communism. This
understanding of this term, I consider it desire for freedom also meant, in some cases,
appropriate to mention that the Romanian sending protest memoranda to Radio Free
explanatory dictionary defines the term Europe, the U.S. Congress, and also to other
intellectual as a person who has thorough international bodies which had a role in
specialized training and works in arts, sciences, monitoring the respect for the rights and
technology etc.; a person belonging to the freedoms of the Romanian citizens, including
intelligentsia. (DEX Intelectual). As I religious rights. Compared to the situations
mentioned before, the Department of Religious referred to in the document mentioned above,
Affairs and the Securitate monitored religious the senior territorial inspector of the Department
life and the intellectuals, especially those who of Religious Affairs of Arge county listed a
were actively involved in the church life. In the number of measures to counteract the actions of
statistics and reports of the above-mentioned the neo-Protestant intellectuals in the county:
institutions it is obvious that the label We acted directly on the believers who are
intellectual is used quite flexibly, including party members, very few in number, through
people without university education educational factors, party and public organi-
(Mnstireanu 2009). There was monitoring, and zations, resulting in temporary clarifications and
a rarer participation in meetings of worship. [...]
Greater attention was given to countermeasures
(1) A movement started in Bucharest, in the 1920s in social media: industry, health, construction,
around the former Orthodox priest Teodor cooperation, where the number of employees
(Tudor) Popescu, and which extended to other with a high cultural level is high. After
places; in 1927 it took the name of Christians
reviewing these activity areas, the inspector
according to the Scripture. Also known as tudorite
movement, named after the founder.
refers to the school system. The results were
(2) Securitate is the name for Department of State generally prompt and positive; the manipulations
Security (the secret police agency of Communist in different forms of party education and in
Romania). pedagogical councils manage to fight the ill
124
mystical and religious manifestations (Ibidem). We have made researches, approaching 4
For an overview of the situation of neo- pastors from the Baptist, Pentecostal and
Protestant intellectuals in Arge, I quote the Seventh-Day Adventists denominations, with the
same document of the senior territorial inspector result that 19 young people belonging to their
of the Department of Religious Affairs in the families attend different Colleges. It is stated
county which also presents statistical that they study medicine, engineering, pedagogy
information. Thus, in the religions of Arge and music (ASSC 1980, Ctre Departamentul
County, the neo-Protestant cults have a rate of Cultelor, f. 1).
0,6 % of the population of believers (Ibidem, Regarding the number of neo-Protestant
f. 1). intellectuals from Arad, the Department states
The same document entitled The rate of that they managed to identify 20 believers with
intellectual elements among the neo-Protestant degrees, working as medical doctors, engineers,
believers and the effects of their implication in professors, lawyers (Ibidem).
community life provides comparative informa- Professor Vasile Talpo, headmaster of
tion regarding the intellectuals from the neo- the Baptist Theological Seminary in Bucharest
Protestant denominations in the county. 1.9% of between 1988 and 1990 and president of the
the neo-Protestants from Arge County are Baptist Theological Institute in Bucharest
intellectuals, a higher percentage being found between 1990 and 2011, expressed his opinion,
within the Open Brethren Church. The number during a conversation that we had on October 8th
is 47 out of 2495 (Ibidem). 2013, about the Evangelical intellectuals during
When speaking about neo-Protestant communism and about his personal cultural life.
intellectuals, we take into account those who He also said that Lidia Talpo, his wife, sang
were medical doctors, professors, poets, for many years in a choir at the State
engineers, musicians. Therefore, the communist Philharmonic of Cluj. She used to sing different
authorities regarded those who earned graduate musical pieces, in their original language
degrees as intellectuals. (German, Italian, etc.) and her husband attended
The Department of Religious Affairs of various concerts of the Philharmonic. He told us
Arge provides a personalized statistic for each that during the communist regime, he would go
denomination, outlining the activity of the to concerts and listen to musical works, such as
intellectuals from that religious cult. For Beethovens Symphony no. 9 or Giuseppe
instance, according to the official reports, among Verdi. We should mention that a part of
the Open Brethren we can distinguish 12 Symphony no. 9 is also being sung in the
medical doctors, 16 engineers, 11 economists Evangelical churches as We adore You joyfully.
and 10 faculty members. The difference Also, he enjoyed reading and going to theatre,
between the number stated above, namely 47, provided that the various plays would not
and what we find in the reports about dishonor God and were not an attack against
intellectuals, according to their activity, can religion and Christian faith. Professor Vasile
partially be explained by different sources of Talpo also talked about these facts in an
investigating the available data and its interview that he was taken in 2003, in
centralization within the Department of Bucharest.
Religious Affairs, as well as due to the fact that When talking about high school, where the
not all the activities associated with intellectual intellectual young man was being formed, he
work have been approached. Within the mentioned how he used to spend his spare time
Seventh-Day Adventists 8 professors, 6 and described the cultural atmosphere of the 60s.
economists, 4 engineers, etc. Within the Professor Talpo also talked also about the
Pentecostals 7 engineers, especially in the books one could find in that period and said:
wood industry, 12 faculty members. Within the You could find books belonging to the
Baptists 3 engineers in the energy industry Romanian classic literature and they would
(Ibidem, f. 2). become plays performed at the theatre. I enjoyed
There is a similar document issued by the going to theatre, as this was also a part of our
Department of Religious Affairs of Arad on cultural program (Vasile Talpo, 2003).
August, 06th, 1971. So, according to the legal Among the plays one could see at the
norm 5.067/1971, regarding the children of theatre in Cluj, at that time, he mentioned The
Evangelical believers pursuing university Sunset, an arrangement of the work with the
degrees, a report was issued for the Department same title written by Barbu tefnescu
of Religious Affairs, Bucharest Division, for Delavrancea, and Hagi Tudose. Vasile Talpo
Monitoring and Control, stating the following: said that these plays had been originally literary
125
works by Romanian authors, and others apologist of the Biblical truth, writing regularly
belonging to foreign writers were also played at in Calea Credinei [The path of faith], and the
the theatre. Out of the Romanian writers we can periodical of the Brethren Church. Between
recall Ion Luca Caragiale, Vasile Alecsandri and 1985 and 1992 he took courses in Biblical
others. At that time, people were open for Education by Extension, and between 1992 and
movies, dramas and other works that belonged 1994 he took courses in Advanced Training
to both Romanian and foreign authors (Ibidem). Study. Also he taught a course on Christian life,
I asked Professor Vasile Talpo to speak first at Timotheus Biblical School (1990-1993)
shortly about the academic life in Cluj at the end and then at Timotheus Theological Institute
of the 60s. In this context, he mentioned about (1993-1997).
Babe-Bolyai University, The Medical School, During the communist regime, in April
the Engineering College and Polytechnics with 1977, he was one of the subscribers of the letter
various branches. There were also some schools of the six neo-Protestants, and, as a result, he
that prepared students for different technical was investigated for six months (Rdu, 2012,
branches these schools required only 3 years 51-53). At that time, he was also the personal
of studies. Those who graduated from these doctor of pastor Joseph Tson. Between 1981 and
schools had chances to find good jobs. Also, 1982 he was involved in transporting and
continues professor Talpo, we had colleges distributing Bibles and Christian literature,
where people studied Economic Sciences and activity for which he got arrested, investigated
Politics. and sentenced at five years and a half in jail.
When discussing about these educational However, due to external pressures he was
opportunities for the youth of that time, released after nine months (Ibidem, 59-62).
Professor Vasile Talpo emphasized something While being released, he was asked what
interesting concerning the Evangelical he was going to do in the future and his answer
Christians. Some colleges, as Economics, Law was: The same as I have done so far.
and Psychology were not open for Christians, Right after the revolution in December, he
but only for those recommended by the Party. was elected, in January 1990, as the president of
Professor Talpo recalls that only some the Open Brethren and was reconfirmed in that
colleges required the personal file of the position in 1994. Also, during this time, he was
candidate for admission. Technical Colleges the general secretary of the Romanian
and Medical School would not accept candidates Evangelical Alliance (1990-1994) and then vice-
on the basis of their personal file. The file of a president between 1994 and 1997. On October
prospective student would only be taken into 20th 1997, he passed away at the age of 66
account if that person didnt have a healthy (Silvean, Rdu, manuscris).
background. That means if his family was poor Doctor Silviu Cioat was an intellectual
or if he had any political endeavor against by formation and he got involved in various
communism. This is why many Evangelical endeavors, aiming at freedom of thought and
Christians managed to be admitted into Music expression. We can mention as an example his
School, Medicine, Engineering and Technical involvement in signing a document of protest
Institutions, whereas one could apply for the against the communist regime, entitled The neo-
other Colleges only on the basis of his personal Protestants cults and mans freedom in
file (Ibidem). Romania, document that was read at Radio Free
The information received from professor Europe on April 2nd, 1977. This act of protest
Talpo is confirmed by the reality of that time. was signed by the following six Evangelical
Another intellectual that was noticed during the intellectuals: Joseph Tson, Pavel Nicolescu,
communist regime was the medical doctor Aurel Popescu, Radu Dumitrescu (Baptist),
Silviu Cioat from the Brethren Church. Born Constantin Caraman (Pentecostal), Dr. Silviu
on June 9th 1931, in Ploieti, Prahova County, in Cioat (Brethren).
a Christian family, he became a believer himself Dr. Cioat proved through his actions that
during high school, in 1946. (Silviu Cioat, he had more than a medical and theological
1997) culture; he also had a humanistic culture,
He graduated the Medical School in Cluj springing from his understanding that the soul
in 1956 and became a radiology specialist in vibrates with the pluriform expressions of arts
1963. On July 9th, 1957, he got married to Elena and beauty.
Hotran and they had three children: Cristiana, Pavel Nicolescu is a Baptist pastor, an
Silviu and Ionu. While practicing medicine, he outstanding intellectual (Caravia 1999, 12) and
also received training in theology and became an one of the Evangelical leaders in the Communist
126
Romania. He was born on April 27th, 1936, in the Baptist Seminary in Bucharest (1955-1957).
Ploieti, Prahova County, in a Brethren family After graduation, he taught Romanian language
(Speaking with pastor Pavel Nicolescu, 26). in Cluj (1958-1968) (Iosif on 2013).
Between 1961 and 1965 he attended the Baptist In 1959 he got married to Elisabeta and
Seminary in Bucharest and graduated first in they had a daughter, Dorotheea. Between 1969
class. After graduation, he got married in 1966 and 1972, he studied theology in Oxford, thus
with Rut Pdeanu and they had three children being able to travel aboard, due to the fact that
(Pavel Nicolescu 2006, 26). he worked as a guide for ONT (National
In 1969 he began his studies at the Department of Tourism).
Philosophy College in Bucharest. Being a Between 1973 and 1974, he was a
graduate of a Theological institution and also a professor at the Baptist Seminary in Bucharest
Baptist, he was expelled from College, just two and then he worked as a pastor at the Baptist
weeks before finishing the fourth year, as could Church in Ploieti (1974-1977). While being a
be read in a legal norm, number 177 from April pastor in Ploieti, he wrote two papers that led to
6th 1973, issued by the rector of the University some measures of retaliation on behalf of the
of Bucharest, which, however, didnt mention Securitate: The one who will lose his life and The
the specific reason that led to this measure. place of the Christian in socialism, known also
Together with other five subscribers as the Christian Manifest (1).
(Joseph Tson, Constantin Caraman, Aurel In his second work, Tson pleaded for
Popescu, Radu Dumitrescu and Silviu Cioat) he integrating the Christians into the communist
sent abroad to Radio Free Europe a memoire society. His works were written in 1973 and
entitled The neo-Protestant cults and the human 1974, being published abroad in 1975. Then, his
rights in Romania. In order to write this memoir, works were secretly spread in Romania, as they
Pavel Nicolescu gathered information about the denounced the abuse of the State against the
international treaties signed by Romania, Evangelical Christians (ACNSAS, Fond
concerning the States commitment to respect Documentar, Dosar Nr .13087, vol. 28, f. 83,
human rights and the fundamental freedoms. apud Rdu, 2012).
Joseph Tson testifies that Pavel Nicolescu was In 1977, after the document concerning
an expert regarding these laws (Ibidem). the human rights was on Radio Free Europe,
After reading and hearing about him, but Joseph Tson was arrested and investigated along
also after having several conversations with him, with the other subscribers (Silvean, Rdu,
I can mention that he was not interested only in manuscris).
theology, but also in history, philosophy and Between 1977 and 1981, Tson worked as
law, with the result that he used to speak a pastor at the Baptist Church in Oradea and
differently than other pastors. then, in 1981, he emigrated in the USA, residing
Also, his training and skills allowed him in Wheaton, Il. In 1982, he became the president
to be involved in various actions concerning the of the Romanian Missionary Society, translating
religious freedom and the freedom of books on theology, printing them and bringing
conscience. Although he was persecuted and them secretly into Romania. Also, he used to
investigated for six weeks, after the document preach at Radio Free Europe.
was read at Free Europe, he did not give up his Through his sermons and published works
commitment to defend human rights. Conse- during the communist regime, and also due to
quently, in 1978, the Romanian Committee for his training in the humanistic area, Joseph Tson
Defending the Religious Freedom and the had a major influence upon several generations
Freedom of Conscience was founded [ALRC, in of pastors, both during 1989 and thereafter.
Romanian] (Dobrincu 2003, 215). His vision concerning the involvement of
This committee joined Paul Gomas the Evangelicals in the cultural life of Romania,
movement of protest and other international was materialized through the foundation of
organizations. Something interesting about this Emanuel Bible Institute in Oradea which
Committee is that although its members were became Emanuel University in Oradea the
mostly Evangelical (neo-Protestants), they foundation of the Romanian Evangelical
pleaded for the release of the Ortodox priest Alliance, the radio station Voice of the Gospel
Calciu Dumitreasa. and the publishing house The Christian Book
Joseph Tson is a Baptist pastor born on [in Romanian, Cartea Cretin].
September 30th 1934, in Grbovia, Alba
County. He attended the courses of the Faculty
of Letters in Cluj (1951-1955) and also those of (1) As Karl Marx wrote The Communist Manifest.
127
Ioan Bunaciu, pastor and professor, was of the Holy Scriptures, Systematic Theology,
born on January 7th 1925, in Gurba, Arad History of the New Testament, Preaching the
County. He is known as one of the most Word in the Baptist Churches, The History of the
remarkable Baptists, with a strong contribution Spreading of the Baptist Christian Faith in
in forming pastors and ministers, doing this Romania, Biblical Archeology. He continued to
under the difficult circumstances created by the publish after 1990, being known as a remarkable
communist regime. historian of Baptist Christian Faith, by the
In 1951, Ioan Bunaciu got married to following books: History of the Baptists (1993),
Otilia Turcu from Alma, having together a son, Baptist Christian Churches in Romania between
Otniel Ioan Bunaciu, currently dean of the 1944 and 1990 (2002), History of the Romanian
Baptist College in the University of Bucharest, Baptist Churches (2006), Episodes from the
the president of the Romanian Baptist Union and History of Preaching the Gospel in the Baptist
the president of the European Baptist Federation Churches in Romania 1874-1984 (2011).
(EBF). Emil Bulgr, a Pentecostal pastor, was
Ioan Bunaciu studied Economics (ISEP) born in Ulie, Hunedoara county and became
and graduated in 1949, attending at the same known as an engineer (offering his knowledge
time the Baptist Seminary in Bucharest (1947- and expertise for constructing church buildings),
1950). After finishing his studies at the Baptist as a pastor of the biggest Pentecostal church in
Seminary in Bucharest, because it was not Bucharest, as a president of the Pentecostal Cult
accredited at a graduate level, Bunaciu attends (1990-1994), director of the Pensions Institute of
the Reformed Theological Institute in Cluj the Cult, president of the Romanian Evangelical
(1951-1956), receiving a Bachelors degree in Alliance (1994-1998), as well as a poet and
Theology (1956). Then, he continues his studies Christian writer (Aso, 2013).
and becomes a doctor in Theology, in 1974, His poems were distributed secretly in the
receiving his degree from the Reformed Evangelical churches, knowing that the
Theological Institute in Cluj, such an communist regime didnt allow the printing and
achievement being something new for the spreading of religious literature. Among his
Baptist church in Romania. At that time, Ioan poems that were published in an anthology we
Bunaciu was the only Baptist to receive a degree could mention: The first love, A love letter, At
from the Reformed Theological Institute, the the Meal, The Harvest, The Rain, Autumn.
only Baptist who received a PhD degree in Cristian Vasile Roske, a Pentecostal
Romania and the only Baptist pastor and pastor and poet, is another intellectual that we
professor with a PhD degree in Theology want to mention in this paper. I had the
(Bunaciu, Silvean 2013, 65-68; Ioan Bunaciu opportunity to listen to him on the occasion of a
2012). religious and cultural event, organized in
He began his academic career as a December 2012 in Bucharest. While celebrating
professor at the Baptist Seminary in Bucharest in the Constantin Caraman and Costache Ioanid
1955 and continued to teach until 2010, the Centenary organized by Philadelphia Pentecostal
Seminary becoming the Baptist Theological Church in Bucharest, pastor Cristian Vasile
Institute in 1990. He was director of the Roske mentioned that the Pentecostal Church
Seminary between 1970 and 1988 while organized in Crngai area of Bucharest, in the
between 1990 and 2010 he was a professor at the 70s, a meeting for religious poetry. This proves
Baptist College in the University of Bucharest. that during the communist times, the neo-
When I interviewed him in 2012, Protestants were involved in the cultural life.
professor Bunaciu mentioned that he taught at Pastor Vasile Roske also mentioned Maier
the Baptist Seminary for 55 years (1955-2010) Ioans desire of creating an anthology of
and worked as a pastor for 60 years (1950-2010) Christian poems and although he asked for
(Ioan Bunaciu 2012). We should mention that approval from the authorities, his project was
after 1989 he worked as a professor at the denied. Vasile Roske himself had sent a poem to
Baptist Institute in Bucharest, the Baptist Maier Ion for the anthology he intended to
College in the University of Bucharest and publish, and as a result, Roske was questioned
Emanuel Institute in Oradea, which became by the Securitate. Among the poems written by
Emanuel University. Cristian Vasile Roske we could mention:
Pastor Ioan Bunaciu is not only a Turning back (May 25th 1950), Flowers for the
professor, but also a historian and writer. During wedding day (February 1954), Meeting with
the communist regime he published 12 books Jesus (August 1960) (Ciobanu 1994, 444-460).
among which we can mention here: The history
128
It is worth mentioning Maier Ioans Christian nation as ours, Ioan Maier believed
desire of making an anthology of Christian that the need of knowing this treasure of
poems, as another evidence of Evangelical Christian creation is more and more necessary
intellectuals involvement in cultural life. His (ASSC, 1978 Memoriul lui Maier Ioan, f.1).
endeavor was something totally new inside the Although Maier didnt receive the
Evangelical cultural life, although unfortunately, approval for making that anthology of Christian
the project could not be completed. poems, we believe that his struggle was
I refer to this fact, especially because in something new for the Evangelical cultural life
that anthology, the author wanted to collect in under the communist regime.
one book the Christian poems and songs under Cristian Caraman is a choir director,
the communist regime. Facing many obstacles, vocalist, and a remarkable representative of the
Ioan Maier wrote a new memoir and sent it to Romanian Evangelical music. He graduated
the State Council of the Socialist Republic of Ciprian Porumbescu Conservatory in Bucharest
Romania, to the Central Committee of the in 1986 and collaborated with important musical
Romanian Communist Party, to the Department institutions from Romania and Europe.
of Religious Affairs and also to the authors of In 2005, after advanced studies, Caraman
Romanian poetic creation (poems and songs) received a PhD degree in music from the
(ASSC, 1978 Memoriul lui Maier Ion, f.1) National University of Music in Bucharest. His
In this memoir, Maier Ioan, being a doctoral dissertation is entitled The Protestant
Theologian (three years at the Baptist Music. Since 2006, he has been working as an
Seminary), poet and Christian writer, testifies associate professor at Timotheus Institute in
about his constant aim beginning already in Bucharest, becoming a lecturer in 2010.
1975, of creating the first interdenominational In 2011, he publishes the results of his
collection of Christian poems, (poems and academic research at the National University of
songs), by means of developing an anthology of Music: Terms of reference in the history of
Romanian poetic creation and publishing it in Protestant Music; Modern Protestant Music,
different volumes based on specific writers. Also Genres of Protestant Music (Caraman, 2012).
he aimed at founding an interdenominational During his musical career, he performed
periodical of Romanian poetic creation important roles in opera and vocal-symphonic
(Ibidem). shows (Caraman 2013, 144, 146). Speaking
The data presented above are also about his family, we find out that he has a
synthesized in a report made by the Department Luxembourg-Saxon genealogy, through his
of Religious Affairs, and according to them, grandmother, the countess Elizabeth von Golden
Maier Ioan mentions the following: 1. Since Egmond. His father was an officer in the
1975 he has been working to make the first Romanian royal army until the beginning of the
collection of Romanian Christian poems (poems, communist regime (Caraman 2013, 144).
songs etc.), in order to publish it in an anthology Cristian Caraman got married to Mariana
based on several volumes and specific writers; 2. Catan and they have two children, Emanuel
He wants to create an interdenominational Cristian and Dorothea Lidia. In the communist
monthly periodical, with the purpose of times he was a tenor in Craiova. Thus, since he
publishing the Romanian Christian poetic was still a student in Music, he became a
creation; 3. He shows that, so far, he managed to vocalist at Line Theatre in Craiova and then,
collect over 60 notebooks volumes containing towards the end of the communist regime (1986-
over 5 600 poems gathered from all Christian 1990), he was hired as a vocalist at the Opera
denominations in the country; 4. He asks for Theatre in Craiova. Then, after a competition
approval for typing each volume in 90-98 that took place in February 1990, he moved to
copies, which then to be distributed to churches Bucharest, as a vocalist at Ion Dacian Operetta
around the country, the cost for each volume Theatre and as the lead-vocalist at the same
being equivalent to the cost of typing them. institution (Ibidem, 145, 148).
(ASSC, 1978, Referat) Cristian Caraman composed several
In his memoir, Ioan Maier speaks about religious musical parts, the most important being
his previous endeavors for creating an anthology a collection of sacred songs, using the lyrics of
of Christian poems, which did not receive a his friend, the poet and Romanian Baptist pastor
positive answer from the authorities. Still, he did Petru Dugulescu, who passed away. This
not give up his project. Thus, after collecting for collection of songs was written between 1983
three years the poetic manifestations springing and 1985, being the result of an intensive
from the unknown deepness of the soul of a
129
collaboration with Petru Dugulescu (Caraman, As a result of this research we discovered
2012). that, during communism, the Evangelicals had a
His musical activity during the communist cultural life defined by their intellectual
regime was acknowledged by the musical critic activities, their desire for education and their
Iosif Sava himself. In one of his TV shows, he involvement in different cultural areas. The
referred to this tenor, saying that the voice of presented portraits belong to different
Cristian Caraman is an instrument full of Evangelical cults and bring to the light various
elasticity and of colorful clarity (Sear activities of those we call our intellectuals; the
muzical, TV 1984, apud Caraman 2012). ones who wrote poems and Christian songs,
Cristian Caraman was actively involved in being musicians, medical doctors, professors etc.
the cultural life of the Baptist Church, but also and being involved in the cultural life, in spite of
of other Evangelical churches, especially the persecutions and struggles they faced.
Brethren. Since he was 15, Caraman sang in the Translated by Silvia Ptru,
mixed choir and the mens choir of Mihai Bravu Costel & Cristina Ghioanc
Baptist Church in Bucharest, and played the
violin in the orchestras of several Baptist References
Churches: Mihai Bravu, Popa Rusu, Ferentari
and 23 August (Caraman 2013, 145). Archives:
Other musical activity in the Romanian ASSC 1978 Arhiva Secretariatului de
Evangelical churches: In 1980, after being Memoriul lui Stat pentru Culte (ASSC),
admitted at the Conservatory in Bucharest, he Maier Ioan Biografii, Traian Dorz 1978,
becomes an orchestra director in Golgotha doc. Dorina de realizare a
Baptist Church from Bucharest and, after two unei antologii de poezie
years, the orchestra had 60 musical players cretin [The desire to
(Ibidem, 146). achieve a Christian poetry
Because he was against the communist anthology].
regime and refused to become a Party member, ASSC 1978 ASSC, Biografii, Train Dorz
Caraman will not be seen anymore on TV, and Referat 1978, Referat al Departa-
after graduating the Conservatory is sent to mentului Cultelor, Direcia
Calafat. He moved to Craiova only because the Relaii Culte, 10 1978 avnd
director of the Lyric Theatre from Craiova ca obiect Memoriul lui
insisted on requiring him in order to become a Maier Ioan [Report of the
lead-vocalist (Caraman 2012). In this context, he Department of Religious
also became the director of the orchestra and the Affairs, Religious Relations
choir in the Baptist Church from Craiova Division, in October 1978
(Ibidem). covering the petition of
After the revolution in December 1989, he Maier Ioan].
comes back to Bucharest, leading the musical ASSC 1980 ASSC, fond Direcia Relaii
ministry in Ndejdea [Hope] Baptist Church, Ctre Culte 1980, Dosar Intelectu-
founding also in the 90s a violin orchestra. At Departamentul alii n rndul neoprotes-
the moment, he is a lead-vocalist at Ion Dacian Cultelor tanilor. Referate inspectori
Operetta Theatre in Bucharest, a music teacher Departamentul Cultelor, doc.
at Logos Baptist High School in Bucharest, Ctre Departamentul Culte-
choir director at the Baptist Theological Institute lor Direcia pentru supra-
in Bucharest (starting with the academic year veghere i control Bucureti
2013-2014) and lecturer at Timotheus Brethren Nr. 18061/5564/9.VIII.1971,
Theological Institute in Bucharest. [File Neo-Protestant intel-
lectuals. Reports of the
Concluding remarks Department of Religious
By presenting some general aspects Affairs inspectors, doc. To
regarding the religious life, some historical the Department of Religious
terms of reference about the neo-Protestant cults Affairs, Monitorization and
and the portraits of some Evangelical control Department, Bucha-
intellectuals, we aimed at creating a general rest, No 18061/5564/9.
perspective about the perception of an VIII.1971.]
Evangelical intellectual during the communist ASSC 1980, ASSC Direcia Relaii Culte
regime. Ponderea 1980, D Intelectualii n
130
elementelor rndul neoprotestanilor. Caravia Caravia, Paul (eds.), Biserica
intelectuale Referate inspectori Departa- 1999 ntemniat: Romnia ntre 1944
mentul Cultelor, doc. Pon- 1989 [The Imprisoned church:
derea elementelor inte- Romania between 1944 and
lectuale n rndul credincio- 1989], Bucureti, Institutul
ilor i efectele i efectele Naional pentru Studiul
participrii lor la viaa Totalitarismului, 1999.
comunitii [File Neo- Ciobanu Ciobanu, Mircea, Poeziile creti-
Protestant intellectuals. Re- 1994 nilor romni. Antologie, [Ro-
ports of the Department of manian Christian poems. Antho-
Religious Affairs inspectors, logy], Bucureti, Casa coalelor,
doc. To the Department of 1994.
Religious Affairs doc. The Hancock- Hancock-tefan George, Impac-
rate of intellectual elements tefan tul Reformei asupra romnilor
among believers and the 2003 ntre 15171645 [The impact of
effects of their participation the Reform on Romanians
in community life]. between 1517 and 1645], Oradea,
Cartea Cretin, 2003.
Papers in journals: Rdu Rdu, Bogdan Emanuel, Statul i
Pavel De vorb cu pastorul Pavel 2010 Biserica n Romnia comunist
Nicolescu Nicolescu [Talking to Pastor (19481965). ntre demnitate i
2006 Pavel Nicolescu]. In Cretinul Azi, compromis [The State and
Nr. 101, 45/2006. Church in Communist Romania
Dobrincu Dobrincu Dorin, Libertate reli- (1948-1965). Between dignity
2003 gioas i contestare n Romnia lui and compromise], Craiova,
Nicolae Ceauescu: Comitetul Sitech, 2010.
Romn pentru Aprarea Libertii Rdu Rdu Bogdan Emanuel, Cultele
Religioase i de contiin 2012 neoprotestante n statul socialist
(ALRC) [Religious freedom and (19651990), [Neo-Protestant
challenge in Nicolae Ceausescus Cults denominations in the
Romania: Romanian Committee socialist state (1965-1990)],
for the Defense of the freedom of Craoiva, Sitech, 2012.
religion and conscience (ALRC)]. Silvean Silvean, Marius, Bisericile
In Analele Sighet 10. Anii 1973- 2012 Cretine Baptiste din Romnia
1989: Cronica unui sfrit de ntre persecuie, acomodare i
sistem, Bucureti, Fundaia rezisten 19481965 [Christian
Academia Civic, 2003, pp. 203- Baptist Churches of Romania
227. between persecution, accommo-
Silviu Necrolog Silviu Cioat [Silviu dation and resistance 1948-
Cioat Cioat obituary]. In Calea Cre- 1965], Trgovite, Cetatea de
1997 dinei, Revista Bisericii Cretine Scaun, 2012.
dup Evanghelie din Romnia,
November-December 1997. Chapters in books:
Raikin Raikin Spas T., The Communists Caraman Caraman Cristian, 41 de ani de
1984 and the Bulgarian Orthodox 2013 slujire ca dirijor i nvtor
Church, 1944-48: The Rise and biblic. [41 years of service as a
Fall of Exarch Stefan. In Religion director and Bible teacher]. In
in Communist Lands, vol. 12, No. Lungu Dumitru, Bulatov Mircea,
3 (1984). Ndejdea n Dumnezeu 19332013.
80 de ani de lumin cretin la
Books: margine de Bucureti [Hope in
Bunaciu, Bunaciu Ioan, Silvean Marius, God, 1933 to 2013. 80 years of
Silvean Pelerin spre patria cereasc Christian light at the edge of
2013 [Pilgrim to the heavenly Bucharest], 2013.
homeland], Bucharest, 2013.
131
Books to be published: Mnsti- Mnstireanu, Dnu, Tabel cu
Silvean, Silvean Marius, Rdu reanu unii intelectuali mai activi din
Rdu Bogdan Emanuel, Un strigt 2009 cultele neoprotestante [Table of
(manuscript) la Europa Liber. Scrisoarea some active intellectuals in neo-
celor 6 neoprotestani din Protestant denominations] online
aprilie 1977 [A cry to Free http://danutm.wordpress.com/
Europe. Letter of the 6 neo- 2008/08/13/tabel-cu-unii-
Protestants of 6 April 1977]. intelectuali-mai-activi-din-cultele-
neoprotestante/ (on 3.7.2009)
The The Zeitgeist (spirit of the age or
Zeitgeist spirit of the time), online http://
2013 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist (on
Internet resources: 17.7.2013)
Aso. 2013 Aso, Andrei, Glasul Cinzecimii - Iosif on Iosif on, online http://ro.
Experiene cu Duhul Sfnt (1) Emil 2013 wikipedia.org/wiki/Iosif_on (on
Bulgr (19302003), [Voice of the 17.4.2013)
Pentecost Experiences with the
Holy Spirit (1) Emil Bulgr (1930-
2003)], online http://asoandreiaso.
blogspot.ro/2010/12/glasul- Interviews:
cinzecimii-experiente-cu- Ioan Interviu cu Profesor Universitar
duhul.html (on 10.10.2013) Bunaciu Dr. Ioan Bunaciu, realizat de
Caraman Cristian Caraman, online 2012 Marius Silvean [Ioan Bunaciu,
2012 http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/ interviewed by Marius Silvean]
Cristian_Caraman#cite_note-5 (on (April 2012), Bucureti.
28.1.2012) Vasile Interviu cu Profesor Universitar
DEX Dicionarul Explicativ al Limbii Talpo Dr. Vasile Talpo, realizat de
Romne, termenul Intelectual [The 2003 Marius Silvean [Vasile Talpo,
term intellectual], online http:// interviewed by Marius Silvean]
dexonline.ro/definitie/intelectual (April 2003), Bucureti.
(on 4.9.2013)
132
Provincia Magazine, Identity Projection and Regionalism of the
Transylvanian Intellectuals
Marian COMAN
Graduate Student, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania
E-mail: coman_marian@yahoo.com
Abstract. In this article we have tried to analyze the identity discourse promoted by the group of
Romanian and Hungarian intellectuals around the magazine Provincia, which occurred during the three
years between 2000 and 2002. It is a coherent discourse that emerges through the awareness of the need
for a constructive dialogue between the members of the two ethnic groups trying to promote a trans-
identity, peculiar to Transylvania. Cultural, historical, economic and political arguments are invoked so
that they would support and, especially, would help to crystallize it. We shall show, finally, the limits of
the identity project of Provincia and the causes that led to the failure of such a unique initiative in the
Romanian space.
Books:
*** M-am sturat de Romnia.
Fenomenul Sabin Gherman n
viziunea presei [Ive Had
Enough of Romania. The Sabin
Gherman Phenomenon from the
Perspective of the Press], Cluj-
Napoca, Erdlyi Hrad, 1999.
153
An Indication of Option: Bio-Power
Viorella MANOLACHE
Researcher, PhD
Institute of Political Science and International Relations of the Romanian Academy
E-mail: vio_s13@yahoo.com / viorella.manolache@ispri.ro
Abstract. The present study (a preliminary research of an authored book approaching Repere
teoretice n biopolitic [Biopolitics. Theorethical Approaches], in order to be published in 2013) proposes
to disentangle the threads firmly gathered around bio-power [not in fashion, not outside it, undertaken and
equally remade, by its political philosophy (hard or soft) operating contemporary extensions] a hybrid
concept. This establishes that, within bio-politics, discourse and its program are maintained as Foucault
approaches, by excellence. Discursively, the study considers as a starting point bio-power as a weird term
(Foucault 2009, 11). The overall stance of fundamental biological mechanisms are the features which, by
transplanting within political strategy (overall strategy power), organised other indications of options for
modern Western society. The concept of bio-power is closely related to the technology of power. Against
this active and reactive background, Michel Foucaults option to insert the term inside security devices is
not at all surprising. An analytical overview could not omit the typical marks of this stake: the security
space, the problem of handling the random aspect, the normalization form specific to security and
security-population technical correlation. They establish in Foucault's key that when sovereignty
capitalizes a territory, the major problem is the location of government. The discipline orders space
architecturally through hierarchical and functional distribution of the elements and security has the role to
arrange the environment as notion dependent on the regularized series within a multivalent and
transformable frame. Moreover, setting (conveniently) bio-power between the natural and artificial
dimensions, or between the technical and mechanical ones, this study will reaffirm that Foucaults
discourse is a discourse about power in the hypostasis of be behaviour wizard, and of reorganizer of the
useful space effects returning in force as diagnosis and characteristics of contemporary world.
Key words: Biopower, Biopolitics, Michel Foucault, Naturalness vs. Artificiality, Technique and
Mechanics of Power
160
Miniature Memories. Small Patrimonies in Romanian Post-
Communist Memoirs
Andi MIHALACHE
Researcher II, PhD, Institute of History, Iai, Romania
E-mail: andiadx@yahoo.com
Abstract. This article assumes that we are less affixed to objects than we are to the place that
these objects occupy for a long time. This is the reason why we make a distinction between remembering
when they let fall objects names and when they evoke interiors as a reason. In the author of an
autobiography we can see either a memoirist who refuses that time goes by (and he still lives in the
beginning of his house lost in time) or one who is surrounded by objects he gathers in order to assure
himself that he will have some recollections (that he can easily anticipate already) some prefabricated
melancholies. Each one of these takes his home to be a pedestal of himself. This paper is a kind of
apropos of French petit patrimoine. Small patrimonies include items that are not part of any museum
and are not inventoried in any way. They do not have any market value, carrying only sentimental value
for their owners. They present strong identity, family, memorial and trans-generational features.
Symbolising very accurately intimacy and privacy, they do not belong to the famous mmoire des lieux
category, but are among the so-called lieux de vie: the fireplace, the window from the living room, the
favourite room wall etc. Small patrimonies survive over time due to those who consider that they share
a particular object.
The manufacturing of replicas of ancient taste can also produce culture due to the fact that
works of art, resulting into frills, began in 1739 fears that are collectively defeated are later
(Haskell 1999, 125). However, at the time they made to appear as individual victories. Thus, the
were not considered to be decorative items, but fears are gradually transformed into medals in
evocations of Greek masterpieces. the course of time. We take pride in them: it
Paradoxically, the miniature copy became a seems that if we managed to survive them we
reminder, a kind of monument dedicated to the also managed to defeat them.
large-scaled original. Thus, when he came to Things do not simply exist by themselves,
Strasbourg in September 1830, Johann Peter but to the extent to which we entrust them with a
Eckermann bought an opal scent bowl sort of consolation mythologies. However, we
representing Napoleons bust for Goethe wonder: do their age, real or imagined,
(Eckermann 1965, 412). Did the great scholar automatically attract a certain type of words or is
have such tastes? Who knows, maybe the it that memories claim some older objects as
Germans treated their fear of the little Corsican necessary background ingredients? Are the
like that, by miniaturising his posterity. The people from older times implicitly associated
episode might have remained a simple anecdote with an old fashioned decor, being posted at the
if we had not found similar examples in the 20th end of the Florentine table in the living room?
century. For example, Doina Uricariu mentions (2). The present paper attempts to be a kind of
the popularity Soviet decorations and uniforms propos for what the French call small
had acquired in the West after the fall of the patrimony. The term is not only a metaphor, but
Eastern European communism (Uricariu 2010, it is becoming a more and more well-defined
48-49). Moreover, there are other cases of concept. Jocelyne Bonnet-Carbonell relates its
various regimes or leaders, politically dead, but occurrence to a certain revolution that had taken
still remembered on a fetishist level (1). Bad
179
The Bible Source of Postmodern Literature
(Scriptural Quotation in Contemporary Literature)
Maria-Nicoleta CIOCIAN
University Assistant PhD, Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Faculty of Psihology and Education Science
E-mail: nicoletamaria2001@yahoo.com
Abstract. The present study wishes to offer Livius Ciocrlies Cu faa la perete (1) a reading
based on biblical intertextuality, the scriptural text thus becoming a fertile source of inspiration for
contemporary literature. The depictions of the biblical quote as well as the functions that it serves in the
literary text lead to the conclusion stating that the Romanian writer proves himself to be the explorer who
has clear knowledge of the entire investigated biblical field. The biblical text, which became intertext in
Livius Ciocrlies work, cannot be left with a fragmentary interpretation, exempt from the whole to which
it belongs. The reader, engaging in a dialogue with the author, promises to make a pact: that of becoming
a reader of the Holy Scripture in order to be a dialogue partner for Livius Ciocrlie.
In1 the present paper, we shall not deal with religion transposed in a diary, as well as the
with an approach centered around the literary results to which such an endeavor may lead. We
features of the Holy Scripture, but deal with a thus grasp the way in which the Bible is being
literary text, more specifically that of a diarist, turned to advantage in contemporary Romanian
approaching biblical fragments from a less usual literature. We hope that the results of our
perspective: a literary one. We would like to analysis shall reveal the contribution that
offer a new reading track from the perspective theological ideas have upon nowadays cultural
of the biblical intertextuality to a text by debates.
Livius Ciocrlie: Cu faa la perete. We shall The quoting of Biblical verses has, in
analyze and elaborate the biblical quotations Ciocrlies work, the greatest weighting in Cu
from the first part of the text. Due to the length faa la perete.
limitations we can not approach the ones found A shallow relationship of intertextuality
in the second part, seen through the eyes of between the quote and its source may be easily
Bernardo Soares. established by the reader. However, the exact
The Holy Bible becomes, in the reconstruction of the hypotext implies a more
postmodern age, source of literature. It detailed approach on the Scripture. We will
influenced and has been constantly influencing expect, from the very beginning, that the quoted
the development of literature. Very little has text is addressed to an informed reader, who can
been written in our culture about the Bible easily establish the intertextual relationship
literature relationship, the Romanian researchers between the two types of texts.
being especially preoccupied with the The biblical quote thus becomes, at a
linguistically nature of the problem (valuable textual layer, a dialogue with religion; this leads
studies have been written on the contribution of to the acceptance of religion, to a desire to
the Biblies translations towards the evolution of understand the sacred text and to another form
the Romanian language Florica Dimitrescu, of knowing ones self. In the selection of the
Eugen Munteanu, Viorica Pamfil, Dan biblical quotes, I didnt analyze the ones that
Zamfirescu, Vasile Arvinte, Alexandru bring nothing new (from the perspective of the
Andriescu and so on). intertext) as opposed to the ones that we shall
We find ourselves compelled to give make reference to. Moreover, I didnt note
credit to an approach which depicts the dialogue devious aspects of the biblical intertexts
(inaccurate or rephrased quotes, paraphrases and
so on), allusions made to the sacred text are
(1) Cu faa la perete (original Romanian title), literary followed, every time, by a precise reference, by
meaning: facing the wall.
180
an exact reproduction of the quote, thus proving was written materializes. This one is sent with a
once again the real preoccupation that the author mission, and because he fulfills it, he will be
has for fundamental religious texts. Such a great punished by The One that sent him. Finding his
number of biblical quotes in the diary are proof lost sheep, the shepherd rejoiced more of that
of the viability of these kinds of pursuits. We sheep, than of the ninety nine which went not
will analyse configuration methods of the quoted astray. So there exists a dialectics of faith. It
text in the text that it is being quoted into, must be confirmed and strengthened by doubt
without a very careful analysis of each quotation (Ciocrlie 2010, 115).
individually. All the biblical quotes inserted in The biblical verse, as related by the holy
Ciocrlies text open the way to reflection, evangelist Luke, in chapter 15, in the New
meditation, and interpretations and endeavor to Testament, in a parable about the sheep that was
understand the Christic message. A detailed astray, conveys Gods love towards the sinful
analysis can outline orienting milestones in our man:
approach of the diarists work from the What man of you, having a hundred
scriptural perspective, in an attempt to enlighten sheep, if he loses one of them, doth not leave the
the biblical mystery. ninety and nine in the wilderness, and go after
The dialogue with the Holy Scripture has that which is lost, until he finds it? And when he
its debut in Cu faa la perete with the analysis of hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders,
Christs response about his speaking in parables: rejoicing (Official King James Bible,
Strange thing was Jesuss reply when asked by Authorized Version, The Book of Luke, 15:4-5).
the apostles why he talks to people in parables: The parable of the missing sheep is
because, unlike them, the apostles, people have recounted in the context of the old accusation
been given [the ability] to know the mysteries of made by the pharisees of Judea, who seemed
the heavenly kingdom. It would mean that dissatisfied that Jesus listens to the sinners and
people dont need to understand the meaning of tax collectors and agrees to share the same table
the parables. Should they stick to their letter or with them. The parable is meant to show how
literature? (1) (Ciocrlie 2010, 114). Here, liable the difference between the righteous and
Livius Ciocrlie gives a defective interpretation the sinners is and how much permissiveness
to the text of the Scripture, because Jesus speaks God may manifest towards the wrong ones
in parables in a manner that his auditorium incapable of repentance. The three parables
would understand. The Romanian author makes inserted by Luke the evangelist in chapter 15 are
the biblical text seem not clear enough, lacking a an illustration of a souls converting process
meaning close to general comprehension; he and unravels the unquestionable link between
corrupts the text by making an interpretative freedom and grace (Manoilescu 2008, 104).
correction, which he wants to be elucidating, but Livius Ciocrlie offers an upside-down reading
he only manages to obscure it. Thus, a literary of the Scriptures text, whose wish is to dispose
reading of the entire verse in being born, an of the despair of those considering themselves
altered interpretation resulted from a voluntary lost.
exempt from the context and an unspecialized Livius Ciocrlie goes on: I wouldnt take
understanding of the scriptural verses. mystery for inconsistency. In Testaments, some
The theme of faith, inability and sentences contradict one another. To forgive
willingness to believe seem to be present all your brother seventy times seven is being asked
throughout the lecture of the Holy Scripture. of you by God, Who forgives nothing.
After a short exchange of replies with (Ciocrlie 2010, 115-116). The episode of
B.S., he comes back to the reading of the Bible: forgiving seventy times seven is told both in The
for it must be that offences come; but woe to Old Testament and in The New Testament.
that man by whom the offence cometh! The most However, Livius Ciocrlie makes a reference
striking testamentary mystery is hiding in the here to The Old Testament. The given
relationship between what was written that it interpretation is upside-down, because the
will happen and the one through whom what biblical text of The Old Testament offers the
image of a punitive, yet forgiving, God or
(1) The present paper, as well as the novel quoted simply of purely forgiving God (in The New
have been written in Romanian. This fragment Testament). Ciocrlies text places the quotation
along with other direct quotations of Ciocrlie in confusion: he mistakes the God-man
work have been brought to English by the relationship for the man-man relationship.
translator of this paper, since no other version of
the novel except Romanian exists at the moment.
181
Stelian Tofan, in circumscribing a few confusion: If we are to take for granted what we
traits of The Gospel of John, talks about the read in Luke, the apostles are worthless people.
frequent usage of syntagms with different, They find out one is about to betray Jesus,
overlapping meanings, of terms that along with barely ask who and immediately want to know
their direct meaning, obviously have another which one of them is the greatest. In John, The
one, more profound (Tofan 2001, 217), this Last Supper does not exist, in Matthew the
implying a literary technique, specific to the wrongdoers on the cross are silent, in Mark the
author. In all these forms of expression, the heart rending Woman, this is thy son! appears
Savior takes in consideration both the literary and so on (Ciocrlie 2010, 122).
meaning and the symbolic one, but his According to the Holy Scripture, in the
auditorium always grasps the first sense. As for case of the evangelist John, the setting of The
these words with overlapping meaning, it must Last Supper is different from the other three
be specified that Jesus Christ never utilizes them synoptics. The episode exists, however the
with enigmatic purpose, but with the intention of establishment of the sacrament is not related. In
guiding the readers towards the spiritual and the case of Matthew, we are not being told about
deep understanding of His doings, which also the repentance of the wrongdoer about to be
act as signs, that is to say, symbolic crucified, that appears in Luke, and about the
connotations (Tofan 2001, 219). Livius conversation between him and the Savior.
Ciocrlie underlies that he is making reference Woman, this is thy son! does not appear in Mark,
only to the literary meaning; he is forcing the Livius Ciocrlie transfers segments from one
interpretation towards an essentially literary one, evangelist to another.
without taking into account the theological angle Is it a confusion or is it a knowingly
of Johns narration, without choosing certain transfer of the verses of the Holy Scripture? Is
biblical quotations because of their symbolic this transfer on purpose or pure accidental?
significance. Here, doubt proves that Livius The completions or the nuances brought in
Ciocrlie is ready to accept faith, so that, in the telling of the biblical fragments sometimes
another fragment, he considers the Saviors harden the lection and show a particular interest
words and parables difficult to understand: for a theologian-researcher. He is not satisfied to
Shattering words: You don't know what you are take biblical passages, but separates the verses,
asking. Are you able, to drink the cup I am compares and confronts them, but omits some
drinking?. All of a sudden, when Jesus talks to details or makes transfers from an evangelist to
the archbishops, in the temples, his words and another. Here we are dealing with a
parables are difficult to understand (Ciocrlie deconstructive biblical intertext towards the
2010, 117). This is the reason why, sometimes, coordinates set by a considerable biblical
the Savior is found in circumstances where He exegesis, an attempt of representation or
has to explain what He says, which is rarely common understanding of some scriptural
found in the synoptics. But the author is content passages. Livius Ciocrlie is moving now his
with observation, ignoring the spiritual deconstructive verve towards the Holy
perspective present in the Gospels. Scripture; he makes usage of a dislocation
The snipping, random or not, of some treatment of the biblical passages. The
biblical quotations in Ciocrlies text, does not confession of the author is relevant in this
make up, not even by an off-chance, a snipping aspect, few pages later: a believer I am not, but
from a systematical, theological treaty. The I do live under the heaviness of the primary sin
author is not a theologian in the modern sense of (Ciocrlie 2010, 135). The transforming
the term. All these quotes taken from the Holy intercession of Livius Ciocrlie punts, we
Scripture must be understood, we consider, as a believe, also on the shaking of which the author
desire to know the Lord and talk about the Lord; is marked at every rereading of the Holy
a desire for a deeper understanding of the Scripture.Every time I reread, I am petrified.
evangelical meditation; theology in the originary Judas betrays because that is the way it was
sense of the term (talking with and about God; written. Filled with remorse, in order to set
understanding of the divinity). things right, he confesses that he has blamed an
When bringing into discussion The Last innocent man (Peter, the chosen one, cries his
Supper, Livius Ciocrlie seems devoid of the cowardice stealthily) and returns the silver
power of faith; wanting to surprise the reader coins. Being mocked, he commits suicide. He
and trying an interpretation which lacks any we must hate, not the rest. If at least it would
theological exegesis, he arrives to a point of have said that he repented for all because that it
182
is how it was written. Then you could have told godlike power of Jesus working for a suffering
yourself: it is a mystery, therefore nothing left to crowd whose sorrow sensitizes him (Tofan
understand (Ciocrlie 2010, 120-121). 2002, 368). Livius Ciocrlie here also offers an
The fulfillment of the prophecies is seen inside out interpretation of the evangelic text,
with unfaithful eyes, the attempt of the denying the spiritual values of the Christic
evangelists to present the events as being part of message.
the godlike plan of the worlds salvation is, for Considering Judas a devil, Livius
Livius Ciocrlie, a failed attempt, a suspicion, a Ciocrlie brings in discussion chapter 13, verse
misunderstanding of the presentation of Christic 27 of the Holy Gospel of John: Then after he
events of the Saviors activities as being the had taken the morsel, Satan entered into him.
fulfillment of the revelation. Jesus said to him, What you are going to do, do
It is as if Livius Ciocrlie wants to quickly. (The Bible or The Holy Scripture, John
recreate, through these inside out readings, a 13, 27, 1573).
new circuit of sense (Genette 1982, 453). He It can be observed that here, Livius
has notable ability of reading differently the Ciocrlie brings into discussion the episode of
Holy Scripture. the betrayal, as related by the evangelist John,
Could it also regard, through the because the latter insists on certain words that
transcription of the biblical passages, an attempt were omitted by his predecessors, introducing
of seeking his own never found identity? the lexeme Satan and depicting, thus, the
Another anguish is given by the incapacity of Christic mystery in all its depth. The Book of
finding ones identity. I do not know if this is a John is the most dynamic of all the Gospels, a
solution; an answer, however, it is: self unique work situating its author among the
conscience can tell the self that identity with worlds most inspired (2).
himself to no end is to be found (Ciocrlie After an exchange of replies with
2010, 101). Bernardo Soares, the text of the diary comes
After a few pages, another biblical back to annotating on the Scripture: Seen from
reference is inserted in the text: the outside of Christianity, in His argument with
Jesus, to John Very truly I tell you, you the pharisees, Jesus is not convincing. All He
are looking for me, not because you saw the does is state His identity, without any reason for
signs I performed but because you ate the loaves why He should be believed (Ciocrlie, 2010,
and had your fill. He tells this in order to shift 125). Here, the text is inadequate, the truth of
from earthly food to heavenly nourishment. The the biblical fragment is overthrown Jesus does
argument is, however, weak. It was the wonders not want to convince the pharisees, with whom
and not hunger, of any kind, that determined He is frequently ironic, but wants to convince
people to follow Jesus a realistic explanation His followers of the Christic truth.
so therefore frustrating, lacking spiritual sense. We then go back to the Judaic lack of faith
In the Book of John, Judas is a devil. He loses and condemnation related by Luke:
his substance. He can no longer be, not even, a Anyone who loves their life will lose it,
symbol of betrayal (Ciocrlie 2010, 124). while anyone who hates their life in this world
Here, Livius Ciocrlie is putting together will keep it for eternal life. It is as though Calvin
two different biblical episodes: the miracle of were talking, not Jesus. Why should man not
bread propagation and Judass betrayal. The love his life and want eternal one? Logically, it
piece of bread is the one that links the two parts: means it would have been better for us not to
in the first part, Jesus is the bread; in the second have been born. (While computerizing: wrong.
part, Judas is being remarked before the Logically, it is worse: hate opens the pathway to
disciples through the sharing of bread (Judas the after-world).
received sacrament without being worthy). Luke: the devil had already prompted
The miracle of bread propagation, Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot, to betray Jesus.
interesting example of multiple meaning How about it was written? Is the devil a
(Tofan 2002, 368), is told in the Holy Gospel collaborator of God? Sure seems like it since
of John, in chapter six (1) and represents the Jesus says so that the Scripture may come true.
And after giving Judas the bread Satan then took
(1) The transcribed fragment in the ciocrlian
(association with the authors name) text is related
in chapter 6, 26: Jesus answered them, saying: (2) An introduction to The Gospel of John in the
<<.>> The Holy Bible, new international Romanian version of the Bible that was used for
version. the purpose of helping write this paper.
183
him over. First there was the thought and after attempt to unravel, through them, ones own
that Satan possessed him? Inconsistencies self.
(Ciocrlie 2010, 126-127). Coming up next, another passage about
Chapter 12, verse 25, of the Book of John the biblical message makes the focus of our
says: Anyone who loves their life will lose it, attention: No matter how much I try, I cannot
while anyone who hates their life in this world agree with the wonders. They seem too simple a
will keep it for eternal life (The Bible, New solution to me. For example: Paul in his dispute
International Version), and the annotations of with the charlatan from Paphos. I was expecting
the Scripture regard the word life as having two strong arguments from someone about to
layers of meaning. We could also consider the become a great theologian. But he blinds his
issue thusly: For whoever wants to save their adversary literally, not with the light of his
life will lose it, but whoever loses their life for ideas! (Ciocrlie 2010, 131).
me will find it (Matthew 16:25, New A couple of pages later, before a Leszek
International Version of The Bible). The same Kolakowski quote, Livius Ciocrlie transcribes a
annotations do not consider the verb to hate quotation from the Apostle Paul: Very rarely
(Hebrew term coming from old Greek and, will anyone die for a righteous person, though
through it, in modern languages) as being used for a good person someone might possibly dare
in the proper sense, for Jesus never encourages to die. The miracle, that redeems many things, is
hate, but the ability to immediately and utterly that there are people who die for other people,
let go of loved ones, in order to be closer to helping them, without asking whether they are
God. (Luke 14:26, New International Version good or bad (Ciocrlie 2010, 145).
of The Bible Matthew), aware of the risk of The fifth chapter of Romans, part of the
using this verb, rephrased this thesis: Anyone missionary work of the great Apostle (2),
who loves their father or mother more than me is entitled The Rewards of Turning Towards Faith.
not worthy of me; anyone who loves their son or Adam and Christ, describes Gods favor
daughter more than me is not worthy of me (Jones, 2000, 28) and transcribes what the holy
(Matthew 10:27, New International Version of Apostle Paul used to preach by speech. The
The Bible). Savior did not die for a righteous man, not even
Livius Ciocrlie reads the Saviors words, for a righteous or friendly world, but he died for
here, to the letter, giving both a literal and a a world full of godlessness and enmity towards
literary interpretation of these fragments. He is Him []. What boundless love! What
not taking into account the scientific indefinable grace! (Moldoveanu 2001, 170).
investigations made by specialist in the biblical Livius Ciocrlie shatters the biblical text
field; investigations which may no longer be and interprets it in a literal way. Verses 6-11
eluded in such a context (1). The abandonment depict the universality of sin and the
of such theological investigations does not universality of grace (Moldoveanu, 2001, 170)
mean, in this context of Ciocrlies work, as a general truth for all of humanity: You see,
scientific isolation, but rather an attempt to at just the right time, when we were still
understand another perspective of the biblical powerless, Christ died for the ungodly. Very
text, a reading, sometimes literary, of some rarely will anyone die for a righteous person,
scriptural passages. The biblical fragments are though for a good person someone might
brought over and inserted in another textual possibly dare to die. But God demonstrates his
field, different from that of theological own love for us in this: While we were still
investigation. The result is remarkable: an sinners, Christ died for us. Since we have now
attempt to impose the Christic truth to other been justified by his blood, how much more
coordinates, those of literature and diary, an shall we be saved from Gods wrath through
him! For if, while we were Gods enemies, we
were reconciled to him through the death of his
(1) If we do not obey rules of interpretation, very
many teaching may be extracted from the
Son, how much more, having been reconciled,
parables. Our Lord himself gave the interpretation shall we be saved through his life! Not only is
of many parables, but where there is none given, this so, but we also boast in God through our
it is necessary to check if our interpretation agrees Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have now
with other verses dealing with the same topic in
The New Testament. Kenneth JONES,
Evanghelia Bibliei 15 lecii din epistola lui (2) From the introduction to Romans in the Romanian
Pavel ctre Romani,Agape Publishing House, version of the Bible that was used to help write
2000, p. 44. the present paper.
184
received reconciliation (Romance 5, 6-11 in an urgent intervention in one or another
New International Version of the Bible). Christian community that he established (1),
The authors attention is diverted to The texts that also present some obscure phrasings,
Holy Apostle Pauls Epistles, which marks the unfinished sentences, suspended thoughts,
end of the scriptural incursion in the volume Cu parentheses, digressions and shallowly linked
faa la perete. The periplus of quotation opens elements . Because of this Pauls epistles must
up with a sort of introduction: Paul is among be taken into consideration for being exactly
the originary apostles. He was not molded by what they are: pieces of the great apostles
Jesus. There persists in him a little piece of missionary work, the transposition in written
devil, you might say. He argues with Varvara, word of that which he used to speak (2).
his proselytism comrade and they fall out The first biblical intertext from Pauls
(Ciocrlie, 2010, 144). epistles is based on Romans 5:7 : The Apostle
It can be deduced that Livius Ciocrlie Paul: For one will scarcely die for a righteous
knows the history the gospel is passing on in the person though perhaps for a good person one
apostolic age: the Holy Apostle Paul is a would dare even to die. The miracle, that
missionary, one of the greatest ever in the redeems many things, is that there are people
service of the Christian Church (Verzan, 1996, who die for other people, helping them, without
7), because the other apostles began their asking whether they are good or bad (Ciocrlie
activity before the historical birth of the Church. 2010, 145).
Paul, also called apostle of the nations, after Kenneth Jones places Pauls letter in
his conversion from the road of Damascus, was Romans under the sign of Gods grace and
miraculously called by the Savior himself. making peace with Him. In Romans, chapter 5,
Ciocrlies annotations to Pauls epistles the Lords grace is described [] Where man
are general consideration, appreciative, but also greatly manifested his enmity towards God and
veracious from a theological point of view where his revolt for his Creator reaches its
some of the advices given in the Corinthians are maximum point, the Lord manifested His love,
so in correspondence with the spirit of the and prepared, through the death of His Son a
epoch, that it seems obvious only a bigot, not means for man to make peace with God (Jones
also the believer, could take them literally 2000, 28).
nowadays (Ciocrlie, 2010, 152) says Livius Genuine treaty of theology (Constanti-
Ciocrlie when making reference to the first nescu 2002, 192), the epistle in Romans is the
epistle to Corinthians. The interpreters of the most valuable of Pauls writings. It was written
Holy Bible consider that Apostle Pauls letters by him in his double competence: that of
are not quietly elaborated on predetermined servant and apostle of the Lord; as a servant, he
topics, for the purpose of which data must be expresses his attitude of complete dependency
collected, studied, sorted, classified and then be on God; as an apostle, he presents the authority
transposed on paper, according to a he has, as opposed to those that he addresses to
predetermined plan. They are occasional (Socoteanu 1996, 7-8).
writings, that need to deal with pressing matters, The second intertextual intervention from
with issues waiting quick response and so Romans is from chapter 8: 38-39: neither
written under the impulse of the moment death nor life, nor angels nor rulers, nor things
(Constantinescu, 2002, 191). It seems that present nor things to come, nor powers, 39 nor
Livius Ciocrlie hinted well into these epistles height nor depth, nor anything else in all
substance and motive (or he has read serious creation, will be able to separate us from the
theological works on the mission of Apostle love of God Paul does not preach; he needs no
Paul a question we will have to answer at the arguments. He needs blasts, words and rhythm
end of these considerations upon the biblical (Ciocrlie 2010, 147).
intertextuality of his work), because these Ciocrlies comment is perfectly adequate
annotations represent an adequate reference to to the spontaneous character of Pauls writings
the scriptural reality, without derisory elements because exactly this spontaneity and lack of
and without substantial meaning inversions, as polish is what gives this writing their true
was the case with the other annotations on the value (3).
verses of evangelists. The Romanian author
either perfectly infers or knows Pauls texts
written under the pressure of certain (1) Ibidem.
circumstances or events that demanded of him (2) Ibidem.
(3) Ibidem.
185
Chapter 9 of Romans (verse 21) chapter had none (2) and underlines the grave
which marks the shift from presenting the importance of spiritual things (3).
Lords plan to presenting the means by which He continues with the same Epistle,
this plan may be fulfilled [] and from the chapter 9:1 Am I not free? Am I not an
depiction of man coming true before God to the apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord?, Paul
depiction of God coming true before man. writes to the Corinthians. In what manner has he
(Socoteanu 1996, 159)- teases the dialogue to seen Jesus? Maybe only in his faith. If he had
such an extent that, out of context, the quotation really seen him, when he was Saul, there would
may be given a literary interpretation devoid of have been no reason for him to be proud. That
damage. Those well informed on theology place would mean that seeing Him, he did not believe.
the focus on the very same piece of clay from (Ciocrlie 2010, 153). The questions in this
which two different types of vases result, but verse have double purpose: refreshing of the
are not different types of clay; (Socoteanu, awareness of Gods greater calling and the
1996, 282) the vases of honesty or opprobrium mission of opening the eyes to the reality of
do not result because the clay is different, so not ghostly life (4).
due to the fact that some are part of a people 1 Corinthians, chapter 13:1 is brought into
destined for salvation and others are not (1) the text without any comment: Poem to Saint
(Socoteanu, 1996, 283). Paul: If I speak in the tongues of men and of
To whomever is confused of the Lords angels, but have not love, I am a noisy gong or a
discretionary action, Paul says: Has the potter clanging cymbal (Ciocrlie 2010, 156). Agape
no right over the clay, to make out of the same is the theme of the entire chapter, an hymn
lump one vessel for honourable use and another dedicated to intransient love, inserted by Paul as
for dishonourable use? Let us picture a painter elaborated piece of work (5).
saying I want to create a bad painting; it would 2 Corinthians is the intertextual material
be my pleasure to do so. When creating a up next for analysis: the affliction we
broken vase, is the potter still a potter? It is not
good, nor prudent, nor something that should be
(2) The Holy Bible, 1 Corinthians 7:29, English
done to argue God (Ciocrlie 2010, 147).
Standard Version Anglicized.
1 Corinthians then brought into (3) Regardless of how fiery earthly life may be, it is
discussion: Some of the advice given in the less valuable, because it is transient, than the new
Corinthians is so in correspondence with the life offered through faith in Our Lord Jesus
spirit of the epoch, that it seems obvious only a Christ, which is eternal and happy. The one
bigot, not also the believer, can take them redeemed to our Lord Jesus, among many other
literally nowadays. That the appointed time has gifts received from his Redeemer, also receives
grown very short is what Paul used to think; in the gift of wisdom and light, so they may
reference to the Second Coming of Jesus distinguish among values and not place a value of
(Ciocrlie 2010, 152). less importance above one of greater importance,
and not bind his heart to something that is not
The Apostle Paul says these words in
primordial, but offer themselves wholly to the
chapter 7:29: This is what I mean, brothers: the greater value Nicolae Moldoveanu, Hristos
appointed time has grown very short. From now Crucea meditai iduhovniceti la Intia Epistol
on, let those who have wives live as though they ctre Corinteni a Sfntului Apostol Pavel,
Comorile Harului Publishing House, Deva, 2001,
(1) In Judaism, there existed the idea that they had p. 218.
different rights to salvation, as opposed to other (4) The Holy Apostle Paul confessed that he was
peoples. If the vases of honesty were made from free, that he was an apostle, that he had seen the
different clay, which would mean the Potter is not Lord and turned souls back to God. All these were
sovereign. If a certain piece of clay would get to not praise brought upon himself, but powerful
Him, he would not be free to mold it as He ghostly facts, through which he was carrying on
pleases, but he forces to make vases of honesty. Gods Will on earth. He was self-aware and
Thusly, the clay would dictate the Potter what to sought to live at the peak of the Greater being and
do. However, if it is not up to the clay but to the calling! We cannot live the real Christian life on
Potter, He underlines his reign. A piece of clay is a earth, we cannot be useful to the souls that
mixture of earth and water. If there is enough interact with us, if we are not fully aware of the
water, we shall have a soft clay, easy to mold. If calling and mission in the world that God gave us
there is little water, the clay will be more like Nicolae Moldoveanu, quoted work, p. 246.
stone. In this way, lack of moisturizing the earth (5) From the introduction to Corinthians in the
of our being, through the Word of God, may lead Romanian version of the Bible that was used to
to petrifying of our intentions towards God. help write the present paper.
186
experienced in Asia. These words of Saint Pauls stops to consider the text, where the latter raises
offer credibility; you think thats what questions, new interpretations, curiosities or
happened. But this credibility retrospectively mere similitudes with his own cultural memory.
reverberates on Christ (Ciocrlie 2010, 158). Apostle Pauls contemporaneity is also
Chapter 1:8 (1) reminds of an affliction in underlined by Valeriu Anania in his annotations:
Asia, however, the commentators of the a dynamic temper, Paul is a river of energy and
Scripture do not place the focus on the continent perpetual motion (3).
named here, but interpret the entire verse as There is a certain thing that needs to be
cherishing the trials and suffering of mankind admitted: the consistent character of the authors
for obtaining virtue.2 However, the credibility biblical reading, as well as the frequency of
retrospectively reverberating on Christ annotations. An essential element of the biblical
(Ciocrlie 2010, 158) is a backwards annotations is represented by the authors
interpretation (from materiality towards Christ), maintained interest for unraveling the scriptural
devoid of the light of faith; Christ is credible mystery through an investigation method that is
through Himself, he needs no stable material specific of the literary texts. A reading solution
points. for Ciocrlies biblical intertext would be the
One page later: not to put it too opening in parallel of the two texts: Cu faa la
severely. Such words under Saint Pauls quill perete and the scriptural text, the continuous
make of him a contemporary of ours. Precisely comparison between the quoted text and the text
in the day that Im improvising a page about the that is being quoted into and the establishment
need for instruments, and experimenting with it. of the relationship between them. The resulting
Saint Paul makes reference to the letter of The bi-text can only justify its existence by bringing
New Testament. I dont know how to interpret the quoted text to its initial form. In want of
this in the absence of footnotes. Were the footnotes (Ciocrlie 2010, 160) the profane
gospels collated and quickly published? Good, author does not know how to interpret. A
but his own epistle is part of The New consequence of this confession: the reading of
Testament (Ciocrlie 2010, 159-160). the biblical text happens, times and often, in the
Livius Ciocrlie is referring here to the presence of footnotes, theological interpretations
same Epistle, chapter 2:5: Now if anyone has or annotation to the sacred text. A confession of
caused pain, he has caused it not to me, but in pertaining to footnotes seems extremely
some measurenot to put it too severelyto all important, all the more because they mediate the
of you (2 Corinthians 2:5, The Holy Bible, intertextual relationship proper.
English Standard Version Anglicized). Livius Ciocrlie reads The Bible, asks
The reference cannot be deduced from the questions and searches for answers by reading
context, because the textual snipping is too little. other verses (because he does not understand).
I have deduced the exact reference by reading on His searching triggers the bringing of the sacred
the scriptural text. This may lead to an area of text closer, ignoring the temporal distance, and,
interest regarding our analysis: Livius Ciocrlie perhaps, installing a subtle strategy of bringing
seems to read the Holy Scripture linearly, page into the literary text a new type of intertext, not
by page and the bookmarks are there where he very used nowadays. An entreaty comes after
the quote: I am asking of whoever reads my
(1) For we do not want you to be ignorant, work, if they read my work, to learn nothing
brothers,[b] of the affliction we experienced in from me (Ciocrlie 2010, 160). The biblical
Asia. For we were so utterly burdened beyond our quote does not seem to offer answers, but rather
strength that we despaired of life itself. The stimulate the perpetual search for them.
Holy Bible, English Standard Version Anglicized. Unanswered questions,
(2) The Holy Apostle Paul was surrounded by misunderstandings, attempts to analyse from
numerous hardships and bore many burdens. Such
several perspectives, rediscoveries, and
behavior coming from the world was suffered by
many who preached the Gospel. However, he
comebacks upon the sacred text. Not taking,
experienced certain hardships that very few did. sometimes, the revealed character of the sacred
He recalls here such a trial, that he himself, who texts very seriously may cause these suspicions.
was used with death, did not forget. It wasnt only The solutions for deciphering the Scriptures
one of the greatest sufferings, but it also lasted for
a long time. It is difficult to understand that
exactly those who love God more and are entirely (3) From the introduction to Romans in the Romanian
in His service receive a greater cup of sorrow version of the Bible that was used to help write
Nicolae Moldoveanu, quoted work, p. 11. the present paper.
187
text are not looked for in their very constituency, suffocated by convention, or the crisis of an
but in the immediate reading of an alien context, entire culture). The carrying into the text of a
different from the originary one. dialogue with The Holy Scripture may also
If we attempt a classification of the verses translate an attempt to augment the value of the
quoted into Cu faa la perete, we shall discover dialogue with other writers. Livius Ciocrlie is
that their choosing is dependent on the authors not the tourist that only stops to consider a few
preoccupations from a certain point, on the scriptural chapters or verses, trying to
questions that arise from certain circumstances. understand them. He offers a careful look and
The applied reading of these verses is, just as proves to be an explorer possessing clear
Ciocrlies attitude towards other quotes: literal knowledge of the entire investigated biblical
or literary, like a novel, forwards or backwards, field.
betraying a downright or shallow research of the Questions referring to the fidelity or
sacred text. The ultimate purpose of the biblical infidelity of the biblical quotation regarding the
intertext, it seems, knows ones self by means of original text are not justified, since the
interrogating the sacred text. The self, the comparison of the two texts proves that the
knowing of ones self is brought to fruition, Ciocrlies text does not contain and does not
Livius Ciocrlie seems to infer, only after a very assume false or degraded biblical quotes.
toilsome bookish experience. And the The option for a biblical intertext can also
intertextual diversity found in his diaries seems be justified by the desire of finding a fresh and
to confirm this. yet not worn-out intertextual in an intertextual
We would be right to inquire what the literature defined by excellency. The adornment
function of these biblical quotes brought into of the Ciocrlies text with biblical quotes can
discussion is. Why The Holy Scripture such a be a symptom of the desire to innovate the
rich intertextual matter in Cu faa la perete? intertextual sources in a literature marked by
Can the adjoining of quotes substitute the need the feeling that art has explored all possibilities
for stable points or examples in such an (Groupe 1978, 32), feeling contoured by a
intertextual a text? Are the scriptural quotations cumulative and plethora culture (Groupe
only apparently disorganized? Or do they have 1978, 33).
an internal conduct that is less visible to the first If no other book of universal literature has
interactions with the text? Behind the biblical been reproduced for so many times, translated or
intertext, can there be seen a carefully assembled transcribed just like the books of the Holy
construction in the textual space or are we Scripture (reproduced and transcribed in dozens
dealing with biblical fragmentation and no and hundreds of copies after the original books
overview? Is the intertext a literary trick that the of the Apostles), in the Ciocrlies volume Cu
author uses to hide his sincerity? Or, on the faa la perete we are dealing with a copy or
contrary, a way to exaggerate his sincerity? Or a transcription of very many old verses-or
simple manner of existence? (Their only newtestamentaries, the Holy Scipture becoming
subject, other than the writing itself, could be a a inexhaustible intertextual material. Reporting
manner of existence) (Ciocrlie 2010, 160). to the biblical writings is made through the
On a prime layer, the appetite for biblical volume, the literary text becoming, in this way,
quotes could be the cause of the incapability to the adequate space in which the sacred text is
believe (or lack of healthy patience) and hope being read. Interpretations are lingeringly
that, in this way, the biblical text will substitute negociated and never fixed forever in the limits
for the lack of interior order? The biblical quotes of an avowedly or inside out reading. It does not
have, in certain instances, a cleansing function matter that much, if such an interpretation is
and translate the desire to go back to places that authorized or not (researchers of the Holy
could have the power to install order. Scripture would, most probably, contest
One of the first considerations regarding vehemently such an interpretational attempt).
the purpose of inserting biblical quotes in a What gives here value to the intertextuality
literary text is, we believe, that of trying to Ciocrlies textuality is precisely the intertextual
unravel the revelatory mystery, making it, in the source of the testamentary books.
same time, accessible to the large public. The If the art of quotation has been seen as a
presence of such quotes in the text can also sign of cultural and aesthetical instability, the art
circumscribe to the attempt of transgressing the of biblical quotations can become the clue of a
limit of divinity or of choosing a solution contemporary aesthetical stability, of an
towards surpass a crisis (the crisis of a language existence of some reference systems which wait
188
to be explored. The biblical intertext ranks the References
text which uses it at a superior level towards the
ordinary one, offering the possibility of Papers in periodical journals:
enlarging rough spectrum for intertextuality and Groupe Groupe , Douze bribes pour
the opening of current literature towards biblical 1978 dcoller en 40.000 signes, in
theology. Fascination of the biblical quote Revue desthtique, nr. 3-4/1978,
allows a new world to penetrate the world of Paris, Gallimard, coll. 10/18.
diary, hence contributing at the salvation of the
diaristic text. Biblical writings are writings that Books:
also have something else to say besides telling Bdru 2007 Bdru, George, Postmo-
themselves (1). dernismul romnesc
Another motivation for the frequency of [Romanian postmodernism],
biblical intertexts could be that of increasing the Iai, Institutul European,
value of the other quotations, by placing the 2007.
latter among the ones from the Holy Scripture, Berce 2002 Berce, Sanda, Intertextu-
or an attempt towards saving Ciocrlies ality: as a form of virtual
confession. reality, Cluj-Napoca, Dacia,
Through biblical insertions, the author 2002.
seems to suggest to his own self a minimum *** 2001 Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur
point of reference for his persona as well as the [Bible or Holy Scripture],
readers who will want to go deeper in the Bucureti, BOR Institute,
(endless) ocean of biblical studies. The 2001.
frequency of biblical intertexts in Ciocrlies Ciocrlie 2010 Ciocrlie, Livius, Cu faa la
text goes beyond the simple coordinate of the perete [Facing the Wall],
themes introduction, and even reaches Bucharest, Cartea Rom-
exegetical details that orient the reader neasc, 2010.
ingeniously and open the pathway to reflection Constantinescu Constantinescu, Ioan, Stu-
for him. If the postmodern writer is nothing but 2002 diul Noului Testament
an eternal scribe and all he does is reorganize manual pentru seminariile
available material, and originality is just a teologice [Study of the New
matter of mixing (Muat, 1998, 45), Livius Testament manual for
Ciocrlie in Cu faa la perete, is not solely a theological seminaries],
scribe of biblical fragments, the book Bucharest, BOR Institute,
continuously transcribing (2) other verses. 2002.
We have proved that the biblical text, Eco 1996 Eco, Umberto, Limitele
which became an intertext in Livius Ciocrlies interpretrii [The Limits of
text, cannot be interpreted by fragment and the Interpretation],
exempt of the whole to which it belongs. The Constana, Pontica, 1996.
reader engages in a dialogue with the author and Genette 2000 Genette, Grard, Palimp-
promises a pact: that of becoming reader of the sestes, Paris, Editions du
Holy Scripture in order to become Livius Seuil, 1982.
Ciocrlies dialogue partner. Jones 2000 Jones, Kenneth, Evanghelia
Bibliei 15 lecii din episto-
la lui Pavel ctre Romani
[The Gospel of Bible - 15
(1) In Cartea cu fleacuri, Livius Ciocrlie mentions: Lessons from Paul's Epistle
No matter how many things a literature book has
to the Romans], Bucharest,
to say it has to be pervaded by the capacity of
telling itself. At the border there are writings Agape, 2000.
which have nothing else to say. What does Manoilescu Manoilescu Dinu, Natalia,
Caragiale want to say in his sketches, in O noapte 2004 Iisus Hristos n lumina
furtunoasa?, in Dale carnavalului? Nothing Sfintelor Evanghelii [Jesus
more than Bach in Clavecinul bine temperat. Christ in the Light of the
Livius Ciocrlie, Cartea cu fleacuri, ed. cit., p. Holy Gospels], 2nd vol.,
210. Bucharest, Byzanthine
(2) Books always speak of other books and every Publishing House, 2004.
story tells a story that has already been told Eco Moldoveanu Moldoveanu, Nicolae, Hris-
1996, 100.
189
2001 tos Crucea meditaii duction to New Testament
duhovniceti la Intia Study - Volume II - The
Epistol ctre Corinteni a Gospels of Luke and John.
Sfntului Apostol Pavel Synoptic Problem], Cluj-
[Christ Cross - Spiritual Napoca, PUC, 2001.
Meditations of the First Tofan 2002 Tofan, Stelian, Introducere
Epistle of St. Paul to the n studiul Noului Testament,
Corinthians], Deva, Como- vol. II, Evangheliile dup
rile Harului, 2001. Matei i Marcu, Documen-
Muat 1998 Muat, Carmen, Perspective tul Quelle [Introduction to
asupra romanului romnesc the Study of the New
postmodern si alte fictiuni Testament, Vol II, the
teoretice [Perspectives on Gospels of Matthew and
Romanian Postmodern Mark, Quelle Document],
Novel and other Theoretical Cluj-Napoca, PUC, 2002.
Fictions], Piteti, Paralela Verzan 1996 Verzan, Sabin, Sfntul
45, 1998. Apostol Pavel istoria
Socoteanu 1996 Socoteanu, Ion, Epistola propovduirii evangheliei i
ctre Romani [Epistle to the organizrii Bisericii n
Romans], Bucharest, [f. e.], epoca apostolic [Holy
1996. Apostle Paul - preaching
Tofan 2001 Tofan, Stelian, Introducere the gospel history and
n studiul Noului Testament organization of the Church
volumul II Evangheliile in the apostolic age],
dup Luca i Ioan. Bucharest, Institutul biblic
Problema sinoptic [Intro- i de misiune al BOR, 1996.
190
Food Fantasy. The Rise of a Genre
Dana PERCEC
Associate Professor, PhD, University of Timioara, Romania
E-mail: dana.percec@litere.uvt.ro
Abstract. The paper presents the development of a new research discipline, food studies, which has
gained prominence in the last decades, and its influence on the configuration of new literary genres.
While food is now a central subject in areas as various as history, economics, sociology, medicine,
nutrition, and cultural studies, it is also popular with the general public, books, TV shows and channels
centered on cooking, eating, and drinking being extremely fashionable today. This popularity has affected
an increasingly diversified literature as well, which proposes recipe collections inspired by the writing
style, characters, historical background of various literary masterpieces and non-canonical writings.
Key words: cookbooks, eating, fantasy, food studies, literary genres, pop culture, recipes
194
Food and new literary genres food as an important signifier of moral worth,
Because all people eat and many people social status, and accomplishment in
cook, the meanings attached to food speak to housekeeping. Maggie Lanes Jane Austen and
many more people than do the meanings Food (1995) gives such a cultural and historical
attached to more esoteric objects and practices, insight, while more recent volumes take
write editors Carole Counihan and Penny Van advantage of Austens transformation into a pop
Esterik (1997, 8) in their introduction to the icon, advancing Austenian recipes (such as the
collection of essential reading materials in food Wine-Roasted Gammon and Pigeon Pie or
studies. No wonder, then, that literary criticism Marthas Almond Cheesecake, Black 2002) or
and history at their most serious have turned to even suggesting having tea with your favourite
foodstuffs. A veritable boom in this academic Regency romance author. (Wilson, 2004) The
and popular subgenre in its own right can be latter, who regales his readers with smells,
seen in the past ten to fifteen years in the tastes, and flavours throughout his
English-speaking world especially, though not Remembrance of Things Past, is an ideal pretext
exclusively. Currently, food in fictional texts for a literary history of fin de sicle food. (King,
or literary studies is an independent theme, most 2006) Significantly, Proust offers a recipe from
commonly evoked in the discursive and graphic his childhood, Boeuf la Mode, which he then
format of cookbooks. Kara Keeling and Scott uses as a metaphor for the whole process of
Pollard (2009, 21) explain the success of this writing a novel: individualities are constructed,
emerging genre in terms of its ability to add in fiction, out of numerous impressions, as the
sensory details to the original literary text, famous Boeuf was made of carefully selected
offer[ing] a gustatory supplement to the bits of meats, enriched with jelly.
narrative (2009, 21). The mass market effect of Food histories of Shakespearean
the genre is that it capitalizes on the readers inspiration, like Shakespearean criticism and
interest in certain stories, characters, and Shakespeare-based historical/cultural research in
historical periods, or on the impact of certain general, have an already long tradition, one of
canonical writers on the public consciousness. the first resources for 17th century recipes dating
The variety of texts related to food is so back to 1976, in Madge Lorwins Dining with
great nowadays that it would be quite a Shakespeare. The collection contains cooking
challenge to attempt a classification. Still, for instructions in the original, Shakespearean
the purposes of the present study, such an English, with translations into modern English
attempt is necessary. Thus, an important and measurement explanations, as well as the
category is that of the cultural histories, which first account of the culinary culture of
are scholarly endeavours to describe Elizabethan England. 13 full menus include
domesticity, fashions and mentalities during dishes associated with some of the Bards most
periods associated with iconic literary figures: famous characters. In the 2000s, the variety of
Shakespeares early modern England or Jane Shakespeare-inspired cookbooks is as vast as
Austens Regency. Secondly, there is the any other branch of Shakespearean or
pastiche, which combines the recipe format with Renaissance studies. While Francine Segan
a certain writers literary voice. Thirdly, there is proposes Renaissance recipes for the contempo-
the popular category of literary cookbooks, rary cook, (2003) Mark Morton and Andrew
which offer, in a glossy format, recipes inspired Coppolino (2008) write about table habits,
from the plot, characters and setting of dining and festivities in the Elizabethan times
fashionable novels and TV series. By far the and plays, the chapters of the book being
most extensive category, this one has already divided by food type: mutton, lamb, fish and
spawned a number of subgenres, the fantasy seafood, vegetables, etc., and surveying early
cookbook being among the most conspicuous. modern cooking methods. An interesting theory
Scholarly examples include cultural is advanced by Joan Fitzpatrick, (2007) who
histories of eating, fashions and culinary choices considers the eating habits illustrated by the
based on the literary proof offered by authors Shakespearean text more relevant to the
like Jane Austen, Marcel Proust, etc. The contemporary mind than those of historical
former, whose novels display domestic plots, periods closer to our own, but which are
where the rituals of giving or sharing meals are mentally and symbolically more remote, because
crucial, despite the scarcity of detailed of the Cartesian body/mind divide. Before the
descriptions of foodstuffs and dishes, of material 18th century, dietaries looked strikingly similar
things in general, acknowledges the function of to 21st century nutrition guides, offering tips on
195
what men and women should eat and avoid, medium of the written, printed text to the oral
mixing foodways with personality types. This medium of the theatre, and then to the medium
direction was, of course, carried along Galens of musical performance. Thirdly, it is an
humoural theory, inherited from the Middle example of postmodern imagination, as Attardi
Ages, but, significantly, it displayed what we Anselmo and De Luigi mimic the fashion in
take now for contemporary beliefs in todays popular literature of producing countless
consumption patterns influenced by lifestyle, or prequels and sequels to the famous plots of
the conviction that diet and exercise are classical literature. This mock-prequel focuses
important rules which should be strictly on young Lady Macbeth before marrying the
observed. Scottish thane, as a girl accomplished in all
The literary pastiche in the form of a domesticity, raised by her mother to be a
cookbook is another option for postmodernist housewife and an excellent cook, a connoisseur
authors practicing a sort of literary of the most jealously guarded culinary secrets of
ventriloquism. Mark Cricks experiment, both the 17th and the 19th century (in a voluntary,
entitled Kafkas Soup (2005), goes beyond the carefully planned act of anachronism).
ingredients and methods, focusing on food as The cookbook is organized on the
text, as a language, as a system of signs, with structural model of a play/libretto, with a list of
syntax and a style of its own. As a photographer characters, prologue/overture, four acts,
dissatisfied with traditional cookbooks, which, intervals, and an epilogue. Each act includes
he says, have nice pictures and dull texts, Crick recipes instead of scenes, which begin on the
turns recipes into stories and also includes his discursive model of culinary language (with a
own visual projections of an ideal dish list of ingredients), continue in the narrative
presentation, illustrating the book with his own mode, retelling the plot, then mixing styles and
photographs. Crick proposes 17 recipes written rhetoric (the thriller, literary criticism, musical
in the style of 17 authors, from Homer and theory, a lesson, etc.), finishing, symmetrically,
Chaucer, to Italo Calvino and Thomas Mann. with the imperative mood characteristic of
All recipes can be tried out in the readers own recipes and guidebooks. All this is seasoned
kitchens, even if the instructions for Clafoutis with short biographical notes about Shakespeare
Grandmre la Virginia Woolf begin like this: and Verdi, literary commentaries about the
She placed the cherries in a buttered dish and Bards influence on the Italian composer, and
looked out of the window. The children were quotes. The epilogue, entitled The Castle Cellar,
racing across the lawn, Nicholas already provides advice on the selection of wines to use
between the clumps of red-hot pokers, turning to when serving the great variety of dishes which
wait for the others. (2005, 60) and for have been introduced and devoured, at least at
Vietnamese Chicken la Graham Greene, like the level of the printed page. Instead of
this: A recipe has no beginning or end: Conclusions, the book offers a discographic
arbitrarily one chooses at what point the cooking history of Verdis opera.
instructions become necessary, after the butcher An example: in Act One, Attardi Anselmo
has done his work and before care of the dish and De Luigi come up with a subchapter/scene
passes to the seasoning whims of the guests. I entitled The Witchs Beard (2007, 13-16). It
choose the moment when, looking into the includes the story of the warriors encounter
refrigerator, I noticed the naked white flesh of with the weird sisters, a historical and cultural
the chicken. As I stared at the breasts I felt a description of bearded women, a commentary on
pain across my head (2005, 70). the elegance and lyricism of the music Verdi
Literary pastiche with a tinge of parody, chooses in his opera to suggest the importance
written in an operatic tempo, Francesco Attardi of this moment in the economy of the entire
Anselmo and Elisa De Luigis A Feast for Lady story, and a recipe for four persons, containing
Macbeth (1997, 2007) puts gastronomy on the anchovies and a salty chicory sauce. Or: The
musical scales, reconciling Lasagna Verdi with Verdi Interval (2007, 43-44), under the pretext
Stratford-upon-Avon Pork Pie, as the authors of a recipe for Vol-Au-Vent alla Busseto,
themselves warn their readers in the Foreword describes the complicated process of selection
(2007, 4). The book is, firstly, an intertextual and creative intervention which is appropriation,
exercise, bringing together two texts in this case, with a transfer from literature to
Shakespeares Scottish play and the 19th century music. The chapter explains Verdis fascination
Italian libretto for Verdis opera Macbeth. with Shakespeare, using the support of
Secondly, it is a creative transfer from the biographical evidence. Finally, the recipe for
196
five persons, adapted from the cuisine of Verdis adapted from 18th and 19th century cookbooks
native region (Busseto), evokes a courageous and private documents, recipes of food served
combination between chicken organs, dried with tea, from delicious scones to toast with
mushrooms, onions, and local red wine. The good, rich, home-made butter.
Elizabethan Interval offers glimpses into the Shakespeare-based cookbooks are, again,
cultural history of Shakespeares contemporaries a category that promises to dominate the market
with contrasts between London and country life, being, at the same time, perfect illustrations of
and with juicy details of theatre rivalry in the the way in which food studies have been
late 16th century, as evidenced in the writings of embraced by history and literary criticism, at the
Robert Green or Shakespeare himself, in crossroads between experimentation,
pamphlets, letters, and diaries. The recipe for 10 appropriation, and marketing. This is the case of
persons is a genuine feast: spongecake, orange the collaborative project of Elizabethan
brandy, raspberry jelly, cardamom powder, and performance historian Alycia Smith-Howard and
whipped cream. celebrated master chef Alan Deegan, The Food
Somewhere in between a serious of Love: A Shakespeare Cookbook. (2012)
research project of cultural history and a popular Smith-Howards share is the result of extensive
cookery collection, the attempts in the style research into Elizabethan cookery books and a
offered by Tea with Jane Austen, (2004) for re-reading of Shakespeares plays, sonnets and
example, serve both an informative and an poems in search for food imagery, without the
entertainment purpose. Written by a curator of support which can often be deceptive and
Jane Austens memorial house (Kim Wilson is second-hand of regular concordances. This
also the author of a book about Jane Austen in creative investigation of the Shakespearean text
the Garden, where she catalogues various types revealed thousands of references and led to the
of English gardens, from parks and groves, to finding that the play with the most abundant
cottage gardens and Regency or Victorian culinary vocabulary is not Twelfth Night, which
follies), Tea with Jane Austen looks at the social lent its first line to the books title, but The
practice of serving and taking tea during the Winters Tale, which contains probably the most
Regency and Victorian period, emphasizing the complete grocery shopping list of early
important role tea played in the English every- modernity available in a piece of literature:
day life. Each chapter looks at tea in a different CLOWN: I cannot dot without counters. Let
context: it presents moments of the day me see; what am I to buy for our sheepshearing
associated with tea (not only the so-called 5 feast? Three pound of sugar, five pound of
oclock tea, but breakfast and snacks and other currants, rice [] I must have saffron to colour
meals); it explains the function of tea in peoples the warden pies; mace, dates none, thats out
lives, illustrating it with the help of excerpts of my note; nutmegs, seven; a race or two of
from Jane Austens novels, her letters, and other ginger, but that I may beg; four pound of prunes,
writings of the Regency authors and as many raisins o the sun (WT, IV, 3, 36-
contemporaries. Tea evokes a place and a mood, 48).
Wilson rightfully notices, (2004, 12) and the
success of the book resides in this very Food fantasy and fancy recipes
achievement. Although the description of tea The frequent juxtaposition of the cookery
parties plays a peripheral role in Austens books, book genre and the fantasy story is only
the frequent evocation of food, eating, drinking, apparently forc. In fact, both food studies and
and feasting transforms the phenomenon into a fantastic literature are borderline territories, in
substantial theme. It implies hospitality, sharing, constant progress and change, enriched by other
quality and refinement, fashion, manners, and genres and discourses, developing and widening
social convention. In addition, the charm of the their scope every day. As far as literature is
book resides in the presentation not only of tea concerned, in fact, there was a time when all
as a moment and a practice, but of ingredients literature was fantasy, writes Peter S. Beagle in
and equipment associated with tea (the dining the introduction to an anthology of fantastic
parlour, a key room in any Regency or literature. (2010, 9) The fine line between
Victorian household; the tea stand and table fantasy and actual literature has begun to
expensive pieces of furniture which add to the become thicker and thicker only in the last few
value and impact of the tea-serving gesture, etc.) decades, with the development of a number of
Last but not least, the book offers several recipes subgenres and even sub-subgenres. It is hard to
dating from Jane Austens age, taken and pin down fantasy as a genre just as it is hard to
197
place the genre (or related genres and subgenres) In the 2010s, Marry Poppins is no longer
in an aesthetic hierarchy, according to the dernier cri. But Harry Potter is. So an
mainstream highbrow standards. In their attempt unofficial guide to the fantasy world of the
to isolate the genre, many theorists have resorted Muggles and Hogwarts foods and dishes is the
to the term employed by Brian Attebery in his best way to continue the Harry Potter craze in
pioneering work on fantasy, a term borrowed other ways than cinema, comics and clothes
from the vocabulary of mathematics, fuzzy set, industry. The Harry Potter Cookbook proposes
(Clute, Grant 1997, viii; Mendlesohn 2008, 183, one hundred and fifty imaginative recipes that
273; James and Mendlesohn, 2012, 2) meaning take the readers through everyday family meals,
that fantasy can be defined not by fixing celebratory school meals, and party snacks, with
boundaries which are fluid but by analyzing a pinch of magic. Author Dinah Bucholz (2010)
the most relevant examples. combines cookery, herbology, and divination in
Hence we observe the genre instability order to attract the younger public, while
which is recognized by all theorists. But while admitting that her project is mainly supposed to
some salute this crossing of boundaries, carry an educational message. Todays children,
considering it an exhilarating development, accustomed more (if not only) with pizzas,
bringing with it a sense of breached ramparts burgers and fizzy drinks, may feel attracted to a
and undiscovered terrain (Wolfe, 2011, 19) and world of food which looks fantastic, but is, in
recommending fantasy as a fresh, postmodern fact, quite traditional and healthy. The book
instance of interstitial art, which subverts genre teaches Harry Potter fans how to cook (and eat)
expectations and defies literary conventions, plain British dishes, unknown to children in
others see this as the flaw of a fictional area most of the countries where the book has been
which slips into the commercial and thus forfeits translated, such as Black Pudding, Kidney Pie or
the right to be regarded as a true genre (Beagle Trifles. Food is an essential ingredient in J.K.
2010, 10). Rowlings novels, her frequent references to
Returning to the cookbook fantasy, the eating and drinking, to breakfasts and snacks,
cross-gender literature which is so abundant in being an attempt to make the readers literally
bookshops and libraries today, it must be taste the fantasy and smell the wizards
observed that, quantitatively, one of the most world. Starting from the rather common
alluring categories is that of popular metaphor of the alchemy of the oven and the
impersonations of fantastic narratives as cookery magic which transforms raw ingredients into
collections. A successful type is the cooking savoury treats, Dinah Bucholz invites readers to
guide addressed to children or to a teenager explore the possibility to transform the mundane
audience, which dwell on the educational, into a masterpiece (literary and/or culinary).
formative character of cookbooks. One of the Sharing the fantastic scenario with the
first attempts in this category is an A to Z guide Harry Potter cookbook but lacking the
by the author of the Mary Poppins series, P.L. educational dimension (since it is not designed
Travers (1975, 2006). Mary Poppins in the for children and teenager audiences), the
Kitchen. A Cookery Book with a Story first starts (cook)book of ice and fire based on George
from the assumption that the mere, plain R.R. Martins Game of Thrones pushes culinary
discourse of recipes is too technical and not fantasy even further. Chelsea Monroe-Cassel
narrative enough to recommend especially to the and Sariann Lehrer offer an official cooking
younger segment of the public (hence, the companion to a medieval world of rituals and
kitchen with a story). Then, explaining in traditions. After substantial historical
simple terms how to prepare such foodstuffs as investigation, in which the authors consulted
the Topsy-Turvy Cake, the Very Plain Cake, or books of cookery dating from Roman times, the
the Queen of Puddings, the book offers its Middle Ages, and the Elizabethan period, they
readers a tour through the lives of the Banks offer a combination between familiar and exotic,
family and children (plus the famous nanny) via in an attempt to turn fiction into an edible
a weeks menu and a weeks stay in the kitchen, reality. They manage to bring back to life, under
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201
Andrei Codrescu and the/His New Scheherazade
Rodica GRIGORE
Associate Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania
E-mail: rodica.grigore@gmail.com
Abstract. Andrei Codrescu, Romanian-born American writer, is well-known for his books of
fiction or non-fiction based either on his personal experience as an exile or on a profound understanding
of literature. His novels express a permanent fascination for reading and re-reading the great works of
literature before him, in his particular case, the act of reading always meaning an original interpretation of
the great books. Nevertheless, Codrescu did not limit himself at this stage, implying a complicated
strategy of masking (or unmasking), and the author includes, therefore, in his texts, some personal
memories or personal symbols in order to be (or to become) himself a part of the narration and one of its
key-notes. Dreams, consciousness, imagined realities, make up the existence of the narrative voice of
Codrescus latest book, Whatever Gets You through the Night, since the author himself is conceived as an
imagined personality that has taken on an actual reality.
For the narrative voice in Andrei imagine (1). The most important stage within
Codrescus Whatever Gets You through the this process is, of course, to dream insistently
Night: A Story of Sheherezade and the Arabian and to perform all the daily duties but living,
Entertainments, (Princeton University Press: simultaneously, in the imagination, that is,
2011), imagination proves more than an escape traveling far and wide in the geography of
from the tedium of quotidian reality; rather minds. And even if the philosophical content of
dreams are creations of an alternate reality, an his book is not perfectly defined, Codrescu may
ideal to be controlled and manipulated, but left as well call it an aestheticism of abdication, for
to occupy the abstract realm of imagination only freedom offers the possibility of isolation
because it is from this ideality that the writer which is necessary for complete solitude. The
derives more satisfaction. Unlike the Romantics, authors expression of disengagement and
implicitly criticized for their rejection of actual solitude then is not a form of eccentricity, but
life for a fantastic (or not) super-reality, he does consists of dreaming. Of course, dreaming of
not deny his actuality nor does he dismiss it as literature here might be called imagination
dissatisfying. In other words, he inter-exists, when reflective, visualization when deliberate
stressing that his imagined reality (the ideal) is or just fantasy when contrived for our aesthetic
truer than his actual one. He does not challenge sensibility. So the author gathers landscapes and
the reality of his actuality, but merely challenges people in a perpetual state of dreaming, thus
the dismissive assumption that dreams are not substituting the dreariness of real counterparts.
real. As far as Codrescu is concerned, as well as the
More in an attitude of reverie than one of narrative voice of his book, dreams are the
rejection or escape, he confesses to himself that perfect landscape of solitude, for dreaming is the
he is unable to discount the reality and vitality of only paradigm of understanding.
what he imagines. His dreams are no less The Thousand and One Nights (also
substantial than his reality, though different. known as The Arabian Nights) is, as Borges
Objects and people have a life of their own in often said, the book as universe: an endless
the imagination. In fact, as Richard Zenith put it realm of magical wonders and urban low life,
discussing Pessoas work, the only way to
survive in this world is by keeping alive our
(1) Richard Zenith, Introduction, in The Book of
dream, without ever fulfilling it, since the
Disquiet by Fernando Pessoa, New York, Penguin
fulfillment never measure up to what we Books, 2001, p. XXIII.
202
palaces and harems, genies, princesses, and order to construct a form of aesthetic
monsters. The work is full of heroic, self-reliant contemplation of life; and this new aesthetic
women, outlandish adventures, and science- survives the collapse of all philosophies and
fictional marvels (a flying horse, a city of brass). metaphysics, a new form of modernist
The reader who only recalls Ali Baba or Aladdin Epicureanism and at the same time a sort of
will be surprised by the puzzle-like nestling of postmodern cynicism.
the stories, which are interlinked in ingenious In this book, ordinary life is recounted
ways. One tale leads to another; characters often only by dreaming, by the exercise of
tell their stories in order to ward off death (as imagination, by inhabiting the confirmable
Scheherazade does); coincidences multiply world of subjectivity. The narrative voice
fiendishly. Ordinary life seems governed by implies having lived a life that proves to be an
marvelous laws, and sometimes supernaturally original expression of human loss, sometimes
dreadful ones. This is the worlds best-known even reflecting upon his condition. Of course,
collection of stories, and the most popular. It the reader might recognize some echoes of
might be the most-read book in English after Codrescus favorite writers: Epicureans, Stoics
the Bible and Shakespeare, but it has a different and Cynics. Andrei Codrescu is not at all a
kind of familiarity than those canonical works Romantic thinker, for he decidedly disparages
(1). What we remember from the Nights is not the Romantic impulse (the excessive emotions,
high eloquence, intellect or faith, but a handful the nave clinging to the impossible, the
of characters and scenes: the shrewd Ali Baba confusion between need and desire). He often
spying on the gang of thieves, resourceful expresses the conviction that consciousness
Aladdin with his lamp, and Scheherazade herself tolerates no illusion and therefore metaphysics
spinning tale after tale in order to survive. might be considered exhausted, in the sense that
Borges, who read the work many times from some of the most important postmodern authors
childhood on, and found in it a model for the also state. Besides, it is not a life of
storytellers art, memorably observed that One sensuousness that he is proposing, but rather a
knows that entering the book one can forget life of observation and of awareness of the
ones poor human fate (2). powers (or, better said, potentialities!) of
But these tales also display a profound literature.
fear of the sexual powers of women. This fear Codrescu spends much time on a rendition
provides the starting point for Andrei of the Nights frame story, which concerns
Codrescus brisk retelling of the Nights frame preparations for the initial meeting of
story. Of course, it is a completely ironic one, Scheherazade and her king Sharyar. He greatly
the title itself suggesting this. His book is extends the opening quest, when Sharyar and his
entitled Whatever Gets You through the Night: A brother Shahzaman, both of them kings
Story of Sheherezade and the Arabian spectacularly cuckolded by their wives, travel
Entertainments. Codrescu has been preceded in the world in an effort to find a still more
this direction not just by Borges, but also by powerful man who has been defeated by a
Italo Calvino, John Barth, and Salman Rushdie woman. They meet a huge demon who tries and
among others; nevertheless he is not discouraged fails to keep his wife captive in a glass box. The
being, at his best moments, a splendid Arabian Nights is haunted by female sexuality
entertainer and a thought-provoking analyst, and sneakiness. Womens ability to run rings
ready to tease out each witty twist and turn of around male efforts to corral them comes up
Scheherazades nightly work. again and again: royal wives rarely pass up the
Besides the Arabic frame, the most chance for some brisk erotic exercise with their
important themes of Codrescus book are handsome Moorish slaves. Asceticism doesnt
introspection, solitude, estrangement, all help. Codrescu is acute on Sharyars rejection of
characterized at times by a droll sense of tedium philosophy, proffered by a hermit as the cure for
and lethargy, exquisitely expressed. The author his ills. I am not seeking an answer! he said
creates, a sort of geography of self-awareness, in proudly, but a being more powerful than I
betrayed as I was (3). Then he adds, to the
(1) David Mikics, Seduction Unending, The New
Republic, July 25, 2011.
2
( ) Jorge Luis Borges, Selected Non-Fictions, edited (3) Andrei Codrescu, Whatever Gets You through the
by Eliot Wernberger, translated by Ester Allen, Night: A Story of Sheherezade and the Arabian
Suzanne Jill Levine and Eliot Weinberger, Entertainments, Princeton University Press, 2011,
Penguin Books, 1999, p 234. p. 21.
203
miserable anchorite: Wisdom is depressing, a precisely what maintained the distance between
form of inaction. Youre an old man, brother them, specifically by means of irony, one of the
(1). most important stylistic devices used here by
When Scheherazade steps in, she acts to Andrei Codrescu.
save the virgins of the kingdom, who are rapidly Codrescu is a great fan of Richard Burton
being depleted by the kings murderous ways. (It and writes similarly expansive footnotes, even if
is hard to avoid thinking of the biblical Book of without Burtons salacious peculiarities; and his
Esther, which of course has been known to the delight in his source text is contaminating. One
authors of the Nights, though Codrescus wishes that he had tackled some of the other
Scheherazade outshines even Esther in her savvy parts of the Nights, such as the mysteriously
manipulation of the king!) Her father the Vizier perfect tale of Jullanar of the Sea (which
tries to dissuade her, but she heroically insists on inspired Hans Christian Andersen), or the
going in to Sharyar, confident that she has a way dizzying, hilarious Hunchback cycle. By the end
to survive. And she does: her immense talent for of Codrescus book, the author fully convinced
tale-telling, which far overpowers the despots his readers of his perfect capacity of creating
deadly whim. When she appears, like the Genie numberless jeux desprit clever and exquisitely
in the bottle of literature that she is, we must constructed, but always diverting.
obey the order of her stories, Codrescu writes. With a few exceptions such as Naguib
Instead of controlling this woman, Sharyar Mahfouz, who paid homage to the tales of
wants to be held captive, kept in suspense night Scheherazade in his novel Arabian Nights and
after night. (Scheherazades stories usually Days, the Arabian Nights has had a mixed
break off in the middle with the coming of reception from many Arab readers4, as David
dawn, to be resumed the next night.) Mikics perfectly underlined reviewing
The book expresses the possibility of Codrescus book. Its style is often deemed low
literature offering a mode of simultaneous and crude, its content immoral. Its true home has
existence within ones imagination and in been the West, ever since 1701-1717, when
reality. Therefore, Whatever Gets You through Antoine Galland translated it into French.
the Night may be regarded as well as some kind Galland inaugurated the discipline of
of fact-less autobiography (2) (as the Orientalism in 1697 with his massive
Portuguese writer Fernando Pessoa described his Bibliothque Orientale. In this encyclopedia of
own Book of Disquiet ), a kind of diary or Islamic culture, he emphasized the richness of
journal that records not so much events or Arabic writing and the high achievements of
people, but certain ideas and musings, being Arab society. He was the first in a long line of
centered upon Codrescus own literary admirers of the Middle East: another of them,
obsessions. More than this, the author Edward Lane, produced an English version of
complicates here the idea of fictionality, by the Arabian Nights in 1838-1841, and
stressing that his narrators personality in this supplemented it with a rich treasury of footnotes
book is not his own and yet is not completely on Arab life and culture. When Galland
different. Codrescu writes sometimes of translated the Nights, the Ottomans had recently
plurality and otherness, stressing that he himself put Vienna under siege. The Muslim world was
is both and neither, seemingly repeating not an underdeveloped region, but a still mighty
Pessoas assertion: Each of us is various, is empire.
many, a prolixity of ourselves! (3). The The next translator of the Nights, after
juxtaposition of Codrescus actuality with his Galland and Edward Lane, was the most famous
narrative voices imagined reality or the of all. When Richard Burton embarked on the
conjunction of details of the authors actual stupendous task of turning the book into
biographical life with similar details of the English, he was known as an unparalleled
fictional narrators imagined life reveals a most master of Eastern languages and a courageous
exquisite example of irony in Codrescus work. African explorer and most of all as the
But all the similarities between the two lives are reckless adventurer who had penetrated Mecca
disguised as a Muslim pilgrim. Impulsive and
self-thwarting, he had the physical endurance of
(1) Ibid, p. 22. a Greek hero, and was an equally heroic scholar.
(2) Fernando Pessoa, The Book of Disquiet, edited
and translated by Richard Zenith, New York,
Penguin Books, 2001, p. 3. (4) David Mikics, Seduction Unending, The New
(3) Ibid., p. 176. Republic, July 25, 2011.
204
None of his fellow Victorians could match his Codrescu will take his masks, functioning as
learning for its scope and originality. Burton some kind of pseudonyms. Kierkegaard
published his Arabian Nights translation in designates the pseudonyms as poetically actual
sixteen volumes between 1885 and 1888, and it subjective thinkers; their purpose is, therefore,
was a wild success. to poetically represent different points of view
If literary critics often discussed irony and or life-views or ideal possibilities which readers
its negative implications in Codrescus previous may analyze and then adapt depending on
works, the negation that the writer deploys whether or not may help in the process of
within this book is often a sign of affirmation. becoming or shaping selfhood. Kierkegaards
Andrei Codrescu, after all, initiates the pseudonyms and the ideals they represent are
discussion of irony with a positive definition not merely a game of choices for the reader, but
when he says irony is the first indication that the an ethically guided pathway towards truth. For
consciousness has become conscious. Whereas this reason, Kierkegaard needed the distance of
Socrates, to quote Kierkegaard, brought the irony to keep his own views and personality as
subjective self into existence in response to far from his pseudonyms as possible in order to
external conditions such as state pressure for allow the reader to see their stage of
communal thought, Codrescu, following the understanding the existence and not his own.
great example of Fernando Pessoa, soars above And whereas Kierkegaard defined and mastered
his immediate surroundings, even his corporeal the use of irony, Codrescu lives it. The writers
grounding, into the realm of the tangible, the challenge is to the entire literary, psychological
imagination. Dreams, consciousness, imagined and sociological world. Just as Kierkegaard
realities, make up the existence of the narrative shows that certain concepts are inassimilable
voice of this book. Indeed, at times the author into any system, Andrei Codrescu posits that the
himself appears as being only a dream, an self is similarly indefinable. In fact, Codrescu
imagined personality become reality and an himself does not let his secrets be revealed, as he
instantiation of a poets conscious is both none and all of his masks or narrative
consciousness. But Codrescu, however, seems to instances. In his particular way, the writer
invert the process of ironic Socratic dialectic; he offered the reader a fictional rendering of the
does not need Socrates to strip his life bare of aesthetic life that shows its logical end; after all,
immediacy and even corporeality in order to get for Codrescu, Kierkegaards existence spheres
him to breathe ethereal air. Instead, the author of provide a vehicle to express multiple and even
Whatever Gets You through the Night is quite contradictory truths about the self and about the
literally half in the immediate, the real, and half difficult and tiresome struggle that leads to
in the mediate, the imagined, since he is only complete and authentic existence. Whereas
half himself. He leaps from imagined sunset to Kierkegaard left his philosophical posterity with
imagined love, asserting a reality he knows he numerous clues and delineations of what has
does not have. In this way, he (again, like come to be known as his philosophy of self,
Pessoa) consciously un-knows himself, Codrescu, showing a pleasure of masking
revealing in the poetry of the twilight of (himself), not only embedded his philosophy
disillusion. in his literature, but he lived it as well, the
In this context, the role of the reader material of his mask being fabricated of the
becomes crucial above all for the playing out of nothingness of his own irony.
the irony that suspends Codrescus use of In the Arabian Nights, the quest finds you
literary masks. Irony creates the distance unexpectedly: you are, and always will be,
necessary for these authors to create themselves unready for it. Borges was fond of The Two
and express everything poetically; but irony also Dreamers, the tale of a poor man in Baghdad
requires a reader in order to initiate the chase for who dreams of a fortune in Cairo. He journeys
meaning and understanding. According to there, and he is imprisoned and beaten. When he
Kierkegaard, the pseudonyms were more recounts his dream, his jailor laughs and says: I
embodiments of ideas or ideals, rather than had a similar dream: theres a house in Baghdad,
real or actual people (1), the extent to which with a garden, and a fountain, and a buried
treasure is there. From the jailors description,
the poor man recognizes the house as his own,
(1) Richard M. Summers, Controlled Irony and the
Emergence of the Self in Kierkegaards
Dissertation, in vol. International Kierkegaard L. Perkins, Macon, Mercer University Press,
Commentary: The Concept of Irony, ed. Robert 2001, pp. 289-316.
205
and hastens back to it: he finds the treasure in References
his own backyard, just as the jailor envisioned.
And this was a wonderful coincidence, the Papers in periodical journals:
story concludes (in Lanes version). Pity the Mikics, Mikics, David, Seduction
jailor: the eternal straight man, imprisoned by 2011 Unending, The New Republic,
his disdain for illusion. In this tale, reality and July 25, 2011.
dream become two halves of a strange whole,
and one life answers the riddle of another. Books:
Whether you have spent your time dreaming or Borges Borges, Jorge Luis, Selected Non-
soaking up reality, you remain subject to this 1999 Fictions, edited by Eliot
uncanniest of laws. David Mikics discusses Wernberger, translated by Ester
another aspect regarding Codrescus book and Allen, Suzanne Jill Levine and
the long history of the Arabian Nights: namely Eliot Weinberger, Penguin Books,
that the Breslau manuscript of the Arabian 1999.
Nights concludes with Night 602, when Codrescu Codrescu, Andrei, Whatever Gets
Scheherazade begins telling her own story (1). 2011 You through the Night: A Story of
Borges, meditating on this remarkable conceit, Sheherezade and the Arabian
makes it still more remarkable: he says that Entertainments, Princeton
Scheherazade, when she reaches the 602nd night University Press, 2011.
must tell the whole chain of stories over again, Pessoa Pessoa, Fernando, The Book of
touching her own existence at the center of the 2001 Disquiet, edited and translated by
vast skein. Like her listeners, she is sentenced to Richard Zenith, New York,
fiction, and the wonders never cease. This is Penguin Books, 2001.
exactly the situation Codrescu embody within
his own book. In writing in his particular Chapters in books:
manner, he did, therefore, more than having Robert Summers, Richard M., Controlled
recorded his own experiences of dissociation. L. Irony and the Emergence of the
He diagnosed a condition that has become Perkins Self in Kierkegaards Dissertation,
widespread in the field of contemporary (ed.) in International Kierkegaard
literature: a new kind of self-consciousness 2001 Commentary: The Concept of
combined with a lack of any fixed view of the Irony, ed. Robert L. Perkins,
external world. Macon, Mercer University Press,
Expressing an exquisite sensibility, Andrei 2001.
Codrescu retreated into himself and behind the
masks or narrative instances he himself created
only to find doubt about himself and the world
and also to express his belief in the potentialities
of literature.
207
Corporate Governance (*)
Oana ALBESCU
PhD Candidate, International Relations and European Studies
Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj, Romania
E-mail: oanaalbescu@yahoo.com
Christine1A. Mallins book brings into the of corporate governance policies, both of
readers attention the interesting and contem- individual companies and of institutional
porary topic of the corporate governance, an investors. Engagement, preference and
integral part of everyday business life, in order screening describe the main strategies for
to provide an understanding of the development socially responsible investment, provided by the
of corporate governance over the last two Ethical Investment Research Service.
decades, as the author argues. The third part challenges reader to
The work is divided into four parts and approach the board structure of a company,
fourteen chapters, evaluating in minute details encompassing the function of a board and its
both theoretical aspects of corporate governance sub-committees, the roles, duties, and
and empirical case studies. responsibilities of directors, and the attribution
The first part of the book introduces the and contribution of a non-executive. The author
reader to the theoretical aspects of the corporate brings into discussion some critical distinctions
governance, gathering valuable assumptions between unitary board, responsible for all
about theories associated with the development aspects of the companys activities and dual
of corporate governance, such as agency theory, board, consisting of a supervisory board and an
separation of ownership and control, transaction executive board of management.
cost economics, stakeholder and stewardship The last part of the book provides an
theories. The author approaches the issue of the analytical and in-depth study of the international
growth in corporate governance codes, with corporate governance, gathering empirical
reference to the Cadbury Report, which has observations and studies related to corporate
influenced the development of many corporate governance in Continental Europe, Central and
governance codes globally. To illustrate the Eastern Europe, Asia-Pacific, South Africa,
corporate governance codes that have been most India, Brazil. These studies evaluate the
influential globally, there are discussed and prerequisites of the corporate governance in
rigorously analyzed the Organization for certain countries, with the theoretical
Economic Co-operation and Development, instruments described in the previous chapters.
International Corporate Government Network, In Germany for example, the business type tend
Global Corporate Governance Forum. to be either public or private companies limited
The second part of the book reveals the by share. The German corporate governance
character and the importance of the stakeholders system is based around a dual board system,
and the shareholders, taking into account the fact which comprises a management board and a
that the corporate objective is generally to supervisory board.
maintain or enhance shareholder value, while Mixture of theoretical and practical
the impact of the companys activities on its dimensions of corporate governance, this book
other stakeholders must be taken into account should be read in the context of global financial
when deciding the strategy to be developed for crisis, corporate scandals and collapses and
achieving these goals. Ch. Mallin highlights the public concern over the apparent lack of
importance of the domain of socially responsible effective boards and perceived excessive
investment, asserting the fact that in recent executive remuneration packages. With
years, there has been an increasing awareness of reference to all these, Mallins work is
socially responsible investment issues, (), and successfully illustrating the importance of
this have, in many cases, become an integral part corporate governance to the company itself, to
directors, shareholders and other stakeholders,
1
(*) A review of Corporate Governance (by Christine
and to the wider business community.
A. Mallin), Third Edition, published at Oxford
University Press, 2010, 357 p. [ISBN 978-0-19-
956645-7].
208
The Recent History Otherwise: Cultural Perspective
Olga GRDINARU
PhD Student, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj, Romania
E-mail: olgagradinaru@gmail.com
The starting point of the volume The History Otherwise makes an attempt of
Recent History Otherwise: Cultural Perspectives rehabilitating the 20th century marked almost
(Iai, Editura Universitii Al. I. Cuza, 2013) is entirely by wars and totalitarianism, still
different from those we are used with, being captivating our attention and still influencing our
indeed otherwise than other books focused on existence.
the history of the 20th century. As the editors The definition of the term recent history
Andi Mihalache and Adrian Cioflanca offers the volume another argument for its
commented, this is an approach from below coming into existence a past in the course of
approach, focused more on private Ryans finalization that always gives us the illusion of
family than on the famous Yalta percentage being able to catch it (Cioflanca, Mihalache
(Cioflanca, Mihalache 2013, 11). Closing the 2013, 10). In an attempt to set the chronological
chapter of the previous century with a much limits of the recent past, the differences of
welcome dose of humanity and empathy is regarding the event come to the foreground,
probably the most elegant and expected shaping our contemporary mentality and
demarche of cultural history on the Romanian capacity of representing and analyzing historical
soil. events. This attempt of setting the scopes of the
The otherwise character of the volume recent past is to be seen in the structure of the
may be seen from its very cover, where O. volume, beginning with the chapter How the
Bancilas painting from 1907 sets the mood of present was born (Cum se ntea prezentul)
the reader and the horizon of expectations. The and ending with Where does the past end?
painting Reading the newspaper has the role of (Unde se termin trecutul?), as well as The
setting the chronological boundaries from the retreat from reality (Retragere din real). Apart
era of rare literacy among the Romanian from the mentioned chapters, there are other
peasants to the nowadays (post-totalitarian) era nine, denoting the freshness of the proposed
of internet, smartphones and touchscreens. The perspective and the cold academic
choice of the cover is an inspired one, being disengagement: Since other times (De alt
explained by the editors by the desire to avoid dat); Katyusha on air (Katiua la
the popular signs and symbols of the previous microfon); Politics and Performance (Politic
century (belonging to totalitarian regimes). The i spectacol); The Committee and the Intellect
painting is, in editors eyes, the perfect allegory (Comitetul i intelectul); The film of truth
of the recent history (Cioflanca, Mihalache (Pelicula de adevr); The daily life,
2013, 11). subversion, simulacrum (Cotidian,
The Argument of the volume is nothing subversiune, simulacru); Playing and not
else but the personal and different approach of really (n joac i nu prea); The guitars dont
the recent history subjects, as well as the play marches (Chitarele nu cnt maruri);
explanation of the word otherwise from the Stories to tell (Poveti de spus).
very title. The consequences of the 20th century All the mentioned sections have from
events and their various representations in the three to seven intriguing articles, encompassing
collective mentality determine the always a wide range of themes and areas, exploring
otherwise reception and understanding so that, various facets of the previous century from
even standing in the 21st century, the dialogue different angles. On the other hand, the playful
with the realities of the previous one casts a and unpretentious titles of the sections are in
shadow over the present. As an exercise of accordance with the title and cover of the
optimism, the book encompasses various volume, offering a challenging and tasteful
themes and motives, refusing the cold portrait of the 20th century. As in the case of the
academic perspective and embracing a slightly cover, the content of the volume manages to
personal approach, especially prominent in the avoid dramatic and superfluous themes without
choice of the published material. The Recent giving the impression of a hygienic surgery and
209
approaching various themes empathically. The The cult of Bratianu family in Romania
number of the articles dedicated to the (Ovidiu Buruiana), the peculiar nationalism of
totalitarian regimes of the past century is not the Legionary Movement (Mihai Chioveanu),
complaisant, although one may notice the fact representations of abundance in the Communist
that there is not an article concerning fascism, propaganda of collectivization (Sorin Mocanu)
only one researching the anti-Semitic are other facets of the third section with the
stereotypes in the files of the Romanian police. suggestive title Politics and Performance. The
This imbalance may be seen as the result of the section also includes two other brilliant
Romanian Communist history and its status as researches focused on Communist celebrations
an Eastern country under the influence of the and anniversaries: Alexandru Alioanei
former USSR. presenting a prototype of Communist
The first section on the dawn of the celebrations through exploring the event called
present era deals with mediatic disputes at the The week of Romanian-Soviet friendship and
beginning of the century at the inauguration of a Antonella Asandei exploring the symbolic
statue of a great Romanian politician I. C. aspect of the Romanian Communist
Bratianu (Liviu Bratescu), with the same anniversaries between 1965 and 1989.
different in case of anti-Semitic stereotypes in Alternating two different perspectives from the
the files of the Romanian police (Silvioara tribune and from the street and two strategies
Constantin), and with collective death mobilization and repression in Romania until
representations of the Romanian army during Stalins death, the two authors of the article
WWI (Bianca Marmureanu). Other three article (Adrian Cioflanca and Adriana Radu) highlight
of the same section reveal three other relevant the Romanians reaction to the news of Stalins
aspects of the fisrt half of the 20th century: death as extensions of Stalinism mobilization
Dumitru Turcan explores the first narration practices and of repression, as well as
about the Soviet gulag, Alexandru Munteanu purification techniques implemented on
presents the opposition between urban and rural Romanian soil.
in Ion Agarbiceanus writings from a surprising Another inspired section entitled The
perspective, while Mihai Chiper investigates the Committee and the Intellect points out various
images of decline in the inter-war city of Iasi, artistic facets mainly during the second half of
focusing on lamentation as form of the past century, being centered on the
remembrance. Romanian artists during the Democrat-Popular
Chronologically speaking, the second regime (Paul Nistor), on the Romanian music
section of the volume is still focused on the first during the first years of Communism (Gabriel
years of the 20th century, looking into other Catalan), on the issues of theatre and
cultural facets and what cultural book of the propaganda between 1965-1989 (Cristina
previous century would ignore the artistic Preutu), on forms of censorship in the post-war
horizons. Thus, Silvia Marin-Barutcieff Romanian theatre (Oltita Cintec). History and
researches the Belle Epoque of Jugend journal, revolution in Camil Petrescus work is the focal
while Mihaela-Lucia Ion introduces us to artists, point of Georgiana Lesus research, while
critics and art collectors of those times. Apart Gabriel Moisa problematizes the notions of
from newspaper conflicts, the past century is local history and national history in the
known for its inventions so that Gabriela Glavan context of the 1985 frame themes (tematica-
examines the phenomenon of Radio/Cinema cadru) for history country museums.
Paradiso. Romania seen through the eyes of the The sixth section is dedicated to cinema,
other during the first years of the 20th century is considering mainly the multiple facets of the
the proposed approach of Nicoleta Roman, Romanian cinema, such as: the Bucharest movie
dealing not only with a traveler perspective, but, collection between the myth of freedom and the
more specifically, with a female perspective. reality of the ideological intrusion presented by
Katyusha on air consists of three Ciprian Plaiasu; the sources, methods and
challenging articles focused, beyond doubt, on problematizations of the Romanian Communist
the WWII: the war and the Romanian radio film by Aurelia Vasile; and the category of the
during the war period is Ionut Nistors research brigand (haiduc) movie as the exponent of the
based on the Romanian archives; Dana Percecs myth of the social justice by Mihaela Grancea.
centering is on trenches in war literature, while The single article of the section that doesnt
Gabriela Welchs discourse is based on the concern the Romanian context is Daniel Hanus
Soviet motives of sacrifice, victory and cult.
210
Beyond story: on heteronormativity in Brothers Zlataust Street in Iasi. The archives of the 1951-
Grimms fairytales and in Disney adaptations. 1989 from Cluj investigate the weight of the oral
The seventh section is nothing but an history in case of Paula Ivans article, whereas
intellectual feast, tempting the reader with Virgil Mihaiu points out the traits of the jazz
various themes on the daily life of the 20th trend in the Communist Romania in 1970-1989.
century, be it the case of the conceptions of the The female imaginary and the discourses on
physical culture in Romania of the first half of corporality in the post-socialist Romania are the
the past century (Bogdan Popa), of the mass main analyzed sides by Petruta Teampau, whilst
tourism in the Communist Romania of the 50s Ludmila D. Cojocari and Virgiliu Birladeanu
(Adelina Oana Stefan), of the gender issues in offer a perspective on WWII social memory in
the Communist era (Raluca Bibiri) or of the the Republic of Moldova, emphasizing three
school and family issues in the Communist surprising components war, alcohol and
Romania (Catalina Mihalache). Other two identity in the post-Soviet context.
articles look into the Communist female ideal The question of the chapter entitled
(Ioana Cozma) and the pop culture in Romania Where does the past end? is answered by five
of the 70s (Gabriel Badea), while another deals articles that accentuate several ardent topics of
with the Polish novel of the punk adolescent of the last decade of the 20th century. Sinziana
the 80s (Clara Popa). As in the case of the Preda expresses the changes in the post-
previous chapter, the majority of the articles socialistic graphic memory of Nicolae
explore the Romanian cultural background, Ceausescu and Cristian Nae analyzes the politics
leaving less space to other European cultural of memory in the East European art after 1989,
realities. while two other essays evinces the traces of the
Playing and not really consists of articles other in anthropological researches of the past
pointing out playful subjects, as it is the case of century (Cristina Bogdan) and the textualization
the article focused on the Romanian caricature of the interior scenery in the autobiographical
analysis of the 50s written by Mara Marginean Romanian literature between inter-war nostalgia
and Andrada Fatu-Tutoveanu or of that centered and Communist contamination, studying the
on the universe of the comics, Gelu Teampau diaristic phenomenon from multiple hypotheses
highlighting ludic, subversive and ideological (Andi Mihalache). The last article of this section
components of this domain. The other two points out, in the light of an ex-Maoists
articles deal with sportive and subversive confessions, two coordinates (activism and
aspects in the image strategies of the Romanian penitence) of both physical and symbolic search
Communist Party between 1921 and 1946 of Jan Wong in her writings.
(Diego Ciobotaru) and with the op-art The retreat from reality may be
imaginary, ambience and clothing (Ioana-Iulia considered the last playful touch of the volume,
Olaru), revealing a glimpse on the historicity of refusing the rigid chronological perspective of
forms of the 20th century. the most historical books. Be it the case of
Elvis Presleys reception in Romania present or past, the retreat from reality is a
(Tudor Rosu), the rock music in the West and in constant means of escape, meditation (if not
the Communist Romania (Serinela Pintilie), as complacency), being for decades the only mean
well as a perspective on rock, history and of living otherwise than the ideology,
memory are themes of the articles of the ninth propaganda and censorship had dictated. From
section, leaving the reader with the taste for the multicultural perspective, this section may
more explorations of the music realm of the be regarded as the most balanced one,
previous century. containing ways of escaping reality in the
Unlike the previous chapter, Stories to French context (Dream and memory Prousts
tell lingers on various aspects of memory, metaphors of imagination by Elena Prus), in the
social imaginary and storytelling, inviting the Russian-American context (How to catch a
reader to new refined areas of interest. nymphet. Feminine characters in the imaginary
Florentina Tones article has an appealing of Nabokovs novels by Alexandru Budac), in
subject on the memories of the school years of a the Japanese context (An Orient for the
special class from the royal palace (where the Occident. Narration and theatricality in Yasunari
future Romanian king Mihai had studied) (where Kawabatas prose by Rodica Grigore), as well
Mihai, the king to-be of the Romanians would as in the European and South American context
study), while Adriana Bondor deals with oral (Re-enchantment of the world. Magic realism
history and cultural memory in the case of
211
between post colonialism and postmodernism actuality. The proposed empathic attitude from
by Evagrina Dirtu). the editors Argument is to be noticed
After a quick and far from all compliant throughout the volume, emphasizing remarkable
surveillance of the volume, one must admit that and surprising attitudes, facets and perspectives
it takes two courageous historians to present to in various domains arts, sports, media,
the Romanian public a search for historical, collective memory, mentality and imaginary,
cultural and, among others, emotional and daily life and politics all wrapped up in a
empathic closure concerning the still actual warm and unpretentious atmosphere closer to
realities of the 20th century. Although inclined of the non-academic reader. With no exhaustive
exploring the Eastern cultural and unavoidable claims, The Recent History Otherwise offers a
political facets of the last century, The Recent multicultural picture of the more or less painful
History Otherwise represents a refined and events and their image with subtly lighted and
tasteful account of a century that seems to refuse shadowed aspects on the 20th century.
leaving our social, cultural and political
212
From Labor Society toward Consumer Society
(For a Cultural History of Labor) (*)
Drago SDROBI
PhD Candidate, George Bariiu Institute of History, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
E-mail: dragossdrobis@yahoo.com
For cultural history the main condition in dans le regard. Vous vous regardez dans un
historical realities investigation is to wipe out miroir; fermez les yeux: votre image disparat.
the common places of the social thinking. La socit est linstar de lenfant dans la cour
Instead, cultural history aims to find out de rcration: elle fait comme si. Il semble bien
alternative sources of investigation capable of quelle ne puisse fonctionner sans ladite
contributing to historical restitution. Meanwhile, reprsentation [] (2). These images are the
cultural history tries not to favor any historical ones to create society and to build the social
source, even though it is confronted with individuality, by adhering or rejecting the
archives and official documents or domestic norms. The social individuality is thus the result
artifacts and social practices. For the cultural of multiple social plans: gender, sexuality, age,
historian it becomes important not to say generation, religious orientation or educational
something, but to reveal. The pursuit of credentials. Lhistoire culturelle, mfiante a
objectiveness is no longer desirable. In fact, priori envers les interprtations unifies, qui
Jacque Le Goffs phrase faire lhistoire meant mettent en scne un homme simplifi et
more or less a turning point in the historical rationnel, est linfatigable avocat dun tre
research. Cultural studies have begun to prevail humain travers et, parfois, anim par de
in the last decades, simply because history as a contradictions (?) internes qui peuvent, par
history of humankind and humanity began to exemple, le faire jouir avoir peur, rver sans
gain ground against history as pure illusion ou dsirer simultanment et
retrospective. The new perspective is to see the profondment une chose et son contraire (3).
past through the eyes of the past. So, in order to The labor itself is a social norm. To
synchronize the past with its own present it present the evolution of work from a necessity to
became necessarily for any historian to escape a defining ideological construct of the western
his/her present. It is what David Lowenthal society is what Dominique Mda intends to do.
called the past is a foreign country. The new In fact, approaching this subject is the same as
perspective developed as compulsory because of tracing the core element that led to the
the continuous malformation of the past: What Westerns success in dominating the rest of the
is now known as past is not what anyone lived world in the last five centuries. To put it in
as present (1). Jurgen Habermas words, western societies were
In following Lowenthals advice the first labor founded societies. It became a vehicle of
step should be the reconstruction of the peoples social order, social promotion and social
past representations. Proceeding in this manner success, all three at once. This is why the labor
exploring the way in which people used to think is considered to be un fait social total. The
and to figure out the world the cultural history labor redefined time (work time and spare time)
is more or less a social history of and imposed new social aspirations (the career,
representations (Pascal Ory). To redo is to bring the workaholic). Everything becomes labor and
into present something absent; in other words, everything comes out from labor.
cultural history refreshes the past memory and Published in the Que sais-je? collection,
the present memory both. The purpose is to Le travail is structured in three chapters that
prove that the absence is not inexistence, but delineates the authors goals: 1st chapter
latency; its only a perspective shift. Tout est Lavnement du travail, 2nd chapter, Crise de
lemploi, transformations du travail and the 3rd
(*) A review of Le travail (by Dominique Mda),
Paris, PUF, 2011, 128 p.
(1) David Lowenthal, Trecutul e o ar strin [Pasts (2) Pascal Ory, Lhistoire culturelle, Paris, Presses
an Old Country], Bucharest, Curtea Veche, 2002, Universitaires de France, 2011, p. 10.
p. 224. (3) Ibidem, p. 27-28.
213
one, Quelle place pour le travail? Mdas aim is developed into a mechanism of profes-
not to develop an analysis of cultural history sionalization allocating human capital in the
regarding the labor. But, in many cases, his economic field. The life of any individual tends
approach is tributary to cultural history. to confound itself with his/her career.
The excursus begins by presenting the Meanwhile, the unemployment effects reveal the
labor in tribal societies which envisages this individual total workaholism. To have a job is
activity only as a necessary one: Les faits not only the economic premise of the social
sociaux qui structurent ces socits sont dune success; it is supposed to confer also a
nature autre quconomique. Ils sont psychological comfort.
prioritairement sociaux, et font intervenir des If in the 18th century work was a path to
liens de sang et de parent, des symboles, des emancipation, it is not the case nowadays. In the
relations avec la nature et la tradition (p. 9). 20th century, the western societies became a
Further on, for the man of Antiquity the labor salaried society where to have a job is an
was far away of being an ideal. Such a vision entitlement. Some benefices obtained through
was acknowledged by Platon and Aristotle. In union fight reveals the state involvement in
fact, for the philosophers of Hellada the sustaining labor demands and the labor society.
individual and social ideal was to escape Lemploi leur [ travailleurs] donne un statut
necessity and to dedicate to the truly free qui dpasse en ralit celui qui dcoule
activities, like ethics and politics. The reason directement de leur travail (1).
these two activities were considered the free But western societies are in this very
ones was that they had an end in itself. While the moment consumer societies. And the actual
slave was the human being encompassed by economic crisis is the one to change the way we
necessity, the free man was supposed to nurture were used to imagine the labor, the labor society
the spirit of total freedom. To put it in Aristotle and the world in general. In a consumer society,
words, lhomme laborieux accomplit son labeur the human being tends to be more than it is and
en vue de quelque fin quil ne possde pas, mais is urged to desire more than it can achieve. In
le bonheur est une fin qui ne saccompagne pas fact, individual needs are no longer a personal
de peine, mais de plaisir (p. 11). decision. It is the consumer society that
The labor as an ideological engine multiplies and intensifies individual needs,
appeared in the 16th century the birth moment especially by media. That is, an artificial growth
of what Max Weber considered to be the of demands in goods or services. To put this in
protestant ethic. By reinterpreting the Bible, the Baudrillard words: The human being became a
conclusion reached in that moment was that science subject for the human being when cars
human being must be judged by what it creates became harder to sell than the production (2).
hic et nunc. The labor as ideology represented Thus, consumption becomes a social activity.
the shift from the millenaries Christian Church The worker spare time becomes a consumption
vision. This new ideology asked people to give time; he/she is encouraged to benefit the goods
up on just waiting for Jesus Second Advent; humanism. The world itself became a society of
instead, it guided people to action. So, labor was the spectacle (Guy Debord).
not only an activity, it became a way of pursuing At the beginning of the 21st century the
happiness. Thereby, labor tends to be less a main issue tends to be the possibility (or utopia)
fatigue duty and converted itself into a factor of of transforming the western societies into spare
production. In the same manner property means time societies. In fact, to talk about spare time
less a social border, than a mechanism to reveals the impossibility to escape the last two
preserve your work benefits. It is the 19th centuries dichotomy: work time and spare time.
century to develop a social and political critique It is an indispensable dichotomy that keeps alive
of the labor and of the society it gave birth to: the consumer societies: to work is to earn
capitalism. The social-democracy critique and money; to spend your spare time is to spend the
Marxism emphasized the mercantile ideals that money. Take a look at the malls: these are the
conquered society. For these two, labor itself new cathedrals of consumption. The very
was a way of losing your freedom; on the other
side, the liberals claimed that the private
property is the bought-back freedom. Whatever (1) S. Pagaum, apud D. Mda, .cit. op., p.56.
the answer, the reality is that labor was already (2) Jean Baudrillard, Societatea de consum (mituri i
an economic norm that `normed` the society and structuri) (original title: La Socit de
the world, both. For instance, education consommation), Bucharest, Comunicare.ro
Publishing House, 2005, p. 91.
214
consumption is a performance, and the travail, objectif appuy sur des institutions
individual doesnt want to miss the role of a bienveillantes (p. 119).
lifetime.
The consumerist frenzy and the idea that References
work alienates and alters human relationships
are the main causes to look forward for a new Lowenthal Trecutul e o ar strin [Pasts
way to reinterpret work. The current agenda 2002 an Old Country], Bucharest,
aims labor to be no more a cause of social Curtea Veche, 2002.
exclusion and of economic inequalities. That is, Pascal 2011 Ory, Pascal, Lhistoire
labor must not be related to the notions of culturelle, Paris, Presses Uni-
productivity or efficiency. The idea is to relate versitaires de France, 2011.
labor to human being. What becomes necessary Baudrillard Baudrillard, Jean, Societatea de
considers Dominique Mda is to build a new 2005 consum (mituri i structuri)
social model, in which labor and peoples life [original title: La Socit de
must cease to be separate. Mais il dpendra consommation], Bucharest, Co-
aussi de la capacit de lEurope construire un municare.ro Publishing House,
modle social centr autour de la qualit du 2005.
travail, du travail dcent et de la protection du
215
The Post-Soviet Museum: History Ruptures, Memory
Continuities (*)
Ludmila D. COJOCARU
Associate Professor, Institute of Social History ProMemoria, Moldova State University (Chiinu)
E-mail: lcojocari@promemoria.md
218
Cultural History. Journal of the International Society for Cultural
History, Volume 1, Numbers 1 and 2/2012
Alexandru-Ilie MUNTEANU
PhD Student, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia
E-mail: alexandru_munteanu21@yahoo.com
Whatever the context, each and every make up the Editorial, signed by Marjo
time I run into the name of Peter Burke and/or Kaartinen, professor of Cultural History from
into the word cultural history, I cant help not the University of Turku, Finland, and by
thinking, not reminding myself a very broad, David F. Smith, Honorary Senior Lecturer at
yet in the same time, brief statement made by the Center for Cultural History, from the
the British historian already mentioned, in University of Aberdeen, Scotland. Following
which, in no more than a few words, he the Editorial, is a number of six articles,
describes the contemporary context (from the ranging from the more theoretical and
last two-three decades, to put it more general) methodologically orientated, like Peter
of historical studies and that of social sciences Burkes opening paper, Strengths and
and of the humanities in general. Here is what Weaknesses of Cultural History, and Harvey
Peter Burke says: We live in an era where the Greens Cultural History and the Material(s)
intellectual border lines between different Turn, to articles like: The Watchful Spirit:
fields of study are open, (). References Religious Anxieties towards Sleep in the
about Mihail Bahtin, Pierre Bourdieu, Fernand Notebooks of Nehemiah Wallington (1598-
Braudel, Norbert Elias, Michel Foucault, 1658), written by Erin Sullivan246, Kiplings
Clifford Geertz can be found in the the works Encounter with Buddhism and the Buddhist
of archaeologists, geographers and literary Orient: The Twain Shall Meet?, by David
critics, as well as in those of the sociologists Scott, or Christopher E. Forths, Melting
and historians (245) (Burke 1992, 31). The two Moments: The Greasy Sources of Modern
numbers of Cultural History. Journal of the Perceptions of Fat, or The Study of Social
International Society for Cultural History Control in the Context of Cultural History: An
make no exception from this state of affairs. Interdisciplinary Approach, by Lauri
Both, Number 1 and Number 2, are Keskinen.
from the same first volume that appeared in There is also one Review Article, written
2012, at Edinburgh University Press. As it is by Joyce Goggin, De-Materialization in a
mentioned on the interior side of the Journals Material World: Two Cultural Histories of
cover: Cultural History publishes research Capital, a very interesting review paper on
papers on cultural history, covering any period Irene Finel-Honigman (2010), A Cultural
or location, along with discussions of History of Finance, London and New York:
theoretical issues, and papers concerned with Routledge, and on Dieter Schnaas (2010),
fields such as teaching, museums and heritage. Kleine Kulturgeschichte des Geldes, Mnchen:
Cultural History promotes the work and aims Wilhelm Fink Verlag, that emphasises the
of the International Society for Cultural increasingly stronger bond between culture,
History, which was founded in 2008. It entertainment and economy in our present
generates discussion and debate on the nature society (see p. 126-129,134 etc).
of cultural history and current trends, and Finally, there are two more sections, one
advances theoretical and methodological called Reviews, the other Brief Reviews, each
issues relating to the field. Cultural History having three reviews. The first is Philip
promotes new and innovative questions about Daileader and Philip Whalen (eds) (2010),
the past, and invites contributions from both French Historians 1900-2000: New Historical
advanced and junior scholars. Writing in Twentieth-Century France,
The first number covers 150 pages, reviewed by Elizabeth C. Macknight; then,
with an additional three pages (v-vii), that there is Karla Mallette (2010), European
220
distinction, or less generalization on this Foucaults concept of practice) with social
London trend, would have be desirable. sciences, the result being an interesting
Personally, I find it very hard to believe that, perspective on the social activity of learning,
for example, the next generations of the thus that of enculturation applied to Finnish
London labor and the London poor (249) working class milieus (see especially p.115
shared the same passion towards Buddhism. (250), 118-122).
Still David Scotts paper shows us a In comparison with the first, Number 2
suggestive case of cultural encounters, of the of Cultural History is shorter in page numbers
mental, or cultural aftermath of an (from p. 151 to p. 174), with another two
Edwardians encounter with Asia in general, pages (p. v-vi), where scholars are being
because the author mentions the British encouraged to submit their papers, and where
novelists impression on Islamic as well as on there is also a brief description and some piece
Buddhist Asia. of information on how and whom to send them
The last two articles, Christopher E. in order to be eligible for the ISCH prize of
Forths Melting Moments: The Greasy Sources 250 GBP.
of Modern Perceptions of Fat, and Lauri Besides the ISCH Prize 2013 for
Keskinen The Study of Social Control in the Cultural Historians, the journal is divided into
Context of Cultural History: An Inter- four sections:
disciplinary Approach, leave the individual 1. Cultural History Now, with two
historical microscope and analyze social and papers, Thomas V. Cohens Ruminations on
cultural phenomenon at a more collective Reflections on a Distant Crime, and Kalle
level: Forths paper deals with Europeans Pihlainens Cultural History and the
perception of fat, with a few mentions from Entertainment Age.
the Antiquity period, but focuses on the shit 2. Articles, is the second part of the
of perception from 1500s onward. The journal, which has three papers. These are:
author builds his paper from an anonymous Threading the Needle, Pulling the Press:
article published in 1822 in Blackwoods Gender, Skill and the Tools of the Trade in
Edinburgh Magazine, which argued that the Eighteenth-Century European Towns, by
English took up more space on the streets, Deborah Simonton; With Culture Comes the
meaning that they are the fattest people on the Nation: Women, Cultural Citizenship and Late
planet, and that from all that fat the English Nineteenth-Century New Zealand, written by
industry could produce soap for the entire Nadia Gush, and the third, Herein is Love:
planet. From this, the author starts constructing Performance and Identity in Three Welsh
and diversifying his research on perceptions of Memento Mori, by Lynne Moore.
fat, reaching even how the Europeans The last two sections of the journal are
negative perception of fat made its Reviews and Brief Reviews, each also having
contribution to their feelings of superiority three reviews: Esther Cohen (2010), The
over Africans in the 19th century, which Modulated Scream: Pain in Late Medieval
according to European travelers were, many of Culture, reviewed by Jan Franz van
them, very fat. Dijkhuizen; Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska
Lauri Keskinen paper analyses how new (2011), Managing the Body: Beauty, Health,
ideas, in this case, class based cultural trends, and Fitness in Britain, 1880-1939, reviewed
or for those times better call them sub-trends, by Susan Hogan; and Laura Salisbury and
can strengthen social ties between the labour Andrew Shail (eds) (2010), Neurology and
class in interwar Finland, even to the point Modernity: A Cultural History of Nervous
where it becomes a subculture and more, as Systems, 1800-1950, reviewed by Clark
the author argues, a form of social control. Lawlor. The brief reviews are: Joy Parr (2010),
Keskinen focuses on different sport clubs and Sensing Changes: Technologies, Environments
associations which offered the working class and the Everyday, 1953-2003, reviewed by
of Finlands few industrial centers a sense of Donna McCormack; Stephanie Stockhorts
belonging. The authors interdisciplinary
approach combines behavioural (like
(250) By definition, (social) control is an activity,
or a practice, carried out by a socializing agent,
(249) Inspired by Henry Mayhews (2008) London even without the agent or the one socialized
labour and the London poor. noticing it.
221
(ed.) (2010), Cultural Transfer Through a local theft in small community in 16th
Translation: The Circulation of Enlightened century Italy and from this, he begins to unfold
Thought in Europe by Means of Translation, certain problems and difficulties concerning
reviewed by Silke Reeploeg, and, the last, the reconstruction of historical events from a
Patrick Coleman (2011), Anger, Gratitude and cultural viewpoint, like: what significance
the Enlightenment Writer, reviewed by (cultural symbolism) did certain social and
Brendan Dooley. individual gestures and rituals had in the past?
Following the same line as the first (see p. 162) or the difficulties that spring from
publication of the ISCH journal in 2012, the the shifting meanings of material things (see
second number of Cultural History begins, not p. 161), like grain, in this articles case, and
with one, but with two articles regarding the temptation to use patterns, which
epistemological and methodological problems epistemologically may come in handy and
related to cultural history. The author, Kalle deliver a very professional approach, but in the
Philainen, sketches the place of (cultural) same time, as Cohen argues, one must keep in
historical writing in the so called entertainment mind that: The last thing cultural historians
age. Although heavily loaded with theoretical should be doing is exemplifying yet once more
and epistemological aspects concerned with the tiresome wisdom of some charismatic
writing history (relativity, objectivity, the role theory (see p. 163) (252).
of ideology in historical writing, truth, social In the next section, as it can be
responsibility of historians etc), Philainens distinguished from the titles, the articles focus
article emphasizes a crucial aspect that on gender related historical phenomena.
concerns not only historians and their (way of) Deborah Simontons paper Threading the
writings, but also the publics taste for Needle, Pulling the Press: Gender, Skill and
history (251). At one point in his paper (see p. the Tools of the Trade in Eighteenth-Century
176), the author comes close to putting the European Towns deals with two interesting
problem in the following terms: history must concepts, that of gender tools and gender(ed)
either give up a bit on the value of truth, and skills, referring to needles and needlework,
to be a bit more untrue (as the author says) or which were associated with women labour,
it risks of remaining somewhat marginal in and with womens access to workshop labour
popular imagery and social impact. But then, and even businesses, in general, in 18th century
he does say that: this alternative is not a European cities and towns. Although focusing
very useful one for history since the on the situation in Great Britain (there is a
entertainment age presents histories with statistical table at p. 188 and 18th century
another trap: the entertainment trap: (). books, cited by the author, one written in
What is the author proposition? To put it very 1761, by Joseph Collyer, for example, in
short: resisting the desire to entertain, keeping which he recommends the use of genteel
its documentary aspect, history should not persons in millinery; see p. 190), the author
become fictional, instead it should:look to makes some references about the general
its material nature and to the latters European manufacturing and trading context.
disruptive potential vis--vis stories (see p. In her article, With Culture Comes the
177). Nation: Women, Cultural Citizenship and Late
Thomas V. Cohens article revolves Nineteenth-Century New Zealand, Nadia Gush
around the same epistemological problems of analyzes the concept of cultural citizenship, a
writing cultural history. Like Philainen, from relatively new concept according to the author
one point of view, Cohen also points out a and how this concept can be applied to the
certain need of change in the way cultural
historians begin their research and especially (252) Here a recent reading of mine comes in my
in the way they write/deliver it (to the public) mind. Although written about four decades
(see p. 164). Cohens paper starts by narrating ago, it signals the same problem and the ups
and downs of applying all sorts of patterns and
other scientist models to a large number of
(251) A starting historiographical reference on this unique! and sublunary! historical events. The
topic would be Philippe Ariss book, Le book I am referring to is Comment on crit
Temps de lhistoire (for this review, I l'histoire: essai d'pistmologie (1970), written
consulted the Romanian edition of the book by French historian and archaeologist, Paul
see Aris 1997). Veyne (see Veyne 1999).
222
Imperial white settler society of New Zealand. offers the reader interesting interpretations
She focuses on the role played in the regarding the mementos intrinsic suggestions
emancipation of women and on the general that come out of them, viewed both
building process of new, conscious, individually as well as in a more general
participatory citizens by women organizations, Victorian context.
like Canterbury Womens Institute (founded in To sum up, the articles in these two
1892) and the National Council of Women numbers of Cultural History could be divided
(1896). An emancipation which could also be also into two large sections: the first category
called culturalization, because these two main would be the one of the historically centered
organizations paid special attention to cultural papers, like: With Culture Comes the Nation:
based initiatives, like womens newspapers Women, Cultural Citizenship and Late
(written by and for women) and literature. Nineteenth-Century New Zealand, by Nadia
Reading constituted the citizen (see p. 211), Gush, Threading the Needle, Pulling the
was the core belief that animated this type of Press: Gender, Skill and the Tools of the
actions. All of these in order to encourage Trade in Eighteenth-Century European Towns,
them to embrace a different civic status, that of by Deborah Simonton, The Watchful Spirit:
citizenship as /(by, a.n.) self cultivation (see Religious Anxieties towards Sleep in the
p. 215). Finally, a particular aspect which I Notebooks of Nehemiah Wallington (1598-
consider it to be very well underlined by the 1658), by Erin Sullivan, Kiplings Encounter
author, is her statement, in the papers with Buddhism and the Buddhist Orient: The
conclusions, about the fact that this Twain Shall Meet?, by David Scott etc.
nation/citizenship building process, the way Secondly there would be the section of the
we understand to do it: is responsible for more methodological and epistemological
establishing parameters of inclusion and writings like: Thomas V. Cohens Ruminations
exclusion for the people who might hope to be on Reflections on a Distant Crime, Kalle
imagined within it (see p. 219-220) (253). Pihlainens Cultural History and the
The last paper of Number 2 of the ISCH Entertainment Age, or Peter Burkes Strengths
journal, Lynne Moores Herein is Love: and Weaknesses of Cultural History, and
Performance and Identity in Three Welsh Harvey Greens Cultural History and the
Memento Mori, despite being well organized Material(s) Turn. The latter category of
and having strong bibliographical references papers, those that deal with how to write
(254), with chapters about theoretical cultural history, are, I believe, a testimony of a
considerations in which the author defines the new stage in the development of historical
concepts and terms which she uses (e.g. research and (cultural) history writing. A time
performance, memento mori, identity, both intellectually productive, but one that also
community etc), this article, however, might witnesses a sort of a crisis, or otherwise said, a
seem a bit harder to follow from beginning to period that resembles, a bit, with a desperate
conclusions, especially for non native English search for better, more flexible
speakers, because of the abstract notion of epistemological tools. But, no need to
performance (that of culturally coded despair, for times of crisis may announce
patterns of behavior, see p. 227) which is periods of new type of writing. In this logic,
referred to in this paper centered on three Cohens paper and Pihlainens tempt me to
shrine-like memento mori: one of a Welsh address the following question: do
family, another of a Swansea Lord and of one epistemological aspects weight really that
group of copper workers. Still, Lynne Moore much when writing about totally non-
scientific/non-scientist, sublunary events and
beliefs?
(253) Also on this subject (but in the case of post
World War 2 France) see, for example, from
Jean Svillas book, Le terrorisme intellectuel
(2000), chapter Black, blanc, beur. (for this References
review I consulted the Romanian version of the
book see Svilla 2007).
(254) See for example the first paragraph (and not Aris Aris, Philippe, Timpul istoriei
only) on page 228, which is packed with 1997 [Time of History], Bucharest,
footnotes. Meridiane, 1997.
223
Burke Burke, Peter, Istorie i teorie Svilla Svilla, Jean, Terorismul
1992 social [History and Social 2007 intelectual [Intellectual
Theory], Bucharest, Humanitas, terrorism], Bucharest, Humanitas,
1992. 2007.
Mayhew Mayhew, Henry, London labour Veyne Veyne, Paul, Cum se scrie istoria
2008 and the London poor. A Selection 1999 [Writing History. Essay on
by Rosemary ODay and David Epistemology], Bucharest, Meridi-
Englander, Hertfordshire Words- ane, 1999.
worth Editions Limited, Ware,
2008.
224
Artefacts Culture and Identity. International History for Cultural
History Annual Conference
(Istanbul, 11-14 September 2013)
Radu-Ciprian ERBAN
PhDc, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia, Romania
Given the title of the conference, most of reason to make distinction between identities,
the participants there were more than a religion with its specific objects, practices and
hundred scholars and students chose to manifestations could not miss the attention of
contribute with works on realities, practices and researchers. On this topic, I attended the
objects representative for local history (from all interesting presentation about a reconstructed
over the globe). identity in Finnish Lapland (Whose heritage,
With each of its meanings 1) an object and whose tradition?), but most fascinating on
made by a human being, typically one of this topic was the visit to the Armenian Hospital
cultural or historical interest, and 2) something Museum in Istanbul there is also an Armenian
observed in a scientific investigation or church where the assistant professor Inan
experiment that is not naturally present but zekmeki told us about aspects on history of
occurs as a result of the preparative or Armenian identity preservation/re-construction
investigative procedure the artefact was an in the Ottoman space.
ideal choice to suggest the generous limits of As already shown, the issue of ethnicity
issues that the conference were interested in. and race was present also. I remember that
There obviously were several proposals even in the last day the conference remained as
for theoretical discussion on concepts (for e.g. captivating as it used to be. The last paper put
memory boxes), on connections between cultural down in the program (Revista illustrada:
history and psychology, on limits of memory esthetic and resistance on the political art of
and experience or autological studies of Angelo Agostini), that of professor Rogria de
cultural history (about the invention of culture Ipanema, brought into attention the personal
or about the long history of cultural history). enterprise of a journalist against the slavery in
They demonstrate interest in the the Empire of Brazil. I remember well those
conceptualization, the sustained search to satiric poetry creating a morphology of
promote this type of history as a history of its contestation and protest, those images that the
own. Presentations and debates following one presenter of the paper talked about with the
after the other brought into attention problems same passion and charm we talked in the little
related to memory and oblivion, national breaks we had from a session to another.
identities, phenomena or practices (e.g. from the As a paradox, some things are subject to
medieval love of friends to the post-modern oblivion even though they stay in a great
same-sex love, gifting, death and healing museum. Obviously, a conference is not an
festival, the practice of misappropriation, object. As for me, this was the first international
culinary customs, attitude toward others conference that I attended abroad, and will not
culture, real and imaginary borders). They forget it. I guess each one would be grateful to
discussed competences (reading an Exhibition) the organizers (especially to Rainer Brmer,
or statutes of individuals (the worker, the Philipp Amour, Hakan Ertin and Inan
woman) in different epochs. zekmeki). Friendly discussion, cultural
Arts and the objects themselves were exchange, scientific news we had all these in a
given the full attention, from figurative art few sunny days at Istanbul! The conference
works, furniture, textile, medals, libraries, progressed smoothly and appeared well planned
photography (and even the Finnish wolves) to to all.
music, dance, cinematic heritage, architecture, Finally yet importantly, during a
fiction - not to mention the so called virtual Bosphorus cruise I meet Professor Peter G.
artefacts, as social media. McCaffery who friendly asked me questions
Since it is one of the most widely factors about Romania. I hope my text will be a little
of union and dissension, and thus a good piece among things remembering us about him.
225