Section 3.

2

1 0
2(a). E.g. .
0 1
2(b). 0,1,4,9
2(c). Let x be idempotent. Then x2 = x, so x2 x = 0R , that is, x(x 1R ) = 0R .
Since R is an integral domain, we have either x = 0R or x 1R = 0R , i.e. x = 0R
or x = 1R .

5(a). True. Let x, y S T . Then x, y S; so x y S, xy S. Simi-

larly, x y T , xy T . Thus x y S T , xy S T , so S T is a subring
by the subring criterion.
5(b). False in general (can be true, for example when S = T ). Eg S = 2Z =
{2m | m Z} is a subring of Z, and T = 3Z = {3m | m Z} is a subring of Z.
However, S T contains 2, 3, but does not contain 5 = 2 + 3. Thus S T is not
closed under addition, so is not a subring.

6. Let x, y T . Then x = r1 b, y = r2 b, for elements ri R. Then x y =

(r1 r2 )b T , and xy = (r1 br2 )b T , so T is a subring by the subring criterion.

1 1
8(a). E.g. A = satisfies A 6 C (find B such that AB 6= BA).
0 1

t 0
And any matrix of type B = is in C (check that BM = MB for all
0 t
M C).
8(b). Let P, Q C. Then (P Q)S = P S QS = SP SQ = S(P Q),
for all S, so that P Q C; and (P Q)S = P (QS) = P (SQ) = (P S)Q =
(SP )Q = S(P Q), for all S, so that P Q C. So C is closed under subtraction
and multiplication, so is a subring.

1
10. False. In the ring Z, 1 are units but their sum is 0, not a unit. So
the set of units is not closed under addition.

11(a). (ab)b1 a1 = abb1 a1 = a1R a1 = 1R , and b1 a1 (ab) = b1 1R b = 1R , so

by definition of multiplicative inverse, the multiplicative inverse of ab exists and
equals b1 a1 .
0 1
11(b).We need the ring to be non-commutative. E.g. take a = with
1 0

2 1 1 -1 1 1
a1 = a, and b = with b1 = . Then ab = ,
1 1 -1 2 2 1

-1 2 0 1 1 0
and a1 b1 = . Now ab a1 b1 = 6= . Thus
1 -1 -1 3 0 1
ab and a1 b1 are not inverses.

12(a). Suppose [a] is a unit of Zn . Then there exists [b] Zn with [a][b] = [1],
that is, [ab] = [1], equivalently, ab 1 mod n. Thus ab = 1 + nk for some integer
k, and now 1 = ab nk with (a, n) dividing both a and n implying (a, n) divides
1. Thus (a, n) = 1.
Conversely, suppose (a, n) = 1. Then there exist u, v Z such that au + nv = 1,
which translates into [a][u] + [n][v] = [1] in Zn . Since [n] = [0], we get [a][u] = [1],
so that [a] is a unit.
12(b). Suppose a is a non-zero non-unit. By part (a), d = (a, n) > 1. So a = dq,
for some integer q, and [n/d][a] = [na/d] = [nq] = [0], and [a] is a zero-divisor.
Conversely, suppose [a] is a zero-divisor. Then there exists non-zero [b] with
[a][b] = [0]. If [a] were a unit, then [u][a] = [1], say, for some [u], and we would
have [0] = [u][0] = [u][a][b] = [1][b] = [b], contradicting [b] non-zero. Thus [a] is
not a unit.

2
14. R S contains the non-zero elements (0R , s) and (r, 0S ), where r, s are non-
zero elements in R, S, respectively. But (0R , s) (r, 0S ) = (0R r, s0S ) = (0R , 0S ),
so these elements are zero-divisors in R S.

16(a). Suppose ab is a zero divisor in R (so in particular a, b 6= 0R ), and suppose

a, b are not zero divisors in R. We obtain a contradiction as follows. Now ab 6= 0R
and there exists c 6= 0R with either (ab)c = 0R or c(ab) = 0R . So either a(bc) = 0R
or (ca)b = 0R . In the first case, since a is not a zero divisor and a 6= 0R , then
bc = 0R , and b not a zero divisor implies c = 0R , contradiction. Similarly, in the
second case, ca = 0R , so that again c = 0R , a contradiction.
16(b). The ring is commutative, so without loss of generality, we may suppose a
is a zero divisor. Thus a 6= 0R and there exists c 6= 0R such that ca = 0R . Then
c(ab) = (ca)b = 0R b = 0R , so ab is a zero divisor.

22. An element x = (r, s) R S is a unit iff there exists (u, v) R S

satisfying (r, s)(u, v) = (1R , 1S ), the unit element of R S. So x is a unit iff
there exist u R, v S with ru = 1R , sv = 1S ; that is, iff r,s are units in R, S,
respectively.

25(a). a + a = (a + a)2 = a2 + a2 + a2 + a2 = a + a + a + a, so that sub-

tracting a + a from both sides, 0R = a + a. (Equivalently, a = a for all a R).
25(b) a + b = (a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a + ab + ba + b, so that ab + ba = 0R .
Thus ab = ba = ba, using part (a).

28. By 11(a), if u1 , u2 are units, then (u1 u2 )1 = u1

2 u1 . Apply this with
1

u1 = a1 , u2 = ab, to give b1 = (ab)1 a.

30. Suppose R has no non-zero nilpotent element. Consider the equation x2 = 0R .

If x 6= 0, then by definition, x is a non-zero nilpotent element, contradiction. Thus

3
x2 = 0R implies x = 0R .
Conversely, suppose x2 = 0R implies x = 0R . Let a be a nilpotent element in R.
Then an = 0R for some integer n 1, and suppose that n is the smallest such
integer, so that an1 6= 0R . We show n = 1, which will show there are no non-zero
nilpotent elements. So suppose n 2. Then (an1 )2 = a2n2 = an an2 = 0R ,
and the hypothesis implies an1 = 0R , contradiction. Hence n = 1, as required.