Desire - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Desire

Desire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Desire is a sense of longing or hoping for a person, object, or Look up desire in

outcome. The same sense is expressed by emotions such as Wiktionary, the free
"craving". When a person desires something or someone, their dictionary.
sense of longing is excited something or someone, their sense of
longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take
actions to obtain their goal. The motivational aspect of desire has long been noted by philosophers;
Thomas Hobbes (15881679) asserted that human desire is the fundamental motivation of all
human action.

While desires are often classified as emotions by laypersons, psychologists often describe desires as
different from emotions; psychologists tend to argue that desires arise from bodily structures, such
as the stomach's need for food, whereas emotions arise from a person's mental state. Marketing and
advertising companies have used psychological research on how desire is stimulated to find more
effective ways to induce consumers into buying a given product or service. While some advertising
attempts to give buyers a sense of lack or wanting, other types of advertising create desire
associating the product with desirable attributes, by showing either a celebrity or a model with the
product.

The theme of desire is at the core of romance novels, which often create drama by showing cases
where human desire is impeded by social conventions, class, or cultural barriers. The theme of
desire is also used in other literary genres, such as gothic novels (e.g., Dracula by Bram Stoker, in
which desire is mingled with fear and dread). Poets ranging from Homer to Toni Morrison have
dealt with the themes of desire in their work. Just as desire is central to the written fiction genre of
romance, it is the central theme of melodrama films, which use plots that appeal to the heightened
emotions of the audience by showing "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship", in
which desire is thwarted or unrequited.

Contents
1 In philosophy
2 In religion
3 Scientific perspectives
3.1 Neuropsychology
3.2 Psychiatry
4 In marketing
5 In fiction and art
5.1 Written fiction
5.2 Film

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6 Contemporary spiritual perspective

7 References
8 Further reading

In philosophy
In philosophy, desire has been identified as a philosophical
problem since Antiquity. In The Republic, Plato argues that
individual desires must be postponed in the name of the higher
ideal. In De Anima, Aristotle claims that desire is implicated in
animal interactions and the propensity of animals to motion; at the
same time, he acknowledges that reasoning also interacts with
desire.

Hobbes (15881679) proposed the concept of psychological

hedonism, which asserts that the "fundamental motivation of all
human action is the desire for pleasure." Baruch Spinoza
(16321677) had a view which contrasted with Hobbes, in that "he
saw natural desires as a form of bondage" that are not chosen by a
person of their own free will. David Hume (17111776) claimed
that desires and passions are noncognitive, automatic bodily
responses, and he argued that reasoning is "capable only of
devising means to ends set by [bodily] desire".[1]

Immanuel Kant (17241804) called any action based on desires a

hypothetical imperative, meaning by this that it is a command of
Saudade (1899), by Jos
reason that applies only if one desires the goal in question.[2] Kant
Ferraz de Almeida Jnior
also established a relation between the beautiful and pleasure in
Critique of Judgment. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel claimed
that "self-consciousness is desire".

Because desire can cause humans to become obsessed and embittered, it has been called one of the
causes of woe for mankind.[3] Within the teachings of Buddhism, craving is thought to be the cause
of all suffering that one experiences in human existence. The eradication of craving leads one to
ultimate happiness, or Nirvana. However, desire for wholesome things is seen as liberating and
enhancing.[4] While the stream of desire for sense-pleasures must be cut eventually, a practitioner
on the path to liberation is encouraged by the Buddha to "generate desire" for the fostering of
skillful qualities and the abandoning of unskillful ones.[5]

In religion

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In Hinduism, the Rig Veda's creation myth Nasadiya Sukta states regarding the one (ekam) spirit:
"In the beginning there was Desire (kama) that was first seed of mind. Poets found the bond of
being in non-being in their heart's thought".

In Buddhism, for an individual to effect his or her liberation, the flow of sense-desire must be cut
completely; however, while training, he or she must work with motivational processes based on
skilfully applied desire.[6] According to the early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha stated that monks
should "generate desire" for the sake of fostering skillful qualities and abandoning unskillful
ones.[5]

There is a double message here between what Buddha said, that desire must be created, and what
some monks propose to their followers, that desire must be cut. Truth is Buddhism entails two
aspects: the ideas monks taught to civilize peasantry, on the one hand, and the esoteric teachings of
tantra (aimed at leaders) for self-realization, on the other, wherejust as Buddha saiddesire must
be generated. Dr. Oscar R. Gmez holds that teachings imparted privately by H.H. 14th Dalai Lama
are meant for leaders to be able to choose a specific desire consciously by creating it previously
from the inside. People have a tendency to live based on desires coming from the outside, and such
desires are the ones making choices for them. As an alternative, tantric Tibetan Buddhism allows to
choose a desire consciously; to create desire rather than being created by it.[7]

Within Christianity, desire is seen as something that can either lead a person towards God and
destiny or away from him. Desire is not considered to be a bad thing in and of itself; rather, it is a
powerful force within the human that, once submitted to the Lordship of Christ, can become a tool
for good, for advancement, and for abundant living.

Scientific perspectives
Neuropsychology

While desires are often classified as emotions by laypersons, psychologists often describe desires as
different from emotions. For psychologists, desires arise from bodily structures and functions (e.g.,
the stomach needing food and the blood needing oxygen). On the other hand, emotions arise from a
person's mental state. A 2008 study by the University of Michigan indicated that, while humans
experience desire and fear as psychological opposites, they share the same brain circuit.[8] A 2008
study entitled "The Neural Correlates of Desire" showed that the human brain categorizes stimuli
according to its desirability by activating three different brain areas: the superior orbitofrontal
cortex, the mid-cingulate cortex, and the anterior cingulate cortex.[9]

In affective neuroscience, "desire" and "wanting" are operationally defined as motivational

salience;[10][11] the form of "desire" or "wanting" associated with a rewarding stimulus (i.e., a
stimulus which acts as a positive reinforcer, such as palatable food, an attractive mate, or an
addictive drug) is called "incentive salience" and research has demonstrated that incentive salience,
the sensation of pleasure, and positive reinforcement are all derived from neuronal activity within

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the reward system.[10][12][13] Studies have shown that dopamine signaling in the nucleus
accumbens shell and endogenous opioid signaling in the ventral pallidum are at least partially
responsible for mediating an individual's desire (i.e., incentive salience) for a rewarding stimulus
and the subjective perception of pleasure derived from experiencing or "consuming" a rewarding
stimulus (e.g., pleasure derived from eating palatable food, sexual pleasure from intercourse with
an attractive mate, or euphoria from using an addictive drug).[11][12][13][14][15][16] Research also
shows that the orbitofrontal cortex has connections to both the opioid and dopamine systems, and
stimulating this cortex is associated with subjective reports of pleasure.[17]

Psychiatry

Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, who is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind
and the defense mechanism of repression and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis,
proposed the notion of the Oedipus complex, which argues that desire for the mother creates
neuroses in their sons. Freud used the Greek myth of Oedipus to argue that people desire incest and
must repress that desire. He claimed that children pass through several stages, including a stage in
which they fixate on the mother as a sexual object. That this "complex" is universal has long since
been disputed. Even if it were true, that would not explain those neuroses in daughters, but only in
sons. While it is true that sexual confusion can be aberrative in a few cases, there is no credible
evidence to suggest that it is a universal scenario. While Freud was correct in labeling the various
symptoms behind most compulsions, phobias and disorders, he was largely incorrect in his theories
regarding the etiology of what he identified.

French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Jacques Lacan (19011981) argues that desire first occurs
during a "mirror phase" of a baby's development, when the baby sees an image of wholeness in a
mirror which gives them a desire for that being. As a person matures, Lacan claims that they still
feel separated from themselves by language, which is incomplete, and so a person continually
strives to become whole. He uses the term "jouissance" to refer to the lost object or feeling of
absence which a person believes to be unobtainable. For more details on the Lacanian conception
of desire, see desire (psychoanalysis).

In marketing
Desire, in its simplest form, is a strong feeling of wanting to have something (Dictionary.com n.d.).
In the context of marketing, desire is a consumers affective response to the acknowledged or
remembered presence of a need; this need recognition is usually induced by a marketing message,
communicated to the consumer by marketers (Dahlen, Lange & Smith, 2010). To understand this
concept in more depth, it is helpful to first consider how desire fits into the marketing
communications process; marketers call this process the linear model of communication.

As contended in Belch & Belch (2008), the linear model of communication is a basic dissection of
the participants, communication tools, communication functions, processes and dysfunctions that
constitute the marketing communications process. The two major participants in this process are the

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sender and receiver; respectively, the marketer and the consumer (Belch & Belch, 2008). The
communication tools in this model are the marketers message to the consumer and the media
vehicle (also known as the channel) in which the message is sent (Belch & Belch, 2008). The
marketing communication process itself begins with communication functions; at this stage of the
process, encoding occurs (Belch & Belch, 2008).

Belch & Belch (2008) assert that the sender uses their field of reference to convert data into
information that can be understood by the receiver. Data are streams of raw facts that have not yet
been put into context; whereas, information is the form that data takes once it has been organised
into a structure that is meaningful to the user (Laudon & Laudon, 2013). To make the information
meaningful to the consumer, the marketer encodes the message with appealing words, numbers,
shapes, colours, sounds and perhaps even smells and tastes (Belch & Belch, 2008). The information
is reformatted to catch the consumers attention while still suiting whichever media vehicle in
which it is being sent. For example, Belch & Belch (2008) argue that if the channel is a newspaper
advertisement, the marketer will use words, numbers, shapes, images and sometimes colour to
encode the message. From here the sender releases the encoded message into the channel and
awaits a response from the consumer. Upon receipt, the second communication function is started.
This is where the receiver begins decoding the message using their own field of reference (Dahlen
et al., 2010).

The consumer uses their life experiences, perceptions, attitudes, values and knowledge to
understand the message they have received (Belch & Belch, 2008). It is paramount to the
effectiveness of the communication that the message is encoded with information that the receiver
has the ability to decode. If the encoding process of the sender does not align with the decoding
process of the receiver, the message will not be understood and is therefore likely to be ignored
(Hoyer, MacInnis, & Pieter, 2012). Once the consumer has decoded the marketers message, the
sub process of consumer response begins.

Belch & Belch (2008) maintained that in response to the message, depending on levels of
communication dysfunction such as noise and distortion, the consumer will first process the
message cognitively by paying attention to it. If levels of noise and distortion are too high, the
consumer will ignore the message (Hoyer et al., 2012). Belch & Belch (2008) advise that given that
the consumer does pay attention to the message, the response process will move into the affective
stage. This is where the message captures the consumers interest, from here the consumer may
develop a desire for the subject of the message; namely the offering being advertised for acquisition
and consumption (Belch & Belch, 2008). Following desire is the behavioural stage of response.
This is the stage in which the consumer acts on the emotions birthed in the previous stage.
Developed by E. K. Strong Jr. in 1925 (as cited in Belch & Belch, 2008), this sub process of the
linear communication model is known as the AIDA Response model. Once the consumers
response process is complete the linear communication model moves into its final process,
feedback. This message is sent back to the sender from the receiver and comes in various forms that
include but are not limited to word of mouth, warranty claims, comments on social media and
telephone calls (Belch & Belch). This concludes the linear communications model. Upon
acknowledging the place desire holds in the context of marketing, factors that influence desire can

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now be considered to broaden understanding of the concept.

The way in which a consumer communicates with their peers is called personal communication
(Businessdictionary.com n.d.); from the perspective of the consumer, in regards to acquiring,
consuming and disposing behaviour, this is the most credible source of information (Dahlen et al.,
2010). For this reason, mind shapers, social influence in particular, hold a strong association with
what a consumer is interested in and thusly, what a consumer desires. Social influence is pivotal to
the offerings a consumer desires because as human beings, consumers are social creatures and have
social needs (Hoyer et al., 2012). This idea is espoused in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (as cited in
Hoyer et al., 2012) in the psychological social level of needs; here it is asserted by Maslow (cited in
Hoyer et al., 2012) that all humans have a psychological social need for relationships, acceptance
and love. Consumers seek to satiate this need by acquiring offerings that are in line with what their
peers consider socially acceptable (Hoyer et al., 2012). Ergo, it is in line with this need to fit in that
marketers seek to catch consumers attention, interest and desire through marketing messages that
offer one liners such as join the club! and dont miss out (Marcom Projects, 2007). Although
social needs are not the only human need satisfied by acquiring and consuming market offerings,
from here it is conceivable that consumers desire offerings, advertised in marketing messages as a
means to satisfy their social need for love and acceptance. It can also be gleaned that this need to fit
in can also be considered as a fear: Put forward in Effie Worldwide (2015), a fear of missing out on
what others do or own is also known in the marketing industry as FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out).
This concept is also a social influence that shapes consumers minds and rationalises desire.

Reference

Ang, L. (2014). Principles of Integrated Marketing Communications. New York City, NY:
Cambridge University Press.

Bailey, P. (2015). Marketing to the senses: A multisensory strategy to align the brand touchpoints.
Retrieved December 8, 2015, from WARC: www.warc.com

Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. A. (2012). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing
communications perspective (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Businessdictionary.com. (n.d.). Corporate identity. Retrieved March 18, 2016, from

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/corporate-identity.html

Businessdictionary.com. (n.d.). Personal communication. Retrieved March 17, 2016, from

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/personal-communication-services-PCS.html

Dahlen, M., Lange, F., & Smith, T. (2010). Marketing communications: A brand narrative
approach. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Disire. Retrieved March 17, 2016, from http://www.dictionary.com/browse

/desire?s=t

Effie Worldwide. (2015). LifeBeat: Know your status stage. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from

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WARC: http://www.warc.com/

Hoyer, W.D., MacInnis, D.J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior (6th ed.). Mason, OH:
Cenage Learning.

Laudon, K.C., & Laudon, J.P. (2013). Essentials of management information systems (10th ed.).
Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Laurie, S., & Mortimer, K. (2011). IMC is dead. Long live IMC: Academics' versus practitioners'
views. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13-14), 14641478.

Marcom Projects (2007). Persuasion in everyday life. Retrieved from Kanopy:

https://aut.kanopystreaming.com/video/persuasion-everyday-life/

Marketing Minds. (2015). Apple brand architecture. Retrieved March 18, 2016, from
http://www.marketingminds.com.au/apple_branding_strategy.html

In fiction and art

Written fiction

The theme of desire is at the core of the romance novel. Novels which are based around the theme
of desire, which can range from a long aching feeling to an unstoppable torrent, include Madame
Bovary by Gustave Flaubert; Love in the Time of Cholera by Gabriel Garcia Marquez; the sensual,
yet controversial novel Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov; Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bront, and Dracula
by Bram Stoker. Bront's characterization of Jane Eyre depicts her as torn by an inner conflict
between reason and desire, because "customs" and "conventionalities" stand in the way of her
romantic desires.[18] E.M. Forster's novels use homoerotic codes to describe same-sex desire and
longing. Close male friendships with subtle homoerotic undercurrents occur in every novel, which
subverts the conventional, heterosexual plot of the novels.[19] In the gothic-themed Dracula, Stoker
depicts the theme of desire which is coupled with fear. When the Lucy character is seduced by
Dracula, she describes her sensations in the graveyard as a mixture of fear and blissful emotion.

Poet W.B. Yeats depicts the positive and negative aspects of desire in his poems such as "The Rose
for the World", "Adam's Curse", "No Second Troy", "All Things can Tempt me", and "Meditations
in Time of Civil War". Some poems depict desire as a poison for the soul; Yeats worked through his
desire for his beloved, Maud Gonne, and realized that "Our longing, our craving, our thirsting for
something other than Reality is what dissatisfies us". In "The Rose for the World", he admires her
beauty, but feels pain because he cannot be with her. In the poem "No Second Troy", Yeats
overflows with anger and bitterness because of their unrequited love.[20] Poet T. S. Eliot dealt with
the themes of desire and homoeroticism in his poetry, prose and drama.[21] Other poems on the
theme of desire include John Donne's poem "To His Mistress Going to Bed", Carol Ann Duffy's
longings in "Warming Her Pearls"; Ted Hughes' "Lovesong" about the savage intensity of desire;
and Wendy Cope's humorous poem "Song".

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Philippe Borgeaud's novels analyse how emotions such as erotic desire and seduction are connected
to fear and wrath by examining cases where people are worried about issues of impurity, sin, and
shame.

Film

Just as desire is central to the written fiction genre of romance, it is the central theme of melodrama
films, which are a subgenre of the drama film. Like drama, a melodrama depends mostly on
in-depth character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes. Melodramatic films tend
to use plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience. Melodramatic plots often deal
with "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy,
illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship." Film critics sometimes use the term
"pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, bathos-filled, campy tale of romance or domestic situations
with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would directly appeal
to feminine audiences."[22] Also called "women's movies", "weepies", tearjerkers, or "chick flicks".

"Melodrama is Hollywood's fairly consistent way of treating desire and subject identity", as can
be seen in well-known films such as Gone with the Wind, in which "desire is the driving force for
both Scarlett and the hero, Rhett". Scarlett desires love, money, the attention of men, and the vision
of being a virtuous "true lady". Rhett Butler desires to be with Scarlett, which builds to a burning
longing that is ultimately his undoing, because Scarlett keeps refuses his advances; when she
finally confesses her secret desire, Rhett is worn out and his longing is spent.[23]

In Cathy Cupitt's article on "Desire and Vision in Blade Runner", she argues that film, as a "visual
narrative form, plays with the voyeuristic desires of its audience". Focusing on the dystopian 1980s
science fiction film Blade Runner, she calls the film an "Object of Visual Desire", in which it plays
to an "expectation of an audience's delight in visual texture, with the 'retro-fitted' spectacle of the
post-modern city to ogle" and with the use of the "motif of the 'eye'". In the film, "desire is a key
motivating influence on the narrative of the film, both in the 'real world', and within the text."[24]

Contemporary spiritual perspective

Barry Long defined desire as stress or strain. It is a tension between an individual and the thing or
state that that individual desires. As the thing does not feel this stress, the desiring is a one-way
tension within the individual, an apparent reaching out towards the desired object or person.

When the person responds in the way desired, or the object is attained, the desire settles down into
a relationship. A relationship is identifiable by the presence of an attitude in yourself which reacts
in terms of "mine".

When a desire has been reduced to the level of a habit or idea it can be dealt with and eliminated
fairly quickly by observation - seeing it for what it is. In that moment you suddenly realise you are
free of the relationship as a need or dependence "of mine".[25]

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References
1. Ethics Chapter. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy CD-ROM, V. 1.0, London: Routledge Edward
Craig (ed). "Morality and emotions". By Martha C. Nussbaum
2. "desire - behaviour". Encyclopdia Britannica.
3. Hagen, Steve. Buddhism Plain and Simple. New York: Broadway Books, 1997.
4. Charles S. Prebish, and Damien Keown, Buddhism - the EBook. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online
Books, 2005, page 83.
5. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "The Wings to Awakening (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro
/wings/part2.html#part2-c)".
6. Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Thought and Imagery in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University
Press, 1982, page 251: "In the end, the flowing streams of sense-desire must be 'cut' or 'crossed'
completely; nevertheless, for the duration of the Path, a monk must perforce work with motivational and
perceptual processes as they ordinarily are, that is to say, based on desire ... Thus, during mental
training, the stream is not to be 'cut' immediately, but guided, like water along viaducts. The meditative
steadying of the mind by counting in- and out-breaths (in the mindfulness of breathing) is compared to
the steadying of a boat in 'a fierce current' by its rudder. The disturbance of the flow of a mountain
stream by irrigation channels cut into its sides it used to illustrate the weakening of insight by the five
'hindrances'."
7. Gmez, Oscar R. (2009). Manual of Tantra Vol III ...from tantra to the technology of desire. Editorial
Menteclara. ISBN 978-987-24510-2-8. Read at: Academia.edu (https://www.academia.edu/19309143
/Manual_de_Tantra_-_...desde_el_tantra_a_la_Tecnolog%C3%ADa_del_deseo_)
8. "Changing stress levels can make brain flip from 'desire' to 'dread' ". Mar. 19, 2008
http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/story.php?id=6419
9. Kawabata H, Zeki S (2008). "The Neural Correlates of Desire". PLoS ONE. 3 (8): e3027.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003027.
10. Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological
Reviews. 95 (3): 853951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. PMC 4491543 . PMID 26109341.
"Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... Operant behavior gives a good definition
for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore
a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward
functions. ... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... Rewards induce
approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus
any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume
it is by definition a reward. ... Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of
several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory,
somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) ... Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which
are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three
principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and
surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers
(motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily
addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to
learning) ... These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction
research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward."

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11. Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY, eds. Molecular Neuropharmacology:
A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147148, 367,
376. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. "VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related
behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system,
wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new
rewards. Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience (wanting) on
the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on
different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple
forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate
obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example,
dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize
the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards."
12. Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In
Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 365366, 376. ISBN 9780071481274. "The neural substrates that
underlie the perception of reward and the phenomenon of positive reinforcement are a set of
interconnected forebrain structures called brain reward pathways; these include the nucleus accumbens
(NAc; the major component of the ventral striatum), the basal forebrain (components of which have
been termed the extended amygdala, as discussed later in this chapter), hippocampus, hypothalamus, and
frontal regions of cerebral cortex. These structures receive rich dopaminergic innervation from the
ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain. Addictive drugs are rewarding and reinforcing because
they act in brain reward pathways to enhance either dopamine release or the effects of dopamine in the
NAc or related structures, or because they produce effects similar to dopamine. ... A macrostructure
postulated to integrate many of the functions of this circuit is described by some investigators as the
extended amygdala. The extended amygdala is said to comprise several basal forebrain structures that
share similar morphology, immunocytochemical features, and connectivity and that are well suited to
mediating aspects of reward function; these include the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the central
medial amygdala, the shell of the NAc, and the sublenticular substantia innominata."
13. Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). "Pleasure systems in the brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646664.
doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018. PMC 4425246 . PMID 25950633. "In the prefrontal cortex, recent
evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C.
Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or
orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of liking reactions elicited by
sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the
OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned
earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012;
Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the
brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to
hedonic gains of function (Sderpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may
seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive,
but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the
body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human
emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010)."

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14. Kringelbach ML, Berridge KC (2013). "The Joyful Mind". From Abuse to Recovery: Understanding
Addiction. Macmillan. pp. 199207. ISBN 9781466842557. Retrieved 8 April 2016. "So it makes sense
that the real pleasure centers in the brainthose directly responsible for generating pleasurable
sensationsturn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward
circuit. One of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the
medial shell. A second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the
forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ... On the other hand, intense
euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. The reason may be that strong enhancement of
pleasurelike the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animalsseems to require
activation of the entire network at once. Defection of any single component dampens the high."
15. Grall-Bronnec M, Sauvaget A (2014). "The use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for
modulating craving and addictive behaviours: a critical literature review of efficacy, technical and
methodological considerations". Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 47: 592613.
doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.013. PMID 25454360. "Studies have shown that cravings are
underpinned by activation of the reward and motivation circuits (McBride et al., 2006, Wang et al.,
2007, Wing et al., 2012, Goldman et al., 2013, Jansen et al., 2013 and Volkow et al., 2013). According to
these authors, the main neural structures involved are: the nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum,
orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), amygdala,
hippocampus and insula."
16. Koob GF, Volkow ND (August 2016). "Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis". Lancet
Psychiatry. 3 (8): 760773. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00104-8. PMID 27475769. "Drug addiction
represents a dramatic dysregulation of motivational circuits that is caused by a combination of
exaggerated incentive salience and habit formation, reward deficits and stress surfeits, and compromised
executive function in three stages. The rewarding effects of drugs of abuse, development of incentive
salience, and development of drug-seeking habits in the binge/intoxication stage involve changes in
dopamine and opioid peptides in the basal ganglia. The increases in negative emotional states and
dysphoric and stress-like responses in the withdrawal/negative affect stage involve decreases in the
function of the dopamine component of the reward system and recruitment of brain stress
neurotransmitters, such as corticotropin-releasing factor and dynorphin, in the neurocircuitry of the
extended amygdala. The craving and deficits in executive function in the so-called
preoccupation/anticipation stage involve the dysregulation of key afferent projections from the
prefrontal cortex and insula, including glutamate, to the basal ganglia and extended amygdala.
Molecular genetic studies have identified transduction and transcription factors that act in neurocircuitry
associated with the development and maintenance of addiction that might mediate initial vulnerability,
maintenance, and relapse associated with addiction. ... Substance-induced changes in transcription
factors can also produce competing eff ects on reward function.141 For example, repeated substance use
activates accumulating levels of FosB, and animals with elevated FosB exhibit exaggerated
sensitivity to the rewarding eff ects of drugs of abuse, leading to the hypothesis that FosB might be a
sustained molecular trigger or switch that helps initiate and maintain a state of addiction.141,142"
17. Kringelbach, Morten L. (May 2, 2006). "Searching the brain for happiness". BBC News. Archived from
the original on October 19, 2006.
18. Desire, Class Position, and Gender in Jane Eyre and Pickwick Papers Benjamin Graves '97 (English 73
Brown University, 1996)
19. Distant Desire: Homoerotic Codes and the Subversion of the English Novel in E.M. Forster's Fiction
(Sexuality and Literature) by Parminder Kaur Bakshi
20. "Sepulveda - Desire: Can't Live With It, Can't Live Without It".

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Desire - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire

21. Gender, Desire, and Sexuality in T. S. Eliot. Edited by Cassandra Laity. Drew University, New Jersey.
Nancy K. Gish. University of Southern Maine (ISBN 978-0-521-80688-6 | ISBN 0-521-80688-7)
22. "Melodramas Films".
23. [1] (http://www.vivandlarry.com/extras/Supplemental%20materials
/Gone%20with%20the%20Wind%20as%20Melodrama.doc)
24. Cathy Cupitt, Eyeballing the Simulacra Desire and Vision in Blade Runner (https://web.archive.org
/web/19991022015016/http://www.geocities.com/area51/hollow/2405/blade.html) at the Wayback
Machine (archived October 22, 1999)
25. Barry Long, Knowing Yourself (pp 102 - 103)

Further reading
Marks, Joel. The Ways of Desire: New Essays in Philosophical Psychology on the Concept of
Wanting. Transaction Publishers, 1986

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