Adam Hart

Professor S******

Probability for Statistics

4/2/15
 Introduction

Leonhard Euler is one of the most accomplished mathematicians to ever live. To put his life and

accomplishments into any number pages isnt enough to do justice of what his work has done. He has

had such a profound effect in so many areas of study in mathematics and other areas as well, such as

physics, mechanics, astronomy, music theory, and more. These effects were seen so many years ago, and

still seen today.

Euler was a Swiss brilliant Swiss man who brought so many things to the table that he discovered and

helped pave the road for others to debunk, discover, or rework into different ways. People use Eulers

work every day without knowing anything about him, or possibly even having the slightest hint of who

he is. He doesnt get near the amount of credit and acknowledgement he deserves around the world.

Leonhard took challenging mathematics and made it look easy.

He learned under the teachings of other mathematicians and exceeded what was expected of him. His

work ethic was unlike no other and his works and discoveries are there to prove it to the world. He wrote

textbooks that are the basis of what we use in courses today such as calculus and geometry. In these, he

brought about new methods and techniques in solving problems, and named symbols to words to better

understand problems (for example in a summation problem, he used the symbol we see today ). With

all that he has done and perfected, there are those that were not so perfect and incomplete. But for

anyone to say that they are disappointed that he couldnt solve one particular thing or another is absurd

and should be disappointed in themselves for they certainly do not appreciate a thing that Leonhard

Euler has given to the world.

The Life of Leonhard

 Born on April 15th 1707 in Basel, Switzerland, Leonhard Euler was the son of Paul Euler and

Marguerite Brucker. His father Paul was a pastor to the Reformed Church, and his mother Marguerite

Brucker was a family woman. Although Paul was a pastor, he took interest in mathematics as he learned

from Jakob Bernoulli while Paul attended the University of Basel. While Paul had a vast interest in

mathematics, Leonhard's mother also had ancestors who were great scholars as well, leaving him with

no shortage of a very intelligent and educated family. Leonhard also had two younger sisters named

Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena.

For a short period of time after he was born, the family stayed in Basel before moving to Riehen,

Switzerland which is just outside of Basel. They moved so his father Paul could serve the church as

minister. Leonhard got his first lessons in mathematics from Paul which was the match that lit the fire

inside Leonhard to falling in love with math. At the age of eight years old, he was sent back to Basel to

stay with his grandmother to attend school. In his formal school he wasnt able to learn much. The

school was poor and Euler didnt get the chance to expand his mathematics while he attended.

To cope with the fact that the school was poor and he wasnt being taught any math, Paul hired a

tutor for Leonard. Johannes Burckhardt was the name of this tutor who also had a passion for

mathematics. Few years later, by the time Leonhard was thirteen, he was enrolled in the University of

Basel where he would study theology and Hebrew as his father believed he would follow Paul into the

ministry. Early on, Euler studied philosophy while taking less advanced math courses. His professor

Johann Bernoulli took notice of how intelligent Euler was and encouraged him to study more advanced

books. Johann was the younger brother of Jakob, who had taught Paul.

Bernoulli was invested in the mathematical growth of Leonhard. He believed that Euler was

special and had the ability to exceed what a normal student would be able to. Leonhard had graduated

with a Masters degree in public lecture and went on to study and join the theology faculty which his
parents were pushing for him to do. Although he was a part of the theology faculty he still spent most of

his time studying mathematics and continued to expand his interests. It wasnt long for Euler to get

permission from his father to turn his focus to math as Bernoulli had most likely convinced Paul to allow

this to happen. Johann was positive this was the right choice for Leonhard and he made sure that he

would see this brilliant young man develop into the field that suited him best and showed his obvious

talents.

One case in which his brilliance was shown was at the age of nineteen; he competed in a

competition to find the best placement on a ship for its mast. This contest was called the Paris Academy

Prize Problem and was a very popular event each year. The first year he entered, he came in second

place, but in the years following he won twelve times.

After the first competition, the physics department chair had opened up at the University of Basel

and he had tried to acquire the position. Being so young at this time, they didnt accept him to the chair

for the lack of published work. This however could have possibly benefited him in the long run. Euler

had then moved to St Petersburg to work at the Academy of Sciences. He took the position in chair of

the physiology department when he first arrived. For this he had to study anatomy, but he didnt remain

long in that position.

Leonhard was soon appointed to the chair of the physics department as this was more along his

line of work. Here he was able to start focusing on more intricate work. Yet again though, this didnt last

long. He was proving to be more intelligent than many people may have anticipated so he was then

appointed to the chair of the mathematics department, who was previously under the direction of his

friend Daniel Bernoulli. From this point on, it was open road for Leonhard as he could spend all his time

dedicated to his work and studies. It didnt take long for Euler to rise in fame across the world. He held
three positions there at St Petersburg as a physiologist, physicist, and mathematician (where he truly

belonged).

There, in St Petersburg, is where he spent most of his time for his studies and research (nearly 31

years). He quickly became a well respected scientist across the globe and surely the most respected

scientist in Russia. This comes as no surprise with the amount of accomplishments and research he did

in his time when he was alive.

At the age of 26, Leonhard got married to Katharina Gsell who also taught at the University.

They had thirteen children together during there marriage. They were married for forty years before she

had died, and then three years later he ended up marrying her half sister. Later life wasnt so easy for

Leonhard though, he fell deathly sick at two different occasions and nearly lost his life both times. Even

though its unclear what it was that made him so sick, they believe today that it was of the same type of

infection. Instead of taking his life, the disease took his right eye instead. He became blind in right eye

and continued his studies as if there were no effects to him. In showcasing his brilliance, he was at this

point starting to make calculations in his head that most other people would have to do written out.

While some people lose one eye and take pity in themselves, Euler rose to the occasion and challenged

himself to be a better mathematician than he already was.

After seven years of living in St Petersburg, they packed up and moved to Berlin. Euler here took

the job of head of mathematics at the Academy, founded by Frederick II. It took some time, but he was

teaching again by 1746 when the Academy was fully underway. For twenty five years Euler lived in

Berlin teaching and holding chair to the mathematics department. With Fredrick II bringing him to the

Academy, it wasnt all fun and games between the two as they had differed philosophical views and

different personalities. At this point, Euler decided to move back to St Petersburg and stayed there until

his death in September of 1783.

 Back in St Petersburg, he still went through some rough periods of time. He nearly lost complete

vision in his left eye, as well as his right, when he went under successful experimental surgery to repair

his cataract. Even though it was fixed, the surgery created an abscess and nearly took his vision

completely away. Now, completely blind in his right, and nearly completely blind in his left, Euler

continued to study and calculate like there was nothing wrong with him. At this point, he was in

assistance with the help of his first born son Johann, and also the help from Nicklaus Fuss (who would

in time become an in-law to Euler). A bit more misfortune, he lost his home in a fire in St Petersburg,

and lost his first wife in 1773. With help, his house was rebuilt, and the second marriage was so he

didnt need to depend on his children for anything that he wasnt able to do on his own.

Ten years later, Leonhard Euler suffered a stroke and died (September, 18th, 1783) in St

Petersburg. On the day of his death, his last formal publication was found to be about the flight of

balloons. Like many scientists, kings, leaders, and famous figures, more publications after his death

arose and are still around today, and still not all have been published. Of those that are, they can be

accounted for more than seventy volumes and thousands of pages of work.

The work he did was immense in the departments of mathematics and so much more. He can be

given credit for Eulers constant, numerous formulae, the idea of functions, proving numerous theories

(including Fermat's little theorem and Newton's identities), an explanation for the Euler-Bernoulli beam

equation which helped physics and engineering, and so much more. Without the studies of Leonhard

Euler and what he was able to prove and advance during, and still after, his life, its unclear as to when

we would have reached these discoveries if he didnt. Like there are still many theorems to be proven

today, without Euler, there still could be many things that he proved that would still be on the list of

open problems today.

 Eulers Number: e

One of the most important numbers in mathematics is Eulers number,

e = 2.718281

like pi = 3.14195, and i = (-1). People use it all the time without knowing it. It is programmed into

all standard calculators today just like the pi constant is. Eulers constant is used most often in the use of

natural logarithms. Its unsure if he used the letter e for his last name, or just the fact that it was next in

line as a-d were already in use as symbols in mathematics.

In relation to logarithms, it is the base of the natural log. The derivative of e will always be e (with the

exception of

e0=1

since any number to the power zero is equal to one. As

ln= 1/x

the derivative of this is then

d/dx log(x) = 1/x (in base e).

e can also be calculated as the sum of an infinite series:


e = 1/n! = 1 + + 1/2*3 + 1/2*3*4 + + 1/1*2**n
n=0

In the beginning, it was Jacob Bernoulli who had originally discovered the constant e when he was

attempting to find the value of

lim (1 + 1/n)n
n->

but Euler was the first who had publicly (and quotations are used because this was the 1700s version

of publicly stating something) used the letter e to symbolize the constant in a letter written to Christian

Goldbach. Later on, it was publish in a public article on explosive forces in cannons that was published

in Mechanica.

Included in the standard use of e is the exponential function ex which was before mentioned. Is it shown

as an increasing exponential function on the graph as e was developed for exponential and continuous

growth,

Where the values always stay above x = 0. The y value in a set pair interestingly enough will also

always be equal to the slope of the tangent line. Since the value of e is unique, given is ex, and for any x,

m (the slope of the tangent line), will always be equal to ex. Euler's constant is also an irrational number.

Eulers Formula
Leonhard has many theories and formulas that he created, helped prove or disprove, and ones named

after him. Eulers formula had to do with trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function.

It is known mostly in mathematics, engineering, and physics, usually all by the same equation. When

hearing Eulers formula many different formulae can in fact come to mind.

The formula states that,

eix = cos(x) + isin(x)

where x is in radians (based as cosine and sine are trigonometric function). This however can also be

written out in a series expansion as well.

eix = (ix)n / (n!)
n=0

= ((-1)n x2n)/(2n!) + i ((-1)n-1 x2n-1)/(2n-1)
n=0 n=1

and finally,

= cos(x) + isin(x)

With Eulers formula, we can also see Eulers identity.

Euler's Identity

Eulers identity is a special case of Euler's formula in complex analysis particularly when x =

(and we are still using radians). In radians, , obviously is a half rotation of a circle (180o) which is what

makes Eulers identity possible. In this case we see Euler's standard formula,

eix = cos(x) + isin(x), where x = ,

so, ei = cos() + isin()

given cos(), we know that cos() = -1 and sin() = 0. This now gives us

ei = -1 + 0i
and we can add 1 to both sides to give the identity,

ei + 1 = 0.

We leave this equal to zero because anything multiplied by zero is obvious, including the imaginary

number i. We also see in Eulers identity a number of different mathematical identities and operations.

We get addition, exponentiation, multiplication, Euler's constant, imaginary numbers, pi, and some even

see the coincidence of the numbers one and zero here. Because there are so many principles, well call

them, of mathematics, many mathematicians and scientists call this proof and problem a mathematical

beauty because we had never seen this much in one problem until this proof. Further, we are dealt with

more than just identities and operations; here we are expanding one operation into different areas of

mathematics as well. We get standard algebra from zero and one, we tie in geometry with pi, calculus

comes from e, and again, we have complex numbers from i.

Graph Theory

Leonhard Euler was considered to have created the first theorem that introduced planar graph theory.

More simply put, graph theory is just the study of graphs The formula is simple,

VE+F=2

and is also known as Euler's formula as well. This formula is for polyhedrons with no intersections

within itself. V is for the number of vertices, E the number of edges, and F is for how many faces there

are.

In finding this theorem, it is believed to have come from the famous Seven Bridges of Konigsberg

problem. This problem was based on the Prussian city Konigsberg. The city is divided as three land

masses surrounding an island which is split up by the Pregel River. This problem which Euler eventually

solved was how they would be able to build seven bridges to cross the river and be able to walk the
entire city with only crossing each bridge once, and can that person end up in the same place they

started?

This was an enormous challenge which is still challenging if you try to answer it today. The basis of the

problem looks like this,

and so with the land layout, how is it possible? Euler found the answer to this question and proved it

also. There isnt a way that this is possible. In the wake of proving so, the emergence of graph theory

was invented.

In his proof, Euler takes the four land masses and lays them out as points (which will be shown below)

with three in a line and one off to the side in the middle. The bridges are denoted by a line segment

which then connects one point to another; this was where the term graph theory came about (dealing

with lines and points).

Here we see seven line segments, four points, and the numbers represent the amount of intersections for

each point. Euler stated that for each point, there must be one line going to it, and one leave it, and

therefore there must only be two line segments per point (or an even number). This holds for all vertices

except two, starting and ending point in which these may have an odd number. And so in the graph
theory proof above, it shows all vertices with odd numbers of line segments for each and therefore this

problem is impossible.

In another example for this theorem is by taking a cube and applying the theorem. A cube has six faces,

eight vertices, and twelve edges, so 6 + 8 12 = 2 and this theorem is true for a cube. For most any

shape this is true with certain exceptions (a sphere for example).

Eulers Texts

Euler wrote many texts and published works that its hard for one to count all that he wrote. He could

have written more in his field of study than some authors in their lifetimes. Three major texts that he

wrote that are still studied today are Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum, Institutiones Calculi

Differentialis, and Institutiones Calculi Integralis.

Introductio in Analysin Infinitorium is one of the many works that Leonhard Euler composed that

expressed mathematics like never seen before. The text is a two volume piece that gave way to the

fundamentals of analysis. In volume one, Euler explains functions, terms, and many of his discoveries.

Some of the main points he tried to come in conclusion to regarding analysis were the importance of

logarithms and exponentials (e). Volume two is written on analytic geometry and mostly curves.

Institutiones Calculi Differentialis is another two volume text that is written about differential

calculus and Institutiones Calculi Integralis is a three volume text that goes in depth into differential

equations. These texts are the basis of textbooks used today as they have many examples and

descriptions of things like the Fourier series, Taylor expansions, functions, infinite series, angles,

fractions, and so much more. These three texts (on top of all Leonhard's other works) helped shape

modern math books we use today.

Mechanics
Leonhard not only made significant advances in mathematics, but he also made advances in other areas

of study such as physics. Included in his achievements are aspects such as hydrodynamics, astronomy,

elasticity and more. His contributions to fluid mechanics came from studying the law of conservation of

mass (mass cannot be created or destroyed).

Hydrodynamics is also referred to as fluid dynamics which is the flow of fluids (or simply fluids in

motion). Fluid dynamics can be studied in terms of pressure, velocity, and density using the equation,

(dv/dt + dv/dxv) = dp/dx dV/dx

in which v(x,t) is velocity, p(x,t) is pressure, (x,t) is the density of a liquid, and V(x,t) is the potential

energy. This was able to show that as a fluids velocity increased, the pressure decreased (giving it a

direct relationship.

Number Theory

In his work of number theory, his work can be based from the studies of Christian Goldback (1690

1764) and Pierre de Fermat (1601/1607 1665). Within number theory, Euler was very interested in

prime numbers and he founded the connection between prime numbers and the zeta function. In the

study of number theory, he is accounted with many contributions including proving Fermat's little

theorem, Newtons identities, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and proving that the sum of

reciprocals of prime numbers diverges.

Leonhard also created in number theory the totient function (Eulers totient function) which is

symbolized in mathematics by phi, or . The totient function counts positive integers less than or equal

to n in which case are also relatively prime to n. Given (n),

(n) = k

where k is the number of integers for which

1kn
and

gdc(n,k) = 1

This gives us the fact that the phi function is a multiplicative function, stating that for some numbers m,

n, they are relatively prime, and

(m) (n) = (mn)

Eulers Proof of Fermats Little Theorem

Pierre de Fermat was a French mathematician who proposed Fermats little theorem which states that for

p, a prime number and any integer a, ap a is a multiple of p (in modular arithmetic). This is shown as,

ap a (mod p)

Fermat never proved this theorem however like many of his theorems. It wasnt until a time later that

Leonhard Euler proved this theorem.

In Fermat's little theorem, we look at cases in which a is not divisible by p. We take,

ap a (mod p)

and tweak the exponent to give,

ap-1 1 (mod p)

This can also be written in terms of Eulers totient theorem as,

a(n) 1 (mod n)

where (n) = n-1 and n are prime numbers. Fermats little theorem is also commonly used in connection

with the Chinese Remainder Theorem in algebra.

For some examples, we can also propose that if p is prime, and a is not divisible by p, then the

order of a (mod p) divides p-1. To find the order of a particular modulo, we simply follow two steps,

(1) ae 1 (mod m)

(2) 1 s < e, as 1 (mod m)

A quick example of finding the order of a modulo is as follows:

Given: ae 1 (mod m)

we want to find the order of 2 mod 7. So we want to take these numbers and put it in the form of

2e 1 (mod 7)

where we want to find e to be the smallest possible number to get an outcome congruent to 1 in 7.

Quick calculating will in turn give you that the order of 2 mod 7 is 3.

23 8 1 (mod 7)

Three is the smallest positive e we can take to get this outcome, since 22 = 4 1 (mod 7) and 21 = 2 1

(mod 7).

In the proof of Fermat's little theorem, Euler took the case previously stated in his version of the

theorem:

a(n) 1 (mod n)

where (n) = n-1 for n being prime. If however n = rs and r and s are coprime, then we get (n) = (r)

(s).

Eulers Geometry

Euler also had a theorem in the field of geometry (like so many other areas of study) that dealt with the

distance in a triangle between the circumcentre and the incentre of the given triangle. The formula is

stated as

d2 = R(R 2r)

where d is the distance, R is the circumcentre, and r is the incentre.

Euler also had proven the Eulers Formula,

VE+F=2

which is also know as the Polyhedron Formula which is also involved in the geometry field. These are

two small examples of geometric advancement that Leonhard concluded during his life.

Prime Numbers and Zeta

A prime numbers is a number that is divisible only by one and itself. An example of a prime number is

five. According to Euclids theorem, there is an infinite set of prime numbers. Euclids proof is such as

follows: let there be a series of finite prime numbers where P = p1, p2, , pn and q = P + 1. If q happens

to be prime, then obviously there is another such prime not in the finite set of P. If q isnt prime, a prime

factor p divides q, but that p is in the list which divides P and also must divide P + 1 = q, so p divides P

and q which contradicts the fact that p is on the list, so at least one more prime factor is on the list.

The zeta function is a complex function that holds the sum of a series is infinite when s is greater than

one in the equation

1/(n^s)
n=1

this equation has main applications in statistics and physics.

To make the connection between the zeta function and prime numbers, Leonhard used the product

formula,
 = 1/(1 1/p^2) = (s), s > 1
pP

where

(s) = 1 + 1/(2^s) + 1/(3^s) + + 1/(n^s)

Euler then divided by 2a and subtracted 1, and continued this process for each term until the conclusion

was reached that,

(1 1/(p^s)) (s) = 1
pP

which therefore proves that the list of prime numbers is infinite. This was the first proof that the list of

primes is infinite, which was already known, but now could also be proven.

In Conclusion

Leonhard Euler as stated many times over, was unarguably the greatest mathematician to have ever

lived. Well dare to say that his accomplishments were the foundation, pavement, and road to

mathematical studies today. He did things and saw things that others couldnt at that time, and even

things mathematicians and physicists might not be able to do today.

In a day when there was no technology that we have today, its even more astounding to think about

what he put forth in advancement in not just mathematics, but science in general. In a time when there

were no calculators, you had to be very precise in writing your calculations, because one simple

miscalculation could spell disaster for your work. Not only were there no calculators, but as we recall,

Leonhard was nearly completely blind by the time he passed away (to which he was still studying and

working out problems). To be nearly blind and not have calculators to help in studies, his brain was in

sixth gear going 160 miles an hour (and thats probably an understatement).
Euler wasnt only a mathematician who was nearly blind, but he had his family surrounding him as well.

He did Bernoulli justice to what he felt Leonhard could do, and we can never thank Bernoulli enough for

convincing Leonhards father to allow Leonhard to take full priority in mathematical study. In having

thirteen children, it wouldnt be a quiet home to come home to every night and working (which is what

accounts say he did). Staying focused while not making mistake and having your children running

around beside you can be very distracting, but Euler never let that affect his works.

When he worked at home with his children around, it might not have been the studies he focused on

while at the Universities, but it isnt a small task to stay focused and not make mistakes elsewhere. Out

of the thousands of letters he wrote, many of them could have been done while his children played

around him (and the same could possibly said for the works that are now seen his textbooks).

One thing that also separates Euler from other mathematicians is how clear and in depth he was. Take

into example Fermat as early described. We cant exactly say Fermat wasnt a good mathematician, after

all he alone has many accomplishments in mathematics as well, but he lacked his proof in Fermats

Little Theorem. Euler made sure as many of his theorems had proofs as possible. In his texts, for one

theorem he may have had many proofs to try to let people understand as best as possible. And for those

problems, there were many examples shown after. Like normal texts, there were corollaries and lemmas

to problems, but they are minor differences in the original problem at hand.

This was just a touch of the work that Leonhard had accomplished in his lifetime, which is more than so

many others did and will do. To have a mathematician like Euler, we may never see another to his

magnitude. The advancements he arose are enormous and incomparable to anything any other

mathematician or scientist has ever done. That may come across as a bold statement, but this is the

acknowledgement that he deserves. Not many people understand the magnitude to which he advanced

mathematics in terms of understanding his studies, and the breakthroughs he, alone, had, and led others
to build off of (by other examples), and possibly finishing open works to which he was unable to finish

himself.

With the topics covered thus far, this is only the tip of the iceberg, as many would say, is the case

which only the basics are shown. The depth that Euler went into is far beyond reach of the capacity of

this paper, and many other papers, books, and articles written about Euler. With the amount of work he

had published, and not published, there are many other areas that can be covered that he studied that we

may, and may not know about.

As he had many of his works published after his death, to find more that are unpublished wouldnt be

something one should be surprised about. His work was groundbreaking, and sometimes that work

wouldnt be published until sometime later. Many of his letters he wrote are composed primarily of his

works in which he would discuss in letters to colleagues and other scientists and mathematicians. One

might suggest that this was because topics may not have been clear or the work might not have been

finished. After all, if work of his was found today that we never knew of, regardless of it being finished

or not, that would be an incredible find in the mathematical community and his legacy.

If we ever see a mathematician again like Leonhard Euler, it would be extremely hard to compete

against him and how much he accomplished. In an extremely famous quote about Euler, French

mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace said, Read Euler, read Euler, he is the master of us all. And this

speaks true to the greatest mathematician, and greatest mathematical teacher that has ever lived.