Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Virtual Reality Urban Planning PDF
Virtual Reality Urban Planning PDF
Determining Telepresence
Virtual reality has been presented in the popular press as a medium, like
the telephone or television. This new medium typically is defined in terms
of a particular collection of technological hardware, including computers,
head-mounted displays, headphones, and motion-sensing gloves. The focus
of virtual reality is thus technological, rather than experiential; the locus of
virtual reality is a collection of machines. Such a concept may be useful for
producers of these technologies, because it provides thein with an impor-
tant marketing tool. Indeed, the term virtual reality (VR) was coined in 1989
by Jaron Lanier, chief executive officer of VPL Research, Inc., a manufac-
turer of gloves, goggles, and other VR products (Krueger, 1991).
However, from the standpoint of communication researchers, policymak-
ers, software developers, and media consumers, a device-driven definition
of virtual reality is unacceptable: It fails to provide any insight into the
processes or effects of using these systems, fails to provide a conceptual
framework from which to make regulatory decisions, fails to provide an aes-
thetic from which to create media products, and fails to provide a method
for consumers to rely on their previous experiences with other media in
understanding the nature of virtual reality.
Theoretically, these inadequacies are manifest in three ways. First, a tech-
nology-based view suggests that the most salient feature in recognizing a VR
system is the presence or absence of the requisite complement of technolo-
gies. In other words, a given system is arbitrarily classified as VR or not-
This paper presumes broad definitions of technology and media, such as those given by
Ikniger (1986), who defines technology as any intentional extension of a natural process,
that is, processing o f matter, energy, and information that characterizes all living systems (p.
91, and McLuhan (l964), who defines a medium as any extension of man (p. 21).
See Nass and Mason (1990) for an in-depth discussion of the practical and (cont.)
73
JOU rnal ofCbmmunication, A U t U rnri 1992
/4
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
-fie terms virtual worlds, virtual cockpits, and virtual workstations were
used to describe spec<ficprojects. . . I n 1989, Jaron Lanier, CEO qf W L ,
,
coined the term virtual reality to bring all of the virtual projects under a
single rubric. The term therefix?typicully refen to three-dimensional reali-
ties implemented with stereo vieutng goggles and reality glozxs. (Krueger,
1991, p . xiii)
Though these three definitions vary somewhat, all include the notions o f
hoth electronically sirnulated environments and goggles ngloves systems
;IS the nieans t o access these environments. The appliication o f these ciefini-
tions (and any other definition that is similarly based o n a particular harcl-
ware instantiation) is thereby limited to these technologies; their units of
analysis and potential for variance are left unspecified. However, ic is possi-
Ide t o define virtual reality without reference to particular hardware.
frcserzcc as ~isedhere refers t o the experience o f natural surroundings; that is. sui-i-oundings
in which sensory input impinges directly u p o n the organs of sense. Ihc term is also some-
times used t o descritw the mcdiatc.d cxpcrience of :I physical environment; this is discussed
further helow.
f:orthe purpcws of tliis papcr, ii iornmzinication trchnok)g~~ can t x defined as :my nieans of
representing information across sp:ice o r :icross time. Mcdia/Cd commiinicatioii / C o n t i n i d /
75
lournal ofComrnunication,Autumn 1992
o f the latter experience in favor o f the former; that is, telepresence is the
extent t o which o n e feels present in the mediated environment, rather than
in the immediate physical environment. Telepresence is de3nt.d as the expe-
rience qfpresence in a n environment b y means of a communication
medium. In other words, presence refers to the natural perception of an
environment, and telepresence refers to the mediated perception of an envi-
ronment. This environment can be either ;i temporally or spatially distant
real environment (for instance, a d nt space viewed through a video cam-
era ), or an animated but nonexistent uirtztal uiorld synthesized h y a coni-
puter (for instance, the animated world created in a video game). Reeves
( 1991), in a discussion o f responses to television, describes this experience
as a sense of being there. He claims that a combination o f automatic per-
ceptual processes, mindful direction of attention, and conscious processes
such as narratization all contribute t o our perceiving mediated experiences
;is real.
The use o f the terni telepraence t o refer t o any medium-induced sense o f
presence is similar to some, but not all, previous uses of the term. It was
coined hy Marvin Minsky (1980) in reference t o teleoperation systems for
remote manipulation o f physical objects. Sheridan and Furness (1992) have
continued this tradition by adopting the name Presence (rather than Tele
presence) for ;I new journal dedicated t o the study o f both teleoperator and
virtual environment systems. In the first issue of the journal, an entire sec-
tion is devoted to the concept of telepresence. Sheridan (1992) uses the
term prcwnce to refer t o the generic perception of being in a n artificial or
remote environment, reserving telepresence only for cases involving teleop-
eration. However, in the same section of the journal, Held and Durlach
(1992) use telepresencc to refer to the experience common t o both teleoper-
ation and virtual environments. The broader term is used here in order t o
highlight the similarities, rather than differences, between teleoperation and
virtual environments.
By eniploying the concept of telepresence, virtual reality can now be
defined without reference to a particular hardware system: A vil.ltual reality
is &fined us a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver expert-
and mediatd experience are therefore considered t o be essentially equivalent. Again, this is ;I
very tiroad clefinition that differs from rnany typical views.
I This is not t o SAY that people are fooled into lielieving that television o r other mccli;ited
experiences are real. However, two distinct research programs currently underway :it Stanford
have demonstrated that in ccrtain contexts, people respond t o mediated stimuli in ways simi-
1;ir to their rea-life counterparts. The r rrch on being therc, led by Byron Reevrs, includes
a study that suggests that images o f faces presented on a television screen evoke siniil;ir rules
of intcrpersond space as clo actual faces (Reeves, Lombard, & Melwani, 19921, as \veil as a
study to determine the effects o f representing auditory and visual fidelity and spatial charac-
teristics in engendering real-world-like responses from televised m
for a description) The Computer :IS Social Actor project, led h y
that computers can evoke social responses similar t o those evoked
situations where there IS no logical explanation for such behavior (s
sen, 1992).
76
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
Traditional View
Telepresence View
virtual
reality
' Examples o f niodels nieeting this genei-al dcxcription can be l'ound in IkFlci.ir :incI I3:tll-
Rokeach, 1989; 5clir:iniiii. 1974; S1i:innon and Weaver, 1962; o r in :rny introductory coinmuni-
cation text.
77
lournal ofComrnunication,Autumn 1992
You receive yourfirst-ever telephone call. You are handed the telephone
and la&?it to your ear. You hear nothing, and exclaim, Noone is there.A
.friend standing nearby takes the rceive?; speaks into it, and hands it back
to you. Ohyes, hek there, .yourfriend replies. You look atyour.fritmd
quizzically, then point to the telephorie,point to .your immediate sur-
roundings, and inquire, Whereis he? There or here?
78
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
"I K o t e that this clefinition does no/ n u k e reference t o reseinbling o1)jects in the real world, a n d
thei-eby :ivoicls prohlems in describing the experience o f artificial si1u:itions. For instance, h o w
docs o n e tletermine whether :I unicorn in v i r t i ~ t lreality looks like a real-world unicorn? 13y
referring only to sensory richness, this definition avoids such concerns.
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
telepresence
vividness interactivity
determine properties o f the stiniiilus that will have similar but not identical
ramifications ;icross a range of perceivers. The remainder o f this section
considers these two dimensions in some detail.
I/iuidnes.s
One variable property o f media technologies that influences their ability t o
induce 3 sense o f presence is vividne Vivid?ilessmeans the rejwwvitu-
tiovial mchrxss qf u mediated erwiron nt as defined by it.sJ?fi,rmal feutim>.s;
that is, the u1ap in ulhich an enr,ironmmlpre.sents in@*mation to the .scn.st~.s.
Vividness is stimulus driven, depending entirely upoin technicA characteris-
tics o f a niedium. Rafaeli (1985) refers to this property ;IS transparency ( p .
9).A highly vivid rnediuni can he consiclered hot in the McLuhanesque
sense, as it extends o n e [or many] senselsl in high definition (klcl,ulian,
1964] p. 36). Many factors contribute to vividne Two generalized but
important variables are discussed here: sensory breadth, which refers to the
number o f stmsory dimensions simultaneously presented, :ind sensory
depth, which refers to the resolution within each of these perceptual chan-
nels. Breadth is a function o f the ability o f 21 communication medium t o pre-
sent infornyation across the senses. J . J. Gibson (1966) defines five distinct
perceptual systems: the basic orienting system, whiclh is responsilde f o r
maintaining I x d y equililxium; the auditory system; the haptic, o r touch, hys-
tein; the taste-smell system; and the visual system. Inputs to several o f these
systems from 21 single source can l x considered information:illy eqiiivalent
(Gibson, 1966). However, the redundancy resulting from simultaneous acti-
vation of a n u t n k r o f perceptual systems reduces the nuniber o f alternative
situations that could induce such a combination o f perceptions, and there-
fore strengthens the perception o f a particular environment.
This concept is best illustrated by an example. Imagine standing o n :I
street corner in a rainstorm. Which sense is responsible for generating 21
81
lournu1 o/ Cornmumcatton. Autumn 1992
82
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
Inkmct iuit-y
Communication medi:i can also be classified in terms of interactivity. Tnter-
actiuity is the extent to uhich users can participate in mod@ng thefiwm
and content of w mediated environment in real time. Interactivity in this
sense is distinct from engugement or involvement as these terms are fre-
quently used by communication researchers (see Rafaeli, 1986, 1988). For
the purposes of this paper, interactivity, like vividness, is a stimulus-driven
Indeed, tlic development of ;tlgorithms cap;tlde o f coinpressing the huge amount o f clat:i
required for the transmission o f high-resolution moving pictures into a inanagcablc bandwidth
has hecn thc primary obstacle in the development o f ATV systems.
84
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
The difference between Iiafaelis definition and that given abovc is not
surprising, since his definition, like others in the communication literature
(see I>urlak, 1987; Rafaeli, 19881, is based o n tlie traditional view o f medi-
ated communication discussed above. In contrast, the clefinition given here
is based on a teleprcscnce view o f mediated communication, and thereby
focuses 0 1 1 properties o f the rnecliated environment and the relationship o f
individuals to that environment.
Interactivity is a variahle o f great concern t o researchers in humin-coiii-
puter interaction (see Heckel, 1791; Laurel, 1986, 1990, 1901; Nornman, 1986,
1988; Stineiderman, 1772; Iurkle. 1984). As discussed above, both Sheridan
( 1992) and Zcltzer ( 1992) include variables that reserrible the definition of
interactivity given here as part o f their discussions of presence. Indeed, the
definition o f interactivity used here may be viewed as collapsing two of the
three dimensions in each o f their models-control o f sensors and ;.il>ilityt o
tnodify environment in Shericlans model; autonomy and interaction in
Zeltzers model-into the single dirnension that includes all aspects o f the
perceivers control o f his relationship to the environment.
A limitation o f defining interactivity in terms o f the malleability o f ;I
mediums forin m c l content is that such a definition does not inclu.de coil-
trol over how the medium can be experienced. Thus, a b o o k . whicti cannot
be changed easily in real time without cutting it apart. is not cunsidered
interactive, though o n e can certainly read a book interactively, jumping at
will from page to page and from chapter t o chapter. Conversely, a laser disc
system including programming that enables a user to control the order in
which its content is presented in real time is considered somcwhai; interac-
tive, because the medium itself can change, and ;I position-sensing, head-
mounted display controlling a virtual environment is thus considered quite
interactive. M o s t traditional media systems are not particularly interactive in
this sense. Interaction with ;I newspaper is possible only by writing letters
t o the editor or b y writing stories for inclusion; call-in s h o w s and request
lines provide the only means of interaction with radio; :tnd most paintings
are not interactive at all.
Three factors that contribute t o interactivity will be examined here
(although many others are also important): speed, which refers t o tlie rxte at
which input can be assimilated into the mediated environment; range,
which refers t o the nciinber o f pssihilities for action at :my given time; and
ti5
,Jmrnal r~Communication,Autumn 1992
Of course, each o f these media also has a range of interactivity across many other dimensions.
such as image hrightness, contrast, color, hue, and so on. However, the technologies listed do
not dafJer in this regard.
86
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
extreme, these mappings can lie completely arbitrary and unrelated to the
fiinction performed. For instance, wiggling one's left t'oe might increase the
loudness of sound from the T V speaker, or typing arbitrary commands into
a computer might shift the perspective of the image in a head-mounted dis-
play. At the other en d of the spectrum, mapping may be completely natural:
Turning a steering wlieel o n an arcade video game might make the virtual
car on the screen move accordingly, or mimicking the action o f throwing a
tiaseball while wearing a glove controller might initiate the throwing of a
virtual baseball. Mapping is thus a function of both thle types o f controllers
used to interact with a mediated environment, and the ways in which the
actions of these controllers are connected to actions within that environ-
ment.
In situations in which action in a mediated environment has a direct real-
world counterpart, such as the automobile and baseball examples discussed
above, the appropriate inapping strategy should match the natural action as
closely as possible. In other cases, appropriate use of metaphor can help
match controller and controlled. For example, the Apple Macintosh coin-
puter uses a desktop metaphor for organizing its file system (see Erickson,
1990); the "jog-shuttle" motion-control wheel found on many VCRs uses a
directional mctuphor for mapping hand controls to tape motion. Twisting
one way moves forward, twisting the other moves backward; the amount of
twist determines the shuttle speed. In some cases, o n e must learn a c'oni-
pletely arbitrary system such as with the QWERTY layout of most typewriter
and computer keyboards, or the position of the digits o n a telephone key-
pad. However, even an arbitrary but standardized mapping system is hetter
than n o system at all, because such a system need be learned only once.
Since our perceptual systems are optimized for interactions with the real
world, mapping is generally increased by adapting controllers to the human
body. Many such controllers are now under development (see Hiocca,
1992). Speech-recognition systems and gloves epitomize such designs. As
these and other technologies become more advanced, tlie mapping o f con-
troller actions to actions in mediated environments is likely to become
increasingly natural.
h7
lournal ofComrnunication,Autumn 1992
Coleridge believed that an-y idiot could see that a pla-y on stage was not
real I(@. (Plato would have disagreed with him, as do those in uihom,f&ur
is induced b y any new representational medium, but that is another
stoy .1 Colcridge noticed that, in order lo enjoy a play, we must temporar-
ily suspend (or attenuate) our knowledge that it is pretend.We do this
willing(yin order to experience other emotional respon.5e.s as a re.sztlt cf
Though Laurel explicitly discusses human-computer interface design, iiiost o f hcr points are
equally applicable t o other media as well. Indeed, what makes her writing fascinating is the
extent t o which her concepts apply across media.
88
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
Ilighly vivid and interactive media systems are not yet widely availalde:
video games are the closest most people have come to such systems.
Indeed, media systems that allow individuals to interact with each other in
natural ways within virtual environments are not yet common, nor are sys-
tems that can represent the seemingly infinite range o f sensory raw materi-
als present in the real world. However, systems that rate high o n I-)oth
dimensions a r e quite common in science fiction: The holodeck o n Star
Ykek: The Next Generation provides real-time interactive mu1tisensl:x-y simu-
lations, ;ISdoes the nursery in I3raciburys short story me Veldt (1951).
Cyhcr.space, a n electronic realm conceived hy science fiction author William
Gibson (1 9841, provides ;I somewhat different vision o f an interactive multi-
sensory environment. Cyberspace encompasses both real and synthesized
realities as a unified matrix o f data, and is experienced by jacking in ones
nervous system directly to the mediated world by means o f special hard-
ware. Thus, unlike traditional mediated experience, cylxrspace 1yp:isses
the sense organs completely, presenting its stimuli directly t o the perceptual
systems in the brain, presumahly maximizing Imth sensory txeadth and
depth. Gibson delineates the experience o f cyberspace from anc~)ther.nonin-
teractive medium callecl simstinz, which is also experienced via direct neural
interface but permits only passive experience (much like television). See
Figure 3 for classifications o f ;I wide range of media technologies.
Since the dimensions discussed here depend o n a wide variety (of inde-
pendent varial)les, the exact relationship between these properties and the
experience of telepresence, a dependent variable, is a matter for empirical
study (though many hypotheses can be generated). It seems that vividness
:ind interactivity are both positively related t o telepresence; that is, the more
vivid and the more interactive a particular environment, the greater tlw
sense o f presence evoked h y that environment. However, these predictions
may not be accurate; they may depend on other mitigating factors. For
exaniple, as McLuhan ( 1964) predicted, an extremely hot medium, o n e
designed to maximize vividness, may actually decrease a subjects ability t o
I Since interactivity and \,iviclness ;IW such rich concepts, some o f Ihe pl:rcenients ;ire soniewllat
.crl>itrary,as they result f r o m differences Ixtwccn media across many different dii-nensions.
lournal ofComrnunication,Autumn 1992
active
0voice
mail
n
ings
low
interactivity high
rnunication field. Similarly, most of the research on vividness has Ileen tech-
nology oriented, in order to determine whether the cost o f implementing a
particular technological improvement is awranted by users increased lik-
ing (see McFarlane, 1991, and Neuman, Crigler, Schneider, ODonnel, &
Reynolds, 1987, for examples of such studies). Thus, the precise ramifica-
tions of these variables are largely unknown.
Progressively more advanced media technologies will enhance the sense
o f telepresence in a wide variety of virtual realities. The goal of this paper
has been t o provide a set of dimensions to aid in measuring and predicting
cbxactly how this inay occur, and t o motivate further communication
research in this area. Communication researchers are uniquely suited t o VR
research; they can build upon the lessons learned from earlier studies o f
media technologies in a human context, extending the work to include new
media as they develop. Rather than relying solely on engineering disciplines
to design and implement new media, communication researchers should
I )ecome involved in the design and implenientation of new media systems
I-lefore they are institutionalized.
Keferences
Ashl,y, 11. (I)ii-cctor), & Kozinski. J . (Sewenwriter). (1979). Bring /here [Film]. Los Angeles:
Northstar International Pictures.
Ikniger, J K. ( 1986). The coiitr-ol woolzLtzori. Cinilxidge, MA: Hanrarcl Kniversity Iress
Iiiocca, F. ( 1992). Virtual reiility technology: A tutorial. ,Joirmal oJComrniinicatiou, 4 A t ) ,
23-72.
I i h w i - t ,J. ( 19x3). .Spatial hrU??Ti,q: ?he psychoqihysics of hiiinun soiuid localizutiori C x n
hridgr, MA: MIT Press.
liradbury, R. (1951 ). The vrldt. In Thc illzi.strci/ed man. Garden City. N Y : Doul~leday.
( l a d e , W. (Ijirector). ( 1959). 7 h c ~ling1c.r [Film]. Duluth, GA: Colutnhia Iictures.
(;. ( 1992. March). Irogrxii from Irruisihlc sitt-a
(:oates, i~irli~al
sh6. a inult~tnediii~
pcrfor-
niance work presentccl l i y George Co:ites Ierfc)riii;incc Works, :;an Francisco
IkF le ur, M., B 13aIILKokeach, 5 . (1989). 7beoric.s cfmrdss c0mmz4n~catioiz(5th ed.).Nev- York,
1.ongnian.
I Iressler, R. (1988). Iloll-,y pro lqqic stirrozrnd dtwider- lrincples cfopemlion. San 1rJncisc.c):
Dolby Lalxii-atories
Ijurlak, J . T. ( 19x7). A typology for interactive media. I n M . L. Mcl;.augIilin (Ed.), (hnitriirriica-
t i o t i Yearlxjok 7 0 ( p p . 743-757).Nrw1,iiiy [ark, CA: Sage.
Held, R. M., B Durlach, N I . (1992). Telepresence. Presence: Teleoperators and tWztal envi
ronnients, I( I), 102-1 12.
Krueger, M. W'. (1991). ArllJicial realiQ ( 2 n d ed.). Rexling, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Ling, A. ( 1992, May). A litnitd capacity thcoT cfl&vision uieu?irzg.Paper presented :it the
conference o f the International Commiinic.ation Association, Miami.
L;rurel, U. (1986). Interface as mimesis. In I). N . Norman 8 S. W. Ilraper (Ecls.), Ikcr-crntrred
systmi design (pp. 67-86). Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Laurel, 11. ( E d ) (1990). The art ojhirmari-cornpz~teritzteTface dcsign. Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesl c y ,
I.aurel, 13. ( 1991). Compulcrs as theatre. Keacling, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Loomis, J . M. (1 902). Distal attrihition and presence. Presmcc.. Teleoperutors and virlinal mvz-
ronmcvits, 1(1). 113-119.
Mcicl, W. ( 19x7). Mirlti-dimen.siona1uirriio,for sIcm?o telwision. San Francisco: Dolby Laborato-
ries.
McFarlane. C. (1991). Shoidd the CB<:hcgoiizg into MTS stereo: Tho rc5dts of'a re.xearch project
testing reactions to mono, synthetic strreo. and strreo tekzision. IJnpul~lisIicdmanuscript,
CBC I k x a r c h : Ottawa, Oanada.
McLuhan, M.( 1964). (inden/andin,q tncdia: Tne cxtrnszons cfmaiz. New York: Penguin
Minsky, M. (1980, J u n e ) . Telepresence. Omni, pp. 45-51,
Naimark, M. ( 1990). Realness a n d interactivity. In 11. Laurel (Ed.), 7be Art ~/Hut~zaii-Compz~ler
III~CV&X> Iksign, (pp. 455-459). Heading, M A : Addison-Wesley.
C. 1.. 8 Mason, L. (1990). O n th e study o f technology a n d task: A varial)le-l)ased
approach. In J. Fulk 8 C. Steinfeltl (Eds.), Organizations and communication technology
(pp. 4 4 7 ) .Newb~iryI'ark, CA: Sage.
Nass, C. I . , Steuer, J. S., & Henriksen, 1.. (1902, May). hluchines and mindlessness: Pe$)r-
mance a.s.se.ssni~~nts of computers suhsequcvzt to "self'" or other- '' eiuluations. Paper p r e
sented at the conference o f th e International Communication Association, Miami.
Neurnan, W. R., Crigler, A,, Schneitier. 5. M., O'Donnel, S., B Reynolds. M. (1987). The tc4u~zsioti
sound sI744y. linpublished manuscript, Massachusetts Institute o f Technology, Me& L:ihora-
tory, Advanced Tclevisic )n Research Program. Audience Research Facility: Cambridge, MA.
Norrnan, I). N. (1986) Cognitive engineering. In I). N. Norinan B S. W. Drapcr (Eds.), fLwr
ccntercd ~p%ern design ( p p . 31-61 ), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbautn Associates.
Norman, I). N. (1988). Tne design of evevday things. New York: Dou1)leday.
Kafaeli, S. (1985, May). IJ'the computer is the medium, what is the message.? t.jcploring iritcwzc-
tiiiity. Paper presented at th e conference of th e International Communication Association,
Honolulu.
Kafaeli. S . ( 1986). Interactiuiy: I l o cowp7~ter.xdo it dijj&w@y? Unput~lisliednunuscript, Stan-
ford Ilniversity, Institute for Communication Research, Stanford, <;A.
Rafaeli, S. (1988). Interactivity: From new media t o communication. In R. P. Hawkins, J. M.
Wiernan, B S . Pingree (Eds.), Advancing communication science? Merging nzass and inter-
per.so~zalprocesses(pp. 110-1341, Newlxiry Park, CA: Sage
Reeves, 13. R. (1091). "Being there". Television as symbolic ueysus natural experience. LJnpuI>-
lisheci manuscript, Stanford University, Institute for Communication Research, S t m f o r d , CA
92
Symposium / IrK and Telepresence
Rcevcs, B. R., Lombard, M. I,., Cr Melwani, G. (1992, May). Fuces on the scree??:Pictzm>.sor
Paper presented at the conference o f rhe International Communication
tiuturul ~~x]xrience?
Association, Miami.
Rhcingold, 3. R. (1991). V i r t z t d Keulip. S e w York: Summit I3ooks.
Rohson, M. (Director). ( 1974). /iurtbqzdake [Film]. Los Angeles: Universal Iictures.
Schl-.imin, vc. (1974). The nature o f communication txxtween humans. In W. Schrainm lur I). F.
Kol)erts (Eds.). 713eproce.s.surzd qflcc1.s 0fmas.s communicution (3rd ed. ) ( pp. 3-53). IJrlxina:
ljniversity o f Illinois Press.
Shannon, C:., & Waver. W. (1962). ?be rnrrtherna!icalheot-yof cornmzriricutiorr. 1Jrlmxi: U n -
versity o f Illinois Press.
Sheridan, 1. H. (1992). Musings o n telepresence and virtual presence. 1re.sence: 7i?leopc~t-ufors
utzd uirtziul ciiiIimnrrietr!.s, I ( 1), lXb126.
Sheridan, T. 13.: & Ikrncss, T. A. (Eds.), ( 1992). Presenct.: Teleopratot~atid i&uul cni~iroir-
mcn/.s, I( 1).
Shneidcrman, 13. ( 1992). lksigning thc iisw interjuce: Slrulegie.sJi~r
elkctiire hirnzan-conrputer
interaction (2nd ed.). Keatling, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Steuer, J. S . ( 1901). Audio-oisziul spucc? On the influence>of uztditory spuliulprceplioti in
rnediuled expwieizce. llnpublished nunuscript, Stanford University. Institute for Conimuni-
cttion Kesearch, Stanford, CA.
lurkle, S. (1984). 7 h second selJ Comnpulers und the hzirnuri .spin/. New York: Simon & Scliiis-
ter.
\Y/;ltcrs, I. (IXrector). ( 1081). Po!yi?slw[Film]. Los Angelcs: Ncw Line Cinema.
\Vcnzcl, E. M. ( 1992). Localization in viiziial acoustic displays. Presence: Teliwperutors arid uir-
lira1 e?iuirontnrnt.s~I( 1 ), 8S107.
93