Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution (French: Rvolution hatienne
[evlysj ajisjn]), was a successful anti-slavery and anti-
colonial insurrection that took place in the former French
colony of Saint-Domingue that lasted from 1791 until
1804. It aected the institution of slavery throughout
the Americas. Self-liberated slaves destroyed slavery at
home, fought to preserve their freedom, and with the
collaboration of mulattoes, founded the sovereign state
of Haiti.[3][4][5] It led to the greatest slave uprising since
Spartacus's unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Re-
public nearly 1,900 years prior.[6]
The Haitian Revolution was the only slave uprising that
led to the founding of a state free from slavery and ruled
by non-whites and former captives.[7] With the increasing
number of Haitian Revolutionary Studies in the last few
decades, it has become clear that the event was a dening
moment in the racial histories of the Atlantic World.[8]
The legacy of the Revolution was that it challenged long-
held beliefs about black inferiority and of the enslaved
persons capacity to achieve and maintain freedom. The
rebels organizational capacity and tenacity under pres-
sure became the source of stories that shocked and fright-
ened slave owners.[9]
1 Historiographical debates
While acknowledging the cross-inuences, most contem-
porary historians distinguish the Haitian Revolution from
the French Revolution. Some even separate it from the
mulattoes earlier armed conicts, which at rst sought
political rights for themselves, but not the abolition of
slavery. These scholars show that if the agency of the
enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revo-
lutions opening and closing dates are certain. From this
premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks bid
for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with
their victory over slaving powers and the creation of an
independent state. In April 1791, a massive black in-
surgency turned violently against the plantation system,
setting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. In co-
operation with their former mulatto rivals, blacks ended
the Revolution in November 1803 when they decidedly
defeated the French army at the Battle of Vertires.[10]
Although it is known as a single event under the name
of Haitian Revolution, alternative views suggest that
the entire aair was an assorted number of coinciden-
tal conicts that ended with a fragile truce between mu-
lattoes and blacks.[11] The chief concern utters around
the question if the victorious Haitians were intrinsi-
cally [a] revolutionary force, or not.[12] One thing is
sure: Haiti became an independent country on January 1,
1804, when the council of generals chose Jean-Jacques
Dessalines to assume the oce of governor-general. One
of the states rst signicant documents was Dessaliness
Liberty or Death speech, which circulated broadly in
the foreign press. In it, the new head of state made the
case for the new nations coherent objective: the perma-
nent abolition of slavery in Haiti.[13]
2 Impact
An independent government was created in Haiti, but the
countrys society remained deeply aected by patterns es-
tablished under French colonial rule. Since many planters
had provided for the mixed-race children they had by
African women, by giving them education and (for males)
training and entre into the French military, the mulatto
descendants who along with the wealthy freedmen had
been orchestrators of the revolution became the elite of
Haitian society after the wars end. Many of them had
used their social capital to acquire wealth, and some al-
ready owned land. Some had identied more with the
French colonists than the slaves.
Mulatto domination of politics and economics after the
revolution created another two-caste society, as most
Haitians were rural subsistence farmers.[14] In addition,
the nascent states future was compromised in 1825 when
France forced it to pay 150 million gold francs in repara-
tions to French ex-slaveholdersas a condition of French
recognition and to end the nations political and economic
isolation.[15] Though the amount of the reparations was
reduced in 1838, Haiti was unable to nish paying o its
debt until 1947, and the payments left the countrys gov-
ernment deeply impoverished, causing instability.
3 Background
Much of the Caribbean economic development was con-
tingent to Europeans demand for sugar, which plantation
owners traded for European and North American manu-
factured goods. Saint Domingue also had extensive cof-
fee, cocoa, and indigo plantations, but these were smaller
and less protable than the wealthy sugar plantations.[16]
Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed com-
plex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production.
1
2 3
By the 1740s Saint-Domingue, together with Jamaica,
had become the main supplier of the worlds sugar. Sugar
production depended on extensive manual labor provided
by enslaved Africans in the harsh Saint-Domingue colo-
nial plantation economy. Saint-Domingue was the most
protable French colony in the entire world, indeed one
of the most protable of all the European colonies in the
18th century, with an average of 600 ships engaged ev-
ery year in shipping products from Saint-Domingue to
Bordeaux and the value of Saint-Domingues goods al-
most equal in value to all of the products shipped from
the British 13 colonies to Great Britain.[17] The economic
importance of St. Domingue to France can be seen in the
livelihood of 1 million out of the 25 million or so people
who lived in the Kingdom of France in 1789 depended
directly upon the imports of coee, indigo and sugar
from St. Domingue, and several million indirectly de-
pended upon trade from Frances richest colony to main-
tain their standard of living.[18] To sustain the sugar pro-
duction amid the unhealthy climate of the Caribbean with
malaria and yellow fever running rampant was slavery. In
one year alone, namely 1787, the French imported about
20, 000 slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue while
the British imported about 38, 000 slaves to all of their
Caribbean colonies.[19] The death rate from yellow fever
was such that at least 50% of the slaves imported from
Africa died within a year of arriving, and as such the
masters preferred to work their slaves as hard as possi-
ble while providing with them with the barest minimum
of food and shelter, calculating that it was better to get
the most work out of their slaves with lowest possible
expense possible since they were probably going to die
of yellow fever anyway.[20] The death rate was so high
that polyandry-one woman being married to several men
at the same time-came to be a common form of mar-
riage among the slaves.[21] As slaves had no legal rights,
rape by the masters was a common occurrence on the
plantations.[22]
The white planters who derived their wealth from the
sale of slave-produced sugar knew they were outnum-
bered by slaves by a factor of more than ten; they lived
in fear of slave rebellion.[23] Even by the standards of the
Caribbean, the French slave masters were extremely cruel
in their treatment of their slaves.[24] White masters ex-
tensively used the threat of physical violence to maintain
control and limit this possibility for slave rebellion. When
slaves left the plantations or disobeyed their masters, they
were subject to whipping, or to more extreme torture such
as castration or burning, the punishment being both a per-
sonal lesson and a warning for other slaves. Louis XIV,
the French King, passed the Code Noir in 1685 in an
attempt to regulate such violence and the treatment of
the enslaved person in general in the colony, but masters
openly and consistently broke the code, and local legisla-
tion reversed parts of it throughout the 18th century.[25]
In 1758, the white landowners began passing legislation terror of everyone else...Haiti was hell, but Haiti was
restricting the rights of other groups of people until a rigid
BACKGROUND
caste system was dened. Most historians have classied
the people of the era into three groups. One was the white
colonists, or blancs. This group is generally subdivided
into the plantation owners and a lower class of whites who
often served as overseers or day laborers.
A second was the free blacks (usually mixed-race, known
as mulattoes or gens de couleur libres, free people of
color). These gens de couleur tended to be educated
and literate and they often served in the army or as
administrators on plantations. Many were children of
white planters and enslaved mothers while others had pur-
chased their freedom from their owners through the sale
of their own produce or artistic works. They often re-
ceived education or artisan training, and sometimes in-
herited freedom or property from their fathers. Some
gens de couleur even operated their own plantations and
were slave owners.
The third group, outnumbering the others by a ratio of
ten to one, was made up of mostly African-born slaves.
A high rate of mortality among them meant that planters
continually had to import new slaves. This kept their
culture more African and separate from other people on
the island. Many plantations had large concentrations
of slaves from a particular region of Africa, and it was
therefore somewhat easier for these groups to maintain
elements of their culture, religion, and language. This
also separated new slaves from Africa from creoles (slaves
born in the colony), who already had kin networks and
often had more prestigious roles on plantations and more
opportunities for emancipation.[26] Most slaves spoke a
patois of the French language known as Creole, which
was also used by native mulattoes and whites for commu-
nication with the workers.[27] The majority of the slaves
were Yoruba from what is now modern Nigeria, Fon from
what is now Benin and from the Kingdom of Kongo
in what now modern northern Angola and the western
Congo.[28] The Kongolese at 40% were the largest of the
African ethnic groups represented amongst the slaves.[29]
The slaves developed their own religion, a synesthetic
mixture of Roman Catholicism and West African reli-
gions known as Vodou, usually called voodoo in English,
which provided the slaves with their own belief system
that implicitly rejected their status as slaves.[30]
White colonists and black slaves frequently came into vi-
olent conict. Saint-Domingue was a society seething
with hatred. The French historian Paul Fregosi wrote:
Whites, mulattos and blacks loathed each other. The
poor whites couldn't stand the rich whites, the rich whites
despised the poor whites, the middle class whites were
jealous of the aristocratic whites, the whites born in
France looked down upon the locally born whites, mu-
lattoes envied the whites, despised the blacks and were
despised by the whites; free Negroes brutalized those
who were still slaves, Haitian born blacks regarded those
from Africa as savages. Everyone-quite rightly-lived in
rich.[31] Many of these conicts involved slaves who had
4.2 Regional conicts 3

escaped the plantations. Many runaway slavescalled hard, and more often than not, under abusive and brutal
Maroonshid on the margins of large plantations, liv- conditions.
ing o the land and what they could steal from their for- Among Saint-Domingues 40,000 white colonials in
mer masters. Others ed to towns, to blend in with ur- 1789, European-born Frenchmen monopolized admin-
ban slaves and freed slaves who often concentrated in istrative posts. The sugar planters, the grands blancs,
those areas. If caught, these runaway slaves would be were chiey minor aristocrats. Most returned to France
severely and violently punished. However, some masters as soon as possible, hoping to avoid the dreaded yellow
tolerated petit marronages, or short-term absences from fever, which regularly swept the colony.[39] The lower-
plantations.[26]
class whites, petits blancs, included artisans, shopkeepers,
Often, however, larger groups of runaway slaves lived in slave dealers, overseers, and day laborers.
the woods away from control. They often conducted vio- Saint-Domingues free people of color, the gens de
lent raids on the islands sugar and coee plantations. Al- couleur, numbered more than 28,000 by 1789. Around
though the numbers in these bands grew large (sometimes that time, colonial legislations, concerned with this grow-
into the thousands), they generally lacked the leadership ing and strengthening population, passed discriminatory
and strategy to accomplish large-scale objectives. The laws that visibly dierentiated these freedmen by dictat-
rst eective maroon leader to emerge was the charis- ing their clothing and where they could live. These laws
matic Franois Mackandal, who succeeded in unifying also barred them from occupying many public oces.[16]
the black resistance. A Haitian Vodou priest, Mackan- Many of these freedmen were also artisans and overseers,
dal inspired his people by drawing on African traditions or domestic servants in the plantation houses.[40] Le Cap
and religions. He united the maroon bands and also es- Franais, a northern port, had a large population of freed
tablished a network of secret organizations among plan- slaves, and these men would later become important lead-
tation slaves, leading a rebellion from 1751 through 1757. ers in the 1791 slave rebellion and later revolution.[26]
Although Mackandal was captured by the French and
burned at the stake in 1758, large armed maroon bands
persisted in raids and harassment after his death.[23][32] 4.2 Regional conicts
In addition to class and racial tension between whites, free
4 Situation in 1789 people of color, and enslaved blacks, the country was po-
larized by regional rivalries between the North, South,
and West.
4.1 Social stratication
The North was the center of shipping and trading, and
In 1789 Saint-Domingue produced 60% of the worlds therefore had the largest French elite population. The
coee and 40% of the worlds sugar imported by France Plaine du Nord on the northern shore of Saint-Domingue
and Britain. The colony was the most protable posses- was the most fertile area with the largest sugar planta-
sion of the French Empire. Saint-Domingue was also the tions. It was the area of most economic importance, es-
wealthiest and most prosperous colony, for the plantation pecially as most of the colonys trade went through these
owners at least, of all the colonies in the Caribbean.[33] ports. The largest and busiest port was Le Cap Franais
In 1789, whites numbered 40,000; mulattoes and (present-day Le Cap Hatien), the capital of French Saint-
free blacks, 28,000; and black slaves, an estimated Domingue until 1751, when Port-au-Prince was made the
452,000.[34] The lowest class of society was enslaved capital.[26] In this northern region, enslaved Africans lived
blacks, who outnumbered whites and free people of color in large groups of workers in relative isolation, separated
by a margin of ten to one.[35] The slave population on from the rest of the colony by the high mountain range
the island totaled almost half of the one million slaves known as the Massif du Nord. These slaves would join
in the Caribbean by 1789.[36] Two thirds were African- with urban slaves from Le Cap to lead the 1791 rebel-
born, and they tended to be less submissive than those lion, which began in this region. This area was the seat
born in the Americas.[37] The death rate in the Caribbean of power of the grands blancs, the rich white colonists
exceeded the birth rate, so imports of enslaved Africans who wanted greater autonomy for the colony, especially
were necessary to maintain the numbers required to work economically.[41]
the plantations. The slave population declined at an an- The Western Province, however, grew signicantly af-
nual rate of two to ve percent, due to overwork, inade- ter the capital was moved to Port-au-Prince in 1751,
quate food and shelter, insucient clothing and medical and the region became increasingly wealthy in the sec-
care, and an imbalance between the sexes, with more men ond half of the 18th century when irrigation projects al-
than women.[38] Some slaves were of a creole elite class lowed signicant sugar plantation growth. The South-
of urban slaves and domestics, who worked as cooks, per- ern Province lagged in population and wealth because it
sonal servants and artisans around the plantation house. was geographically separated from the rest of the colony.
This relatively privileged class was chiey born in the However, this isolation allowed freed slaves to nd prot
Americas, while the under-class born in Africa labored in trade with British Jamaica, and they gained power and
4 6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION

wealth here.[26] In addition to these interregional ten- and an army of around three hundred free blacks fought
sions, there were conicts between proponents of inde- to end racial discrimination in the area.[44] He was cap-
pendence, those loyal to France, allies of Spain, and al- tured in early 1791, and brutally executed by being bro-
lies of Great Britain who coveted control of the valuable ken on the wheel" before being beheaded.[32] Og was
colony. not ghting against slavery, but his treatment was cited
by later slave rebels as one of the factors in their deci-
sion to rise up in August 1791 and resist treaties with the
5 Impact of the French Revolution colonists. The conict up to this point was between fac-
tions of whites, and between whites and free blacks. En-
slaved blacks watched from the sidelines.[23]
Further information: French Revolution
Leading 18th-century French writer Count Mirabeau had
once said the Saint-Domingue whites slept at the foot of
In France, the National Assembly made radical changes
Vesuvius",[45] an indication of the grave threat they faced
in French laws, and on 26 August 1789, published the
should the majority of slaves launch a sustained major
Declaration of the Rights of Man, declaring all men free
uprising.
and equal. The French Revolution shaped the course of
the conict in Saint-Domingue and was at rst widely wel-
comed in the island. Wealthy whites saw it as an oppor-
tunity to gain independence from France, which would 6 Relationship between the French
allow elite plantation-owners to take control of the island Revolution and the Haitian Rev-
and create trade regulations that would further their own
wealth and power.[16] There were so many twists and turns olution
in the leadership in France, and there were so many com-
plex events in Saint-Domingue, that various classes and 6.1 Reason for revolution
parties changed their alignments many times. However,
the Haitian Revolution quickly became a test of the ideol- The Haitian Revolution was a revolution ignited
ogy of the French Revolution, as it radicalized the slavery from below, by the underrepresented majority of the
question and forced French leaders to recognize the full population.[46] A huge majority of the supporters of the
meaning of their revolution.[42] Haitian revolution were slaves and freed Africans that
[47]
The African population on the island began to hear of the were treated unequally by society and the law.
agitation for independence by the rich European planters,
the grands blancs, who had resented Frances limitations
on the islands foreign trade. The Africans mostly al-
6.2 Brutality
lied with the royalists and the British, as they understood
Despite the idealist, rational and utopian thinking sur-
that if Saint-Domingue's independence were to be led by
rounding both uprisings, extreme brutality was a funda-
white slave masters, it would probably mean even harsher
mental aspect of both uprisings. Besides initial cruelty
treatment and increased injustice for the African popu-
that created the precarious conditions that bred the rev-
lation. The plantation owners would be free to operate
olution, there was violence from both sides throughout
slavery as they pleased without the existing minimal ac-
the revolution. The period of violence during the French
countability to their French peers.[41]
Revolution is known as the Reign of Terror. Those killed
On the 4th of February 1794 under the leadership of via guillotine, breaking at the wheel, or some other hor-
Maximilien Robespierre, the French Convention voted ric death machines were perceived as adversaries to the
for the abolition of slavery [...] Robespierre is still revolution and death toll estimates range from 18,000 to
revered by the poor of Haiti today. 40,000.[48] Total casualties for the French Revolution are
Centre for Research on Globalization[43] estimated at 2 million.[49] In the Caribbean, total casual-
ties totaled approximately 162,000.[50] Violence in Haiti
Saint-Domingues free people of color, most notably was largely characterized by military excursions, riots,
Julien Raimond, had been actively appealing to France the killing of slave owners, and guerrilla warfare.[51]
for full civil equality with whites since the 1780s. Rai-
mond used the French Revolution to make this the major
colonial issue before the National Assembly of France. In 6.3 Lasting change
October 1790, Vincent Og, another wealthy free man of
color from the colony, returned home from Paris, where The Revolution in Haiti did not wait on the Revolution in
he had been working with Raimond. Convinced that a France. The individuals in Haiti relied on no other reso-
law passed by the French Constituent Assembly gave full lution but their own. The call for modication of society
civil rights to wealthy men of color, Og demanded the was inuenced by the revolution in France, but once the
right to vote. When the colonial governor refused, Og hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian
led a brief insurgency in the area around Cap Franais. He people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that
 5

was occurring.[52] The Enlightenment ideals and the ini- reality of the situation in Saint Domingue, through the
tiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire bust of Raynald and the gure of Belley, respectively.
the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most suc- While distinguished, the portrait still portrays a man
cessful and comprehensive slave rebellion.[52] Just as the trapped by the connes of race. Girodets portrayal of
French were successful in transforming their society, so the former National Convention deputy is telling of the
were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French Na- French opinion of colonial citizens by emphasizing the
tional Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Haiti[51] and subjects sexuality and including an earring. Both of these
the revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an indepen- racially charged symbols reveal the desire to undermine
dent nation solely of freed peoples.[53] The activities of the colonys attempts at independent legitimacy, as citi-
the revolutions sparked change across the world. Frances zens of the colonies were not able to access the elite class
transformation was most inuential in Europe, and Haitis of French Revolutionaries because of their race.[60]
inuence spanned across every location that continued to
practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of
the most inuential Revolution in history.[54] 8 1791 slave rebellion
Further information: Slavery in Haiti
7 Inuence of Enlightenment
thought Enlightened writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in
the 1780 edition of his history of European colonization.
He also predicted a general slave revolt in the colonies,
French writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in saying that there were signs of the impending storm.[61]
his history of European colonization. He warns, the One such sign was the action of the French revolutionary
Africans only want a chief, suciently courageous, to government to grant citizenship to wealthy free people of
lead them on to vengeance and slaughter.[55] Raynals color in May 1791. Since white plantation owners re-
Enlightenment philosophy went deeper than a prediction fused to comply with this decision, within two months
and reected many French Enlightenment philosophies isolated ghting broke out between the former slaves and
including those of Rousseau and Diderot, even though it the whites. This added to the tense climate between slaves
was written thirteen years before the Declaration of the and grands blancs.[62]
Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The declaration, in
contrast, highlighted freedom and liberty but still allowed Raynals prediction came true on the night of 21 Au-
slaves to be characterized as property. gust 1791, when the slaves of Saint Domingue rose in
revolt when thousands of slaves attended a secret vodou
In addition to Raynals inuence, Toussaint Louverture (voodoo) ceremony as a tropical storm came in-the light-
was a key Enlightened actor in the Haitian Revolution.
ing and the thunder was taken as auspicious omens-and
Enlightened thought divided the world into enlightened later that night, the slaves began to kill their masters and
leaders and ignorant masses";[56] Louverture attempted
plunged the colony into civil war.[63] The signal to begin
to bridge this divide between the popular masses and the revolt was given by Dutty Boukman, a high priest of
the enlightened few.[57] Louverture was familiar with En- vodou and leader of the Maroon slaves, during a religious
lightenment ideas within the context of European imperi- ceremony at Bois Caman on the night of 14 August.[64]
alism. He attempted to strike a balance between Western Within the next ten days, slaves had taken control of the
Enlightened thought as a necessary means of winning lib- entire Northern Province in an unprecedented slave re-
eration, and not propagating the notion that it was morally volt. Whites kept control of only a few isolated, forti-
superior to the experiences and knowledge of people of ed camps. The slaves sought revenge on their masters
color on Saint Domingue.[58] As an extension of himself through pillage, rape, torture, mutilation, and death.[65]
and his Enlightened education, Louverture wrote a Con- The long years of oppression by the slave masters had left
stitution for a new society in Saint-Domingue that abol- many blacks with a hatred of all whites, and the revolt
ished slavery. The existence of slavery in Enlightened so- was marked by extreme violence right from the very start
ciety was an incongruity that had been left unaddressed as the masters were dragged from their beds to be killed
by European scholars. Louverture took on this inconsis- and the heads of French children were placed on spikes
tency directly in his constitution. In addition, Louverture that were carried at the front of the rebel columns.[66]
exhibited a connection to Enlightenment scholars through Since the plantation owners had long feared such a revolt,
the style, language and accent of this text.[59] they were well armed and prepared to defend themselves.
Like Louverture, Jean-Baptiste Belley was also an ac- Nonetheless, within weeks, the number of slaves who
tive participant in the colonys insurrection. The por- joined the revolt reached some 100,000. Within the next
trait of Belley by Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson two months, as the violence escalated, the slaves killed
depicts a man who encompasses the French view of its 4,000 whites and burned or destroyed 180 sugar planta-
colonies. The portrait creates a stark dichotomy between tions and hundreds of coee and indigo plantations.[65]
the renement of French Enlightenment thought and the At least 900 coee plantations were destroyed and the
6 8
total damage inicted over the next two weeks amounted
to 2 million francs.[67] In September 1791, the surviv-
ing whites organized themselves and struck back, killing
about 15, 000 blacks in an orgy of revenge.[68] Through
demanding freedom from slavery, the rebels did not de-
mand independence from France at this point, and most
of the rebel leaders professed to be ghting for the king
of France, who it was alleged had issued a degree that had
been suppressed by the governor freeing all the slaves, and
as such they were demanding their rights as Frenchmen
which been granted by the king.[69]
A slave rebellion of 1791
By 1792, slave rebels controlled a third of the island.[70]
The success of the slave rebellion caused the newly
elected Legislative Assembly in France to realize it was
facing an ominous situation. To protect Frances eco-
nomic interests, the Assembly granted civil and politi-
cal rights to free men of color in the colonies in March
1792.[65] Countries throughout Europe as well as the
United States were shocked by the decision, but the As-
sembly was determined to stop the revolt. Apart from
granting rights to the free people of color, the Assem-
bly dispatched 6,000 French soldiers to the island.[71] The
new governor sent by Paris, Lger-Flicit Sonthonax was as the American Revolution was meant to serve as the
a supporter of the French Revolution who abolished slav-
ery in the Northern Province of Saint Domingue and
had hostile relations with the planters, whom he saw as
royalists.[72]
Meanwhile, in 1793, France declared war on Great
Britain. The white planters in Saint Domingue, unhappy
with Sonthonax made agreements with Great Britain to
declare British sovereignty over the colony, believing that
the British would maintain slavery.[73] The British Prime
Minister, William Pitt the Younger believed that the suc-
cess of the slave revolt in Saint Domigue would inspire
slave revolts in the British Caribbean colonies and that
taking Saint Domingue, the richest of the French colonies
would be a most useful bargaining chip to have when the
peace negotiations began to end the war, and the interim,
occupying Saint Domingue would mean bringing all of its
great wealth into the British treasury.[74] The American
journalist James Perry noted that the great irony of the
1791 SLAVE REBELLION
British campaign in Haiti was instead of being the great
money-spinner as expected, the campaign ended in a
complete debacle that cost the British treasury millions of
pounds and the British military thousands upon thousands
of dead, all for nothing.[75] Spain, who controlled the rest
of the island of Hispaniola, would also join the conict
and ght with Great Britain against France. The Span-
ish forces invaded Saint Domingue and were joined by
the slave forces. For most of the conict, the British and
Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms,
medicine, naval support, and military advisors. By Au-
gust 1793, there were only 3,500 French soldiers on the
island. On 20 September 1793, about 600 British soldiers
from Jamaica landed at Jrmie to be greeted with shouts
of "Vivent les Anglais! from the French population.[76] On
22 September 1793, Mole St. Nicolas, the main French
naval base in Saint Domingue surrendered to the Royal
Navy peacefully.[77] Everywhere, the British went, they
restored slavery, which made them especially hated by
the Haitians.[78] To prevent military disaster, and secure
the colony for republican France as opposed to Britain,
Spain, and French royalists, separately or in combination,
the French commissioners Lger-Flicit Sonthonax and
tienne Polverel freed the slaves in St. Domingue.
The decision was conrmed and extended by the National
Convention, the rst elected Assembly of the First Re-
public (17921804), on the 4th of February 1794, under
the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre. It abolished
slavery by law in France and all its colonies and granted
civil and political rights to all black men in the colonies.
The French constitutions of 1793 and 1795 both included
the abolition of slavery. The constitution of 1793 was
never applied, but that of 1795 was implemented and
lasted until replaced by the consular and imperial con-
stitutions under Napoleon Bonaparte. Despite racial ten-
sions in Saint Domingue, the French revolutionary gov-
ernment at the time welcomed abolition with a show of
idealism and optimism. The emancipation of slaves was
viewed as an example of liberty for other countries, much
rst of many liberation movements. Danton, one of the
Frenchmen present at the meeting of the National Con-
vention, expressed this sentiment:
representatives of the French people, un-
til now our decrees of liberty have been selsh,
and only for ourselves. But today we proclaim
it to the universe, and generations to come will
glory in this decree; we are proclaiming uni-
versal liberty...We are working for future gen-
erations; let us launch liberty into the colonies;
the English are dead, today.[79]
In nationalistic terms, the abolition of slavery also served
as a moral triumph of France over England as seen in the
latter half of the above quote. Yet the abolition of slav-
ery did not allow for independence and did not persuade
 7

Toussaint Louverture until some time later to stop work- of yellow fever.[93] The British historian Sir John Fortes-
ing with the Spanish army. cue wrote It is probably beneath the mark to say that
The British force that landed in St. Domingue in 1793 twelve thousand [94]
Englishmen were buried in the West In-
was too small to conquer the place, being only capable dies in 1794. Rigaud failed in attempt to retake Port-
of holding only few coastal enclaves, much to the dis- au-Prince, but on Christmas Day 1794, in a surprise at-
appointment of the French planters, who had been ex- tack he stormed and retook Tiburon.[95] The British lost
pecting more and to the relief of Sonthonax, who twice about 300 dead and the French took no prisoners, execut- [96]
refused ultimatums from Commodore John Ford to sur- ing any British soldier and sailor who surrendered. At
this point, Pitt decided to reinforce failure by launching
render Port-au-Prince.[80] In the meantime, a Spanish
force under Captain-General Joaquin Garcia y Moreno what he called the great push to conquer St. Domingue
and the rest of the French West Indies, sending out the
had marched into the Northern Province.[81] Toussaint
Louverture, the most ablest of the Haitian generals had largest expedition Britain had yet mounted in it history, a
force of about 30, 000 men to be carried in 200 ships.[97]
joined the Spanish, accepting an ocers commission in
the Spanish Army and being made a knight in the Order Fortescue wrote that aim of London in the rst expedition
of St. Isabella.[82] The main British force for the con- had been to destroy the power of France in these pesti-
quest of St. Domingue under General Charles Grey aka lent islands...only to discover when it was too late, that
[98]
No-int Grey and Admiral Sir John Jervis set sail from they practically destroyed the British army. By this
Portsmouth on 26 November 1793, which was in de- point, it was well known that service in the West Indies
ance of the well known rule that the only time that one was virtually a death sentence and in Dublin and Cork,
could campaign in the West Indies was from September to soldiers from the 104th, 111th, 105th, and 112th regi-
November, when the mosquitoes that carried malaria and ments rioted when they learned that they were being sent
[99]
yellow fever were scarce. [83]
After arriving in the West to St. Domingue. The eet for the great push left
Indies in February 1794, Grey chose to conquer Mar- Portsmouth on 16 November 1795 and was wrecked by a
[100]
tinique, St. Lucia and Guadeloupe and troops from his storm, before sending out again on 9 December.
force under the command of John Whyte only arrived in General Ralph Abercromby, the commander of the forces
St. Domingue on 19 May 1794.[84] Whyte decided rather committed to the great push in the West Indies hesi-
attacking the main French bases at Le Cap and Port- tated over which island to attack when he arrived in Bar-
de-Paix to march towards Port-au-Prince, whose har- bados on 17 March 1796 before he dispatched a force un-
bour was reported to have 45 ships loaded with sugar as der Major General Gordon Forbes to Port-au-Prince.[101]
the allure of rich booty proved more enticing.[85] Whyte Forbess attempt to take the French-held city of Leogane
took Port-au-Prince, but Sonthonax and the French forces ended in disaster as the French had built a deep ditch
were allowed to leave in exchange for not burning the with palisades while Forbes had neglected to bring along
45 ships loaded with sugar.[86] By May 1794, the French heavy artillery.[102] The French commander, the mulatto
forces were severed in two by Toussaint with Sonthonax General Alexandre Ption proved to be an excellent ar-
commanding in the north and Andr Rigaud leading in tilleryman, who used the guns of his fort to sink two of
the south.[87] At this point, Toussaint for reasons that the three ships-of-line under Admiral Hyde Parker in the
remain obscure, suddenly joined the French and turned harbour, before turning his guns to the British forces; a
against the Spanish, ambushing his allies as they emerged French sortie led to a British rout and Forbes retreating
from attending mass in a church at San Rapheal on 6 May back to Port-au-Prince.[103] In the meantime, as more and
1794.[88] The Haitians soon expelled the Spanish from St. more ships bringing troops committed to the great push
Domingue.[89] Toussaint, despite being a former slave, arrived, more and more soldiers died of yellow fever.[104]
proved to be forgiving of the whites, insisting that he By 1 June 1796, of the 1, 000 from the Sixty-sixth reg-
merely ghting to assert the rights of the slaves as black iment, only 198 had not been infected with yellow fever
French people to be free, did not want independence from and of the 1, 000 men of the Sixth-ninth regiment, only
France, and urged the surviving whites, including the for- 515 were not infected with yellow fever.[105] Abercromby
mer slave masters to stay and work with him in rebuilding predicated that at the current rate of yellow fever infec-
St. Domingue.[90] tion, all of the men from the two regiments would be dead
Rigaud had checked the British in the south, taking the by November.[106] Ultimately, 10, 000 British soldiers
town of Logne by storm and driving the British back had arrived in Saint Domingue by June, but besides for
to Port-au-Prince.[91] During the course of 1794, most some skirmishing near Bombarde, the British remained
of the British forces were killed by yellow fever, the put in Port-au-Prince and other coastal enclaves while yel-
dreaded black vomit as the British called it, as within low fever continued to kill them all o.[107] The govern-
two months of arriving in St. Domingue the British had ment much attracted much criticism about the mounting
lost 40 ocers and 600 men to yellow fever.[92] Ulti- costs of the expedition to St. Domingue in the House of
mately, of Greys 7, 000 men, about 5, 000 were to die Commons, and in February 1797, General John Graves
of yellow fever while the Royal Navy reported losing Simcoe arrived to replace Forbes with orders to pull
"...forty-six masters and eleven hundred men dead, chiey back the British forces to Port-au-Prince.[108] As the hu-
man and nancial costs of the expedition mounted, more
8 9 LEADERSHIP OF LOUVERTURE

and more people in Britain demanded a withdrawal from loyal to France, to all intents and purposes, he ruled Saint
St. Domingue, which was devouring money and soldiers Domingue as its dictator.[125]
while failing to produce the expected prots.[109] It has recently been estimated that the slave rebellion
On 11 April 1797, Colonel Thomas Maitland of the resulted in the death of 350,000 Haitians and 50,000
Sixty-second Foot regiment landed in Port-au-Prince, European troops.[126] According to the Encyclopedia of
and wrote in a letter to his brother that British forces African American Politics, Between 1791 and indepen-
in St. Domingue had been annihilated by the yellow dence in 1804 nearly 200,000 blacks died, as did thou-
fever.[110] Service in St. Domingue was extremely un- sands of mulattoes and as many as 100,000 French and
popular in the British Army owing to terrible death toll British soldiers.[127] Yellow fever did most of the killing.
caused by yellow fever with one British ocer writing Geggus points out that at least 3 out of every 5 British
of his horror of seeing his friends drowned in their own troops sent there in 1791-97 died of disease.[128][129]
blood while some died raving Mad.[111] Simcoe used There has been considerable debate over whether the
the new British troops to push back the Haitians un- number of deaths caused by disease was exaggerated.[130]
der Toussaint, but in a counter-oensive, Toussaint and
Rigaud stopped the oensive with Toussaint retaking the
fortress at Mirebalais.[112] On 7 June 1797, Toussaint at- 9 Leadership of Louverture
tacked Fort Churchill in an assault that was noted for its
professionalism as it for its ferocity.[113] Under a storm
of artillery, the Haitians placed ladders on the walls and
were driven back after four times with heavy losses.[114]
Even through Toussaint had been defeated, the British
were astonished that Toussaint had turned a group of for-
mer slaves with no military experience into troops whose
skills were the equal of a European army.[115] In July
1797, Simcoe and Maitland sailed to London to advise
a total withdrawal from St. Domingue, a thesis that was
so persuasive by this point that in March 1798 Maitland
returned with a mandate to withdraw, at least from Port-
au-Prince.[116] On 10 May 1798, Maitland met with Tou-
ssaint to agree to an armistice, and on 18 May the British
had left Port-au-Prince.[117] British morale had collapsed
with the news that Toussaint had taken Port-au-Prince,
and Maitland decided to abandon all of St. Domingue,
writing that the expedition had become such a complete
disaster that withdrawal was the only sensible thing to
do, even through he did not have the authority to do
so.[118] On 31 August, Maitland and Toussaint signed an
agreement where in exchange for pulling out all of St.
Domingue, Toussaint promised to not support any slave
revolts in Jamaica.[119] Between 1793-98, the expedition
to St. Domingue had cost the British treasury four mil-
lion pounds and 100, 000 men either dead or crippled
from the eects of yellow fever.[120]
After the departure of the British, Toussaint turned his at-
tention to Rigaud.[121] In March 1797, the Directory had
unleashed French privateers against American shipping,
leading to the Quasi-War between France and the United
States with the U.S Navy being hunting down the French
ships that taking American merchantmen.[122] Through General Toussaint Louverture.
the United States was hostile towards Toussaint, the U.S.
Navy agreed to support the Haitians with the frigate USS One of the most successful black commanders was
General Greene command by Captain Christopher Perry Toussaint Louverture, a self-educated former domestic
providing re support to the Haitians as Toussaint laid slave. Like Jean Franois and Biassou, he initially fought
siege to the city of Jacmel, held by French forces under for the Spanish crown in this period. After the British
the command of Rigaud.[123] On 11 March 1800, Tous- had invaded Saint-Domingue, Louverture decided to ght
saint took Jacmel and Riguad ed on the French schooner for the French if they would agree to free all the slaves.
La Diana.[124] Through Toussaint maintained he was still Sonthonax had proclaimed an end to slavery on 29 August
1792. Louverture worked with a French general, tienne

Laveaux, to ensure that all slaves would be freed. Louver-
ture abandoned the Spanish army in the east and brought
his forces over to the French side on 6 May 1794 after
the Spanish refused to take steps to end slavery.[131]
Under the military leadership of Toussaint, the forces
made up mostly of former slaves succeeded in winning
concessions from the British and expelling the Spanish
forces. In the end, Toussaint essentially restored control
of Saint-Domingue to France. Louverture was very in-
telligent, organized and articulate. Having made himself
master of the island, however, Toussaint did not wish to
surrender too much power to France. He began to rule the
country as an eectively autonomous entity. Louverture
overcame a succession of local rivals (including the Com-
missioner Sonthonax, a French white man who gained
support from many Haitians, angering Louverture; Andr
Rigaud, a free man of color who fought to keep control of
the South in the War of Knives; and Comte d'Hdouville).
Hdouville forced a fatal wedge between Rigaud and Lou-
verture before he escaped to France. Toussaint defeated
a British expeditionary force in 1798. In addition, he
led an invasion of neighboring Santo Domingo (Decem-
ber 1800), and freed the slaves there on January 3, 1801.
In 1801, Louverture issued a constitution for Saint-
Domingue that decreed he would be governor-for-life
and called for black autonomy and a sovereign black
state. In response, Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a
large expeditionary force of French soldiers and warships
to the island, led by Bonapartes brother-in-law Charles
Leclerc, to restore French rule.[132] They were under se-
cret instructions to restore slavery, at least in the formerly
Spanish-held part of the island. Bonaparte ordered that
Toussaint was to be treated with respect until the French
forces were established; once that was done, Toussaint
was to summoned to Le Cap and be arrested; if he failed
to show, Leclerc was to wage a war to the death with
no mercy and all of Toussaints followers to be shot when
captured.[133] Once that was completed, slavery would
be ultimately restored.[134] The numerous French soldiers
were accompanied by mulatto troops led by Alexandre
Ption and Andr Rigaud, mulatto leaders who had been
defeated by Toussaint three years earlier.
The French arrived at on 2 February 1802 at Le Cap with
the Haitian commander Henri Christophe being ordered
by Leclerc to turn over the city to the French.[135] When
Christophe refused, the French assaulted Le Cap and the
Haitians set the city are rather than surrender it.[136]
Leclerc sent Toussaint letters promising him: Have no
worries about your personal fortune. It will be safe-
guarded for you, since it has been only too well earned by
your own eorts. Do not worry about the liberty of your
fellow citizens.[137] When Toussaint still failed to appear
at Le Cap, Leclerc issued a proclamation on 17 Febru-
ary 1802: General Toussaint and General Christophe
are outlawed; all citizens are ordered to hunt them down,
and treat them as rebels against the French Republic.[138]
Captain Marcus Rainsford, a British Army ocer who
9
visited St. Domingue observed the training of the Haitian
Army, writing: At a whistle, a whole brigade ran three
or four hundred yards, and then, separating, threw them-
selves at on the ground, changing to their backs and
sides, and all the time keeping up a strong re until re-
calledThis movement is executed with such facility and
precision as totally to prevent cavalry from charging them
in bushy and hilly country.[139] In a letter to Jean-Jacques
Dessalines, Toussaint outlined his plans for defeating the
French: Do not forget, while waiting for the rainy rea-
son which will rid us of our foes, that we have no other
resource than destruction and re. Bear in mind that
the soil bathed with our sweet must not furnish our en-
emies with the smallest sustenance. Tear up the roads
with shot; throw corpses and horses into all the founda-
tions, burn and annihilate everything in order that those
who have come to reduce us to slavery may have before
their eyes the image of the hell which they deserve.[140]
Dessalines never received the letter as he already taken
to the eld, evaded a French column sent to capture
him and stormed Logane.[141] The Haitians burned down
Leogane and killed all of the French with the Trinida-
dian historian C. L. R. James writing of Dessaliness ac-
tions at Leogane: Men, women and children, indeed all
the whites who came into his hands, he massacred. And
forbidding burial, he left stacks of corpses rotting in the
sun to strike terror into the French detachments as they
toiled behind his ying columns.[142] The French, who
been expecting the Haitians to happily go back to being
their slaves as they believed it was natural for blacks to be
the slaves of whites were stunned to learn how much the
Haitians hated them for wanting to reduce them back to a
life in chains.[143] A visibly shocked General Pamphile de
Lacroix after seeing the ruins of Leogane wrote: They
heaped up bodies which still had their attitudes; they
were bent over, their hands outstretched and beseech-
ing; the ice of death had not eaced the look on their
faces.[144]
Leclerc, ordered four French columns to march on Go-
naives, which was the main Haitian base.[145] One of the
French columns was commanded by General Donatien
de Rochambeau, a proud white supremacist and a sup-
porter of slavery who detested the Haitians for wanting to
be free and it was Rochambueau who Toussaint tried to
stop at Ravin-a-Couleuvre, a very narrow gully up in the
mountains that the Haitians had lled with chopped down
trees.[146] In the ensuring Battle of Ravine--Couleuvres,
after six hours of erce hand to hand ghting with no
quarter given on either side, the French nally broke
through, albeit with heavy losses.[147] During the battle,
Toussaint personally took part in the ghting to lead his
men in charges against the French.[148] After losing 800
men, Toussaint ordered a retreat.[149]
The Haitians next tried to stop the French at a British built
fort up in the mountains called Crte--Pierrot, a battle
that is remembered as a national epic in Haiti.[150] While
Toussaint took to the eld, he left Dessalines in command
10
of Crte--Pierrot, who from his fastness could see three
French columns converging on the fort.[151] Dessalines
appeared before his men standing atop of a barrel of gun-
powder, holding a lit torch, saying: We are going to be
attacked, and if the French put their feet in here, I shall
blow everything up, leading his men to reply We shall
die for liberty!".[152] The rst of the French columns to
appear before the fort was commanded by General Jean
Boudet, whose men were harassed by skirmishers until
they reached a deep ditch the Haitians had dug.[153] As
the French tried to cross the ditch, Dessalines ordered
his men who were hiding to come out and open re, hit-
ting the French with a tremendous volley of artillery and
musket re, inicting heavy losses on the attackers.[154]
General Boudet himself was wounded and as the French
dead and wounded start to pile up in the ditch, the French
retreated.[155] The next French commander who tried
to assault the ditch was General Charles Dugua, who
joined shortly afterwards by the column commanded by
Leclerc.[156] All of the French assaults ended in total fail-
ure, and after the failure of their last attack, the Haitians
charged the French, cutting down any Frenchmen.[157]
General Dugua was killed, Leclerc was wounded and the
French lost about 800 dead.[158] The nal French column
to arrive was the one commanded by Rochambeau, who
brought along heavy artillery that knocked out the Haitian
artillery, through his attempt to storm the ditch also ended
in failure with about 300 of his men killed.[159] Over the
following days, the French kept on bombarding and as-
saulting the fort, only to be repulsed every time while the
Haitians deantly sang songs of the French Revolution,
celebrating the right of all men to be equal and free.[160]
The Haitian psychological warfare was successful with
many French soldiers asking why they were ghting to
enslave the Haitians, who were only asserting the rights
promised by the Revolution to make all men free.[161] De-
spite Bonapartes attempt to keep his intention to restore
slavery a secret, it was widely believed by both sides that
was why the French had returned to Haiti, as a sugar pla-
nation could only be protable with slave labour. Finally
after twenty days of siege with food and ammunition run-
ning out, Dessalines ordered his men to abandon the fort
on the night of 24 March 1802 and the Haitians slipped
out of the fort to ght another day.[162] Even Rocham-
beau, who hated all blacks was forced to admit in a re-
port: Their retreat-this miraculous retreat from our trap-
was an incredible feat of arms.[163] The French had won,
but they had lost 2, 000 dead against an opponent whom
they held in contempt on racial grounds, believing all
blacks to be stupid and cowardly, and furthermore, that
it was shortages of food and ammunition that forced the
Haitians to retreat, not because of any feats of arms by
the French army.[164]
After the Battle of Crte--Pierrot, the Haitians aban-
doned conventional warfare and reverted back to guerilla
tactics, making the French hold over much of the coun- Battle at Snake Gully in 1802
tryside from Le Cap down to the Artibonite valley very
tenuous.[165] With March, the rainy season came to For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic
10 RESISTANCE TO SLAVERY
St. Domingue, and as stagnate water collected, the
mosquitoes began to breed, leading to yet another out-
break of yellow fever.[166] By the end of March, 5, 000
French soldiers had died of yellow fever and another 5,
000 were hospitalized with yellow fever, leading to a
worried Leclerc to write in his diary: The rainy season
has arrived. My troops are exhausted with fatigue and
sickness.[167]
On 25 April 1802, the situation suddenly changed when
Christophe defected with much of the Haitian Army over
to the French.[168] Louverture was promised his free-
dom if he agreed to integrate his remaining troops into
the French army. Louverture agreed to this on 6 May
1802.[169] Just why Toussaint just to give up has been
the subject of much debate with most probable expla-
nation being after he was just tired after 11 years of
war.[170] Under the terms of surrender, Leclerc gave his
solemn word that slavery would not be restored in St.
Domingue, that blacks could be ocers in the French
Army, allowed the Haitian Army to be integrated into
the French Army, and gave Toussaint a plantation at
Ennery.[171] Toussaint was later deceived, seized by the
French and shipped to France. He died months later in
prison at Fort-de-Joux in the Jura region.[32] Shortly af-
terwards, the ferocious Dessalines rode into Le Cap to
submit to France and was rewarded by being made the
governor of Saint-Marc, a place that Dessalines ruled
with his customary cruelty.[172] However, the surrender
of Christophe, Toussaint and Dessalines did not mean
the end of Haitian resistance. Throughout the country-
side, guerrilla warfare continued and the French staged
mass executions via ring squads, hanging and drown-
ing Haitians in bags.[173] Rochambeau invented a new
means of mass execution, which he called fumigational-
sulphurous baths of killing hundreds of Haitians in the
holds of ships by burning sulphur to make sulphur dioxide
to gas them.[174]
10 Resistance to slavery

rule. But when it became apparent that the French in-
tended to re-establish slavery (because they had nearly
done so on Guadeloupe), black cultivators revolted in
the summer of 1802. Yellow fever had decimated the
French as by the middle of July 1802, the French lost
about 10, 000 dead to yellow fever.[175] By September,
Leclerc wrote in his diary that he had only 8, 000 t
men left as yellow fever had killed the others.[176] Many
of the French soldiers was actually Polish as 5, 000
Poles were serving in two demi-brigades in the French
Army.[177] Many Poles believed that if they fought for
France, Bonaparte would reward them by restoring Pol-
ish independence, which had been ended with the Third
Partition of Poland in 1795.[178] Of the 5, 000 Poles,
about 4, 000 were to die of yellow fever.[179] A French
planter wrote of the Polish soldiers: Ten days after the
landing of these two beautiful regiments, more than half
their number were carried o by yellow fever; they fell
down as they walked, the blood rushing out through their
nostrils, mouths, eyes...what a horrible and heart-rending
sight!".[180] Sometimes, the Poles died in battle. At a bat-
tle at Port Sault, the Polish Third Battalion fought about
200 Haitians who ambushed them with musket re and
by pushing boulders down on them.[181] One historian
noted that the Poles, rather than spreading out, each man
for himself, slowly advanced in a tightly packed mass
which aord an ideal target for the well-protected in-
surgent rieman.[182] Most the Poles were cut down by
the Haitians, which led Rochambeau to remark that one
could always count on the Poles to die without inching
in battle.[183] Some of the Poles came to believe that they
were ghting on the wrong side, as they had joined the
French Army to ght for freedom, not impose slavery,
and they defected over to join the Haitians.[184]
Dessalines and Ption remained allied with France until
they switched sides again, in October 1802, and fought
against the French. As Leclerc laid dying of yellow fever
and heard that Christophe and Dessalines had joined the
rebels, he reacted by ordering all of the blacks living in
Le Cap be killed by drowning them in the harbour.[185]
In November, Leclerc died of yellow fever, like much of
his army.[32][186] His successor, the Vicomte de Rocham-
beau, fought an even more brutal campaign. Rochambeau
waged a near-genocidal campaign against the Haitians,
simply killing everybody who was black.[187] Rocham-
beau imported about 15, 000 attack dogs from Jamaica,
who had trained to savage blacks and mulattoes.[188] At
the Bay of Le Cap, Rochambeau had so blacks drowned
that no one would eat sh from the bay for months after-
ward as no one wished to eat the sh that had eaten human
esh.[189] Bonaparte, hearing that most of his army in St.
Domingue had died of yellow fever and the French only
held Port-au-Prince, Le Cap and Les Cayes sent about
20, 000 reinforcements to Rochambeau.[190] Dessalines
matched Rochambeau in his vicious cruelty. At Le Cap,
when Rochambeau hanged 500 blacks, Dessalines replied
by killing 500 whites and sticking their heads on spikes
all around Le Cap, so that the French could see what he
11
was planning on doing to them.[191] Rochambeaus atroci-
ties helped rally many former French loyalists to the rebel
cause. Many on both sides had come to see the war as a
race war where no mercy was to be given, and the Haitians
were just as brutal as the French, as they burned French
prisoners alive, cut them up with axes, or tied to a board
and sawed them into two.[192] Having sold the Louisiana
Territory to the United States in April 1803, Napoleon
began to lose interest in his failing ventures in the Western
Hemisphere. He was more concerned about Frances Eu-
ropean enemies such as Great Britain and Prussia. With
that, he withdrew a majority of the French forces in Haiti
to counter the possibility of an invasion from Prussia,
Britain, and Spain on a weakened France.
With Napoleons inability to send the requested massive
reinforcements after the outbreak of war on 18 May 1803
with the British - the Royal Navy immediately despatched
a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to
cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication
between the French outposts and to capture or destroy
the French warships based in the colony. The Blockade
of Saint-Domingue not cut the French forces out from
reinforcements and supplies from France, but also meant
that the British began to supply arms to the Haitians.[193]
Trapped, engaged in a vicious race war, and with much
of his army dying of yellow fever, Rochambeau fell to
pieces, losing interest in commanding his army and as
James wrote he amused himself with sexual pleasures,
military balls, banquets and the amassing of a personal
fortune.[194]
The Royal Navy squadrons soon blockaded the French-
held ports of Cap Franais and Mle-Saint-Nicolas on
the Northern coast of the French colony. In the sum-
mer of 1803, when war broke out between the United
Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint-Domingue had
been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces under
the command of Jean-Jacques Dessalines. In the north
of the country, the French forces were isolated in the two
large ports of Cap Franais and Mle-Saint-Nicolas and
a few smaller settlements, all supplied by a French naval
force based primarily at Cap Franais.
On 28 June, the squadron encountered a French con-
voy from Les Cayes o Mle-Saint-Nicolas, capturing
one ship although the other escaped. Two days later an
independently sailing French frigate was chased down
and captured in the same waters. On 24 July another
British squadron intercepted the main French squadron
from Cap Franais, which was attempting to break past
the blockade and reach France. The British, led by Com-
modore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of
the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line
was trapped against the coast and captured after coming
under re from Haitian shore batteries. The remainder
of the squadron was forced to ght two more actions on
their return to Europe, but did eventually reach the Span-
ish port of Corunna.
12 11 FREE REPUBLIC

On 8 October 1803, the French abandoned Port-au- loss of the colony. As the French retreated, Haiti, which
Prince as Rochambeau decided to concentrate what was had once been called the Pearl of the Antilles, the rich-
left of his army at Le Cap.[195] Dessalines marched into est French colony in the world was impoverished as its
Port-au-Prince, where was welcomed as a hero by the economy was in ruins after the revolution, and the coun-
100 whites who had chosen to stay behind.[196] Dessalines try descended into anarchy as black and mulattoes now
thanked them all for their kindness and belief in racial fought each other for control; Haiti never recovered eco-
equality, but then he said that the French had treated nomically from the war.[202] The Haitians had paid a high
him as less than human when he was a slave, and so to price for their freedom, losing about 200,000 dead be-
avenge his mistreatment, he promptly had the 100 whites tween 1791-1803, and unlike the majority of the Euro-
all hanged.[197] On 3 November, the frigate HMS Blanche pean dead, who were killed by yellow fever, the majority
captured a supply schooner near Cap Franais, the last of the Haitian dead were the victims of violence.[203]
hope in supplying the French forces. On 16 Novem-
ber 1803, Dessalines began attacking the French block-
houses outside of Le Cap[198] The last battle on land of
the Haitian Revolution, the Battle of Vertires, occurred
on 18 November 1803, near Cap-Hatien fought between
Dessalines army and the remaining French colonial army
under the Vicomte de Rochambeau; the slave rebels and
freed revolutionary soldiers won the battle. By this point,
Perry observed that both sides were a little mad as the
pressures of the war and yellow fever had taken their toil,
and both the French and the Haitians fought with a reck-
less courage, seeing death in battle as preferable to a slow
death by yellow fever or being tortured to death by the
enemy.[199]
Rochambeau seeing defeat inevitable procrastinated un-
Battle of Vertires in 1803
til the last possible moment, but eventually was forced
to surrender to the British commander - by the end of
the month the garrison was starving, having reached the
conclusion at the a council of war that surrender was the
only way to escape from this place of death.[200] Com- 11 Free republic
modore Loring however refused the French permission
to sail and agreed terms with Dessalines that permitted On 1 January 1804, Dessalines, the new leader under
them to safely evacuate provided they had left the port by the dictatorial 1805 constitution, declared Haiti a free re-
1 December. On the night of 30 November 1803, 8, 000 public in the name of the Haitian people,[204] which was
French soldiers and hundreds of white civilians boarded followed by the massacre of the remaining whites.[205]
the British ships to take them away.[201] One of Rocham- Dessalines secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre stated, For our
beaus ships was almost wrecked while leaving the har- declaration of independence, we should have the skin of
bour, but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his
who not only rescued the 900 people on board, but also blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!"[206] Haiti was the
reoated the ship. At Mle-Saint-Nicolas, General Louis rst independent nation in Latin America, the rst post-
de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Ha- colonial independent black-led nation in the world, and
vana, Cuba in a eet of small vessels on 3 December, but the only nation whose independence was gained as part
was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy of a successful slave rebellion. The country was crippled
frigate. Soon after with the few remaining French-held by years of war, its agriculture devastated, its formal com-
towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered soon afterwards to merce nonexistent.[207][14] The country, therefore, had to
the Royal Navy to prevent massacres by the Haitian army. be rebuilt.
Meanwhile, Dessalines led the rebellion until its comple-
tion, when the French forces were nally defeated by the To realise this goal Dessalines adopted the economic or-
end of 1803.[32] ganisation of serfdom.[208] He proclaimed that every cit-
izen would belong to one of two categories, laborer or
On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaves, Dessalines soldier.[208] Furthermore, he proclaimed the mastery of
ocially declared the former colonys independence, re- the state over the individual and consequently ordered
naming it Haiti after the indigenous Arawak name. Al- that all laborers would be bound to a plantation.[208]
though he lasted from 1804 to 1806, several changes be-
gan taking place in Haiti. The independence of Haiti was To avoid the appearance of slavery, however, Dessalines
[208]
a major blow to France and its colonial empire, but the abolished the ultimate symbol of slavery, the whip.[208]
French state would take several decades to recognize the Likewise, the working day was shortened by a third.
Dessalines chief motivator nonetheless was production
 13

and to this aim he granted much freedom to the planta-

tions overseers. Barred from using the whip, many in-
stead turned to lianes, which were thick vines abundant
throughout the island, to persuade the laborers to keep
working.[208] Dessalines eectively sent the Haitian peo-
ple back into slavery. Nevertheless, he succeeded in re-
building much of the countryside and in raising produc-
tion levels.[208]
Fearing a return of French forces, Dessalines rst ex-
panded and maintained a signicant military force. Dur-
ing his reign, nearly 10% of able-bodied men were in
active service.[209] Furthermore, Dessalines ordered the
construction of massive fortications throughout the is-
land, like the Citadelle Laferrire. Many commentators
believe that this overmilitarization contributed to many
of Haitis future problems.[209] In fact, because young t
men were the most likely to be drafted into the army, the
plantations were thus deprived of the workforce needed
to function properly.[209]
Under the presidency of Jean-Pierre Boyer, Haiti made
reparations to French slaveholders in 1825 in the amount
of 150 million francs, reduced in 1838 to 60 million
francs, in exchange for French recognition of its indepen-
dence. Boyer believed that the constant threat of a French
invasion was stymieing the Haitian economy and thus felt
the need to settle the matter once and for all.[210] The ne-
An 1806 engraving of Jean-Jacques Dessalines. It depicts the
gotiations for the indemnity were rather one sided how- general, sword raised in one arm, while the other holds a severed
ever as French warships were anchored o the coast.[210] head of a white woman.
The resulting indemnity bankrupted the Haitian trea-
sury. Haiti was therefore forced to take out a loan from
French banks, who provided the funds for the large rst
from early February 1804 until 22 April 1804. During
installment,[10] severely aecting Haitis ability to pros-
February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities
per. Haitian forces, led by Boyer, invaded neighboring
of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out.
Dominican Republic in February 1822beginning a 22-
Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried
year occupation.[211]
out until he personally visited the cities.[218]
The end of the Haitian Revolution in 1804 marked the
The course of the massacre showed an almost identi-
end of colonialism on the island. However, the social
cal pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival,
conict cultivated under slavery continued to aect the
there were only a few killings, despite his orders.[219]
population for years to come. The revolution left in
When Dessalines arrived, he rst spoke about the atroc-
place the aranchi lite, who continued to rule Haiti
ities committed by former French authorities, such as
while the formidable Haitian army kept them in power.
Rochambeau and Leclerc, after which he demanded that
France continued the slavery system in French Guiana,
his orders about mass killings of the areas French pop-
Martinique, and Guadeloupe.[212]
ulation be carried out. Reportedly, he also ordered the
unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of
mixed race, so that blame would not rest solely on the
black population.[220][221] Mass killings then took place
12 1804 massacre of the French on the streets and on places outside the cities. In parallel
to the killings, plundering and rape also occurred.[221]
Main article: 1804 Haiti massacre
The 1804 massacre was carried out against the Women and children were generally killed last. White
remaining white population of French colonists[213] women were often raped or pushed into forced marriages
and loyalists,[214] both enemies and traitors of the under threat of death.[221]
revolution[215] by the black population of Haiti on the or- By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 persons
der of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared the French had been killed[222] practically eradicating the countrys
as barbarians, demanding their expulsion and vengeance white population. Dessalines had specically stated that
for their crimes.[216][217] The massacrewhich took France is the real enemy of the new nation. This allowed
place in the entire territory of Haitiwas carried out certain categories of whites to be excluded from massacre
14 13 IMPACT

who had to pledge their rejection to France: the Polish

soldiers who deserted from the French army; the group
of German colonists of the Nord-Ouest (North-West) de-
partment of Haiti who were inhabitants before the revo-
lution; French widows who were allowed to keep their
property;[217] select male Frenchmen;[223] and a group
of medical doctors and professionals.[218] Reportedly,
also people with connections to Haitian notables were
spared,[221] as well as the women who agreed to marry
non-white men.[222] In the 1805 constitution that declared
all its citizens as black,[223] it specically mentions the
naturalizations of German and Polish peoples enacted by
the government, as being exempt from Article XII that Saint-Domingue slave revolt in 1791
prohibited whites (non-Haitians;" foreigners) from own-
ing land.[213][222][216]
and openly expressed their support of the Jacobins[228]
Ultimately, the massacre had a long-lasting eect on the
There is also some historical evidence suggesting that dis-
view of the Haitian Revolution and helped to create a
playing solidarity with the French Revolution was the eas-
legacy of racial hostility in Haitian society.[223]
iest way for the refugees to earn the support and sympa-
thy of the Americans, who had just recently lived through
their own revolution.[229] American slaveholders, in par-
ticular, commiserated with the French planters who had
13 Impact been forcibly removed from their plantations in Saint-
Domingue. While the exiles found themselves in a peace-
Historians continue to debate the importance of the ful situation in the United States safe from the violence
Haitian Revolution. David Geggus asks: How much of a raging in both France and Haiti their presence compli-
dierence did it make?" A limited amount, he concludes, cated the already precarious diplomatic relations among
for slavery ourished in the western hemisphere for many Britain, France and the U.S.
more decades.[224]
Many of the whites and free people of color who left
Other historians say the Haitian Revolution inuenced Saint-Domingue for the United States settled in south-
slave rebellions in the United States and British colonies. ern Louisiana, adding many new members to its French-
The biggest slave revolt in U.S. history was the 1811 speaking, mixed-race, and black populations. The exiles
German Coast Uprising in Louisiana. This slave rebel- causing the greatest amount of alarm were the African
lion was put down and the punishment the slaves received slaves who came with their refugee owners. Some south-
was so severe that no contemporary news reports about it ern planters grew concerned that the presence of these
exist.[225] The neighboring revolution brought the slavery slaves who had witnessed the revolution in Haiti would
question to the forefront of U.S. politics, and the result- ignite similar revolts in the United States.[230] However
ing intensication of racial divides and sectional politics other planters were condent they had the situation un-
ended the idealism of the Revolutionary period.[226] The der control.[231]
American President Thomas Jeerson-who was a slave-
holder himself-refused to establish diplomatic relations In 1807 Haiti was divided into two parts, the Republic of
Haiti in the south, and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north.
with Haiti (the United States did not recognize Haiti un-
til 1862) and imposed an economic embargo on trade Land could not be privately owned; it reverted to the State
through Biens Nationaux (national bonds), and no French
with Haiti that also lasted until 1862 in an attempt to en-
sure the economic failure of the new republic as Jeerson whites could own land. The remaining French settlers
wanted Haiti to fail, regarding an successful slave revolt were forced to leave the island. Those who refused were
in the West Indies as a dangerous example for American slaughtered. The Haitian State owned up to 90% of the
slaves.[227] land and the other 10% was leased in 5-year intervals.

Beginning during the slave insurrections of 1791, white Since the resistance and the murderous disease environ-
refugees from Saint-Domingue ed to the United States, ment made it impossible for Napoleon to regain con-
particularly to Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, and trol over Haiti, he gave up hope of rebuilding a French
Charleston. The immigration intensied after the New World empire. He decided to sell Louisiana to the
journe (crisis) of June 20, 1793, and soon American Americans. The Haitian Revolution brought about two
families began to raise money and open up their homes unintended consequences: the creation of a continental
to help exiles in what became the United States rst America and [232]
the virtual end of Napoleonic rule in the
refugee crisis. While some white refugees blamed the Americas.
French Revolutionary government for sparking the vio- There never again was such a large-scale slave rebel-
lence in Haiti, many supported the Republican regime lion. Napoleon reversed the French abolition of slavery
 15

in law, constitution, and practice, which had occurred In 2010, author Isabel Allende wrote a historical
between 1793 and 1801, and reinstated slavery in the novel entitled Island Beneath the Sea, which docu-
French colonies in 18011803which lasted until 1848. ments the Haitian Revolution through the eyes of a
slave woman living on the island.

William Dietrich set his 2012 novel, The Emerald

14 The Revolution and the media Storm during the Haitian Revolution.

The revolution of African slaves brought many fears to
colonies surrounding Haiti and the Caribbean. Prominent
wealthy American slave owners, reading about the revo-
lution, also read speculation about what might come in
their own states. However, newspapers like the Colom-
bian Centinel took the extra steps to support the revo-
lution, in the sense that it was based on the foundations
of the American Revolution.[233] The French media also
played an important role in the Haitian Revolution, with
contributions that made many French upstarts quite in-
terested in the young, passionate Toussaints writings of
freedom.
However, all was not simple in the press. A top critic who
signicantly drove Toussaint into fear of backlash from
France was Sonthonax, who was responsible for many
outlooks of Haiti in the French newspapers.[234] Yet Son-
thonax was one of the few contenders who truly pushed
for the independence of the African slaves and became
a major factor in Toussaints decision of declaring inde-
pendence from France.
The television mini-series The Feast of All Saints
features the Haitian Revolution in its opening scene.
The lm Top Five refers to a ctional lm within
the lm called Uprize, ostensibly about this revo-
lution.
The role of Bois Caiman, Boukman, and Vodou gen-
erally, would become the subject of a controversial,
discredited neo-evangelical theology in the 1990s
that insisted that Haiti was pledged to the devil dur-
ing the Revolution.[236]
Jacobin, an American socialist periodical, uses an
image of Toussaint Louverture for its logo.
16 Literature about the Haitian
Revolution
An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, From Revolution to the
Kidnapping of a President

15 In popular culture Bug-Jargal

The Crime of Napoleon

Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier's second novel, The
Kingdom of This World (1949), (translated into The Black Jacobins
English 1957), explores the Haitian Revolution in
depth. It is one of the novels that inaugurated the
Latin American renaissance in ction beginning in 17 See also
the mid-20th century.

Madison Smartt Bell has written a trilogy called All Ccile Fatiman
Souls Rising (1995) about the life of Toussaint Lou- Charles Rivire-Hrard
verture and the slave uprising.
Dde Bazile
C. Richard Gillespie, former Towson University
professor, wrote a novelization of Louvertures life Lamour Desrances
in the Revolution titled Papa Toussaint (1998).
Faustin Soulouque
Though not referred to by name, Haiti is the back-
drop for the 1990 Broadway musical Once on This Jean-Franois Papillon
Island by Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty. The Joseph Balthazar Inginac
musical, based on the novel My Love, My Love by
Rosa Guy, describes the social stratication of the Marie-Claire Heureuse Flicit
island, and contains a song that briey outlines the
history of the Haitian Revolution. Marie-Jeanne Lamartinire

In 2004 an exhibition of paintings entitled Marie-Louise Coidavid

Caribbean Passion: Haiti 1804 by artist Kimathi Marie-Madeleine Lachenais
Donkor, was held in London to celebrate the
bicentenary of Haitis revolution.[235] Pauline Bonaparte
16
Peace of Basel
Philippe Guerrier
Pompe Valentin Vastey
Quasi War
Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture
Sanit Blair
War of the Knives
18 References
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[202] Perry, James Arrogant Armies Great Military Disasters [222] Girard 2011, p. 322.
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2005 pages 86-87. [223] Girard 2011, p. 325.

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2005 page 60. Press. p. 397.

[204] Haitian Declaration of Independence: Liberty or Death: [225] Rasmussen, Daniel (2011). American Uprising: The Un-
Indigent Army, by the General in Chief Dessalines, in the
name of the Haitian people. Held in the British National
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lantic System: A Reappraisal, William and Mary Quar-
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[209] James Leyburn, The Haitian People, Yale University
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[212] Knight, Franklin W. (1990). The Caribbean The Genesis
of a Fragmented Nationalism (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford
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[213] Farmer, Paul (2006). AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the
Geography of Blame. California University Press. p. 284. [233] Matthewson, Tim, 1996 Jeerson and the Nonrecognition
ISBN 978-0-520-24839-7.
told Story of Americas Largest Slave Revolt. Harper-
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(University of South Carolina Press 2001).
[227] Dubois, Laurent The Avengers of the New World: The
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[228] Popkin, Jeremy D. 'You Are All Free: The Haitian Rev-
olution and the Abolition of Slavery. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2010.
[229] Popkin, page 298.
[230] Davis, David Brion. Impact of the French and Haitian
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Carolina: University of South Carolina Press 2001).
[231] Ashli White, Encountering Revolution: Haiti and the Mak-
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[232] James A. Henretta; et al. (2011). Americas History, Vol-
ume 1: To 1877. Bedford/St. Martins. p. 220.
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[214] Newton, Michael (2014). Famous Assassinations in [234] Jenson, The Sonthonax Drama: Toussaint as Political Dra-
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uary 2017. [235] Melbourne, Kamali (31 October 2005). Caribbean Pas-
sion : Haiti 1804. BBC Nottingham. Retrieved 22 August
[215] Steward, Theophilus Gould (1914). The Haitian Revolu- 2016.
tion, 1791 to 1804: Or, Side Lights on the French Revo-
lution (2nd ed.). Crowell. p. 241. Retrieved 22 January [236] McAlister, Elizabeth (2012-06-01). From Slave Revolt
2017. to a Blood Pact with Satan: The Evangelical Rewriting of
Haitian History. Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses.
[216] Findlay, George Gillanders; Holdsworth, William West 41 (2): 187215. doi:10.1177/0008429812441310.
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trieved 22 January 2017. [237] Web pages for FRD Country Studies are subject to
changes of URL. If a page linked from a footnote that
[217] Land, Isaac (2008). Enemies of Humanity: The cites the Haiti study bears a title dierent from that cited
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ISBN 9780230612549. Retrieved 22 January 2017. revised URL.

[218] Popkin 2012, p. 137.

[219] Girard 2011, pp. 321322. 19 Further reading

[220] Dayan 1998, p. .
Baur, John. International Repercussions of the
[221] Girard 2011, p. 321. Haitian Revolution. The Americas 26, no. 4 (1970).

Blackburn, Robin. Haiti, Slavery, and the Age
of the Democratic Revolution, William and Mary
Quarterly 63.4, 633674 (2006)
Bryan, Patrick E. (1984). The Haitian Revolution
and Its Eects. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-
98301-7. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
Censer,Jack Richard,; Lynn Avery Hunt (2001).
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity Exploring the French
Revolution. Penn State University Press. ISBN 978-
0-271-02088-4.
Dubois, Laurent (2005). Avengers of the New
World. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-
01826-6.
Laurent Dubois; John D. Garrigus (2006). Slave
Revolution in the Caribbean, 17891804 A Brief
History with Documents. Bedford/st Martins. ISBN
978-0-312-41501-3.
Fick, Carolyne The Haitian revolution and the limit
of freedom: dening citizenship in the revolutionary
era. Social History, Vol 32. No 4, November 2007
Garrigus, John D. (2006). Before Haiti Race and
Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue. Macmillan.
ISBN 978-1-4039-7140-1.
Geggus, David Patrick. The Impact of the Haitian
Revolution in the Atlantic World. Columbia: Uni-
versity of South Carolina Press 2001. ISBN 978-1-
57003-416-9
Girard, Philippe. Black Talleyrand: Toussaint
Louvertures Secret Diplomacy with England and
the United States, William and Mary Quarterly
66:1 (Jan. 2009), 87124.
Girard, Philippe. Napolon Bonaparte and the
Emancipation Issue in Saint-Domingue, 1799
1803, French Historical Studies 32:4 (Fall 2009),
587618.
Girard, Philippe R. The Slaves Who Defeated
Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian
War of Independence, 18011804. Tuscaloosa:
University of Alabama Press 2011. ISBN 0-8173-
1732-5
Girard, Philippe. Jean-Jacques Dessalines and the
Atlantic System: A Reappraisal, William and Mary
Quarterly (July 2012).
Cyril Lionel Robert James (1989). The Black Ja-
cobins Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo
Revolution (2nd ed.). Vintage. ISBN 978-0-679-
72467-4.
Joseph, Celucien L. Race, Religion, and The Haitian
Revolution: Essays on Faith, Freedom, and Decolo-
nization (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Plat-
form, 2012)
23
Joseph, Celucien L. From Toussaint to Price-
Mars: Rhetoric, Race, and Religion in Haitian
Thought (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Plat-
form, 2013)
Ott, Thomas O. The Haitian Revolution, 1789
1804. University of Tennessee Press, 1973.
Joseph Elise Peyre-Ferry (2006). Journal des
oprations militaires de l'arme franaise Saint-
Domingue 18021803 sous les ordres des capitaines-
gnraux Leclerc et Rochambeau. Les Editions de
Paris-Max Chaleil. ISBN 978-2-84621-052-2.
Popkin, Jeremy D., You Are All Free: The Haitian
Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2010)
Jeers, Jen (2016) Freedom At All Cost: Remem-
bering Historys Greatest Slave Rebellion. The
Raven Report.
20 External links
The Louverture Project, a wiki about the history of
Haiti
Haiti: History of Shaken Country-- Video interview
with historian Laurent Dubois
Haiti Archives
"galit for All: Toussaint Louverture and the
Haitian Revolution. Noland Walker. PBS docu-
mentary. 2009
France Urged to Pay $40 Billion to Haiti in Repa-
rations for Independence Debt video report by
Democracy Now!
The Other Revolution: Haiti, 1789 1804 digital
exhibition from Brown University
15 Minutes History, UT at Austin
Two Revolutions in the Atlantic World: Connec-
tions between the American Revolution and the
Haitian Revolution Gilder Lehrman Center, Laurent
Dubois.
Upheavals in France and Saint-Domingue Brown
University
24 21 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

21 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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