J Adult Dev (2015) 22:113
DOI 10.1007/s10804-014-9196-8
Autonomy and Relatedness in Adolescence and Emerging
Adulthood: Relationships with Parental Support
and Psychological Distress
Cristiano Inguglia Sonia Ingoglia
Francesca Liga Alida Lo Coco
Maria Grazia Lo Cricchio
Published online: 7 October 2014
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
Abstract Autonomy and relatedness are fundamental
needs both in adolescence and in emerging adulthood
which are affected by parental support and are linked to
childrens psychological distress. The study investigated
autonomy and relatedness in late adolescents and emerging
adults living in Italy, analyzing the relationships with
perceived parental support and psychological distress. Self-
report data were collected from a sample of 325 Caucasian
adolescents and emerging adults (males = 41 %) ranging
in age from 17 to 26 years and living in Sicily (southern
Italy). Results showed that: (a) both autonomy and relat-
edness were positively predicted by parental support to
these needs, (b) perceived support for autonomy was pos-
itively associated with perceived support for relatedness,
(c) autonomy and relatedness were positively related to
each other for emerging adults, but they were not related
for teens, (d) autonomy predicted negatively depression
and loneliness, while relatedness predicted negatively
externalizing problems (only for adolescents), stress,
depression, and loneliness. Taken together, the findings
confirmed that autonomy and relatedness are fundamental
needs for both teens and emerging adults related to parental
support and psychological health. Notwithstanding, age
moderated some of the investigated relationships suggest-
ing that autonomy and relatedness have different meanings,
as well as playing different roles during adolescence and
emerging adulthood.
C. Inguglia (&)
S. Ingoglia
A. Lo Coco
M. G. Lo Cricchio
Department of Psychology, Universita` degli Studi di Palermo,
Viale delle Scienze, Ed. 15, 90128 Palermo, Italy
e-mail: cristiano.inguglia@unipa.it
F. Liga
Department of Human and Social Sciences, Universita` degli
Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
Keywords Autonomy
Relatedness
Adolescence

Emerging adulthood
Psychological distress
Parental
support
Introduction
Autonomy and relatedness are fundamental needs for all
human beings (Deci and Ryan 2000, 2008; Vansteenkiste
et al. 2006), linked to personal achievement and adjustment
(Chirkov 2012; Deci and Ryan 2000; Kagitcibas i 2005;
Ryff and Singer 1998). Autonomy can be defined as the
sense of volition, the desire to self-organize experience and
behavior, and to have activity concordant with ones inte-
grated sense of self (Deci 1980; Ryan and Connell 1989;
Sheldon and Elliot 1999), whereas relatedness can be
defined as the feeling to be connected to others, to love and
care, and to be loved and cared for, establishing high
quality, satisfying, and positive bonds with others (Bau-
meister and Leary 1995; Ryan 1993). These needs may be
viewed as highly complementary motives (Guisinger and
Blatt 1994; Hodgins et al. 1996; Ryan and Lynch 1989),
and a mutual integration of the two concerns is thought to
be necessary for optimum psychological health (Guisinger
and Blatt 1994). The link between autonomy and related-
ness goes beyond a simple interaction, but involves a
dialectical process along two developmental lines in which
progress in a line is essential in order to have progress in
the other: In this perspective, the development of an
increasingly differentiated, integrated, and mature sense of
self is contingent on establishing satisfying interpersonal
experiences and vice versa (Blatt and Blass 1996; Emde
1994; Guisinger and Blatt 1994; Kagitcibas i 1996; Ryan
et al. 1995). In typical development, these processes evolve
in a reciprocally balanced and mutually facilitating fashion
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2 C. Inguglia et al.
from birth through senescence. Two crucial developmental
stages for these processes are adolescence and emerging
adulthood (Koepke and Denissen 2012; Phinney et al.
2005). The general purpose of the present study was to
investigate autonomy and relatedness during these two
phases, analyzing the relationships with perceived parental
support and psychological distress among Italian late
adolescents and emerging adults.
Age-Related Changes in Autonomy and Relatedness
Several scholars have identified some age peculiarities in
autonomy and relatedness, especially linked to individuals
relationship with their parents (Buhl 2008; Koepke and
Denissen 2012). Parents and their offspring need to recip-
rocally regulate independence and connection in their
relations as children become socially and cognitively
mature (Fuligni and Pedersen 2002).
During adolescence, generally there is an increase in
autonomy and a parallel decrease in relatedness in the
relationship with parents (Buhl 2008; Collins et al. 1997;
Galambos et al. 2003). In this stage, autonomy develop-
ment normally accelerates due to changes in physical and
cognitive competence, the growth of social bonds, and the
attainment of extra rights and responsibilities. Indepen-
dence and ability to make own decisions increase, self and
identity are progressively consolidated, and cognition,
affect, and behavior are gradually self-regulated (Zimmer-
Gembeck and Collins 2003). Autonomy has a special
importance during adolescence: It indicates that youngsters
begin to be independent people who are less influenced by
parents and other adults, as well as having more opportu-
nities to determine their own behaviors (Buhl 2008; Collins
et al. 1997; Galambos et al. 2003). The growing sense of
autonomy during this period is often associated with a
temporary decline of the sense of closeness to parents and
increasing conflicts between child and parents (Collins and
Laursen 2004; Youniss and Smollar 1985), although the
desire to feel connected to parents is still noticeable (Sil-
verberg et al. 1992).
The development of autonomy while altering connect-
edness would continue and consistently increase into
emerging adulthood (Noack and Buhl 2004; Phinney et al.
2005; White et al. 1983). This is in fact a developmental
stage characterized by many transitions such as beginning
to work, leaving parental home, marriage, and parenthood
(Arnett 2007). Such kind of changes lead emerging adults
to be more autonomous from the family of origin and are
often associated with new experiences and social roles.
Despite the decline in closeness between children and
parents during early and middle adolescence, emerging
adults still tend to see their mother and father as the main
sources of support regarding for all the important aspects of
123
their life (Fuligni and Pedersen 2002; Phinney et al. 2005;
Steinberg 1990).
Even though we can theoretically expect differences in
autonomy and relatedness levels between adolescents and
emerging adults, with the former being less autonomous
and connected than the latter, only few studies in our
knowledge have explicitly analyzed these age differences.
Phinney et al. (2005), for example, showed both a trend
toward greater relatedness among European Americans and
a trend toward greater autonomy among Armenians and
MexicanAmerican from adolescence to emerging adult-
hood. Moreover, although many studies have found
autonomy and relatedness being positively related to each
other (Rankin-Esquer et al. 1997; Vansteenkiste et al.
2006), there is no systematic investigation of the moderator
role of individuals age on this relationship. In light of
these considerations, the first goal of this study was to
make a step forward and overcome the existing research
gaps.
The Role of Parental Autonomy and Relatedness
Support
Several studies have underscored that parentchild relation
is affected by the tension between autonomy and related-
ness both in adolescence and in emerging adulthood
(Koepke and Denissen 2012; McElhaney and Allen 2012;
Soenens et al. 2007; Youniss and Smollar 1985). The way
in which parents tend to respond to their childrens striv-
ings for autonomy has an impact on whether children are
able to strengthen their sense of individuality and to
establish positive and supportive bonds over time. In
socialization theory and research, there is general consen-
sus that autonomy and relatedness supportive parenting
produces numerous benefits for adolescents and emerging
adults adjustment (Grolnick 2003; Grolnick et al. 1997;
Joussemet et al. 2008; Lekes et al. 2010; Sher-Censor et al.
2011; Soenens and Beyers 2012; Soenens and Vansteenk-
iste 2010). Support to autonomy and relatedness needs is
typical of parents who have an empathic approach toward
their children, allowing them to choose among opportuni-
ties and to develop self-determined behaviors (Kins et al.
2009; Ryan et al. 2006). The promotion of autonomy and
relatedness has been already examined extensively
(McElhaney and Allen 2001; Grotevant and Cooper 1998),
and it has been observed that it can take many forms,
including childrens freedoms and responsibilities (Zim-
mer-Gembeck and Collins 2003), and overt encouragement
of childrens self-exploration and self-assertion (Grotevant
and Cooper 1998).
During adolescence, parental support for autonomy and
relatedness assumes a fundamental role (Smetana et al.
2006). Empirical studies have revealed that parents who
Relationships with Parental Support and Psychological Distress
support adolescents autonomy and relatedness tend to
promote the growth of their offsprings volitional or self-
governing functioning (Soenens et al. 2005), which, in turn,
leads to a better adjustment and higher levels of psycho-
social functioning (Deci and Ryan 2000). Several studies
have also revealed that parents granting of autonomy and
relatedness is concurrently linked with a range of positive
outcomes for their children including high school attach-
ment and performance, low feelings of depression, few
behavioral problems, low levels of psychological distress,
and deviant behaviors (Allen et al. 1994; Eccles et al. 1997;
Grolnick 2003; Herman et al. 1997; Ratelle et al. 2005).
Throughout emerging adulthood, the autonomy-sup-
portive reactions of parents as well as the higher degree of
childrens freedom (e.g., going to college or gaining eco-
nomic independence) tend to increase contributing to the
reinforcement of both the sense of autonomy and related-
ness (Koepke and Denissen 2012). Roth et al. (2009)
observed that autonomy and relatedness support would lead
emerging adults to have a sense of choice during identity
development, integrative regulation of emotions, and an
increased level of exploration. Moreover, autonomy and
relatedness support is linked with positive emotional out-
comes, and emotional and behavioral regulation internal-
ized within ones sense of self (Ryan and Deci 2008). In
general, the autonomy-supportive reactions of parents may
help emerging adults to elaborate on their opinions, to
engage in-depth in identity options (Schwartz et al. 2005),
and may motivate them to make the most of their oppor-
tunities and to finally settle for obligations that best fit their
personality (Koepke and Denissen 2012).
Although parental support to their childrens needs for
autonomy and relatedness seems to increase during emerging
adulthood (Koepke and Denissen 2012), there is no specific
study analyzing the differences in these aspects of parenting
between adolescence and emerging adulthood. Moreover,
several scholars investigating parental support to autonomy
and relatedness have suggested that they are linked to each
other in such a way that one dimension could be considered as
implicit in the other and that they are complementary in their
function. Parental autonomy support, for example, is able to
raise both childrens autonomy and their relatedness (Soenens
and Vansteenkiste 2005; Sheldon and Bettencourt 2002).
Notwithstanding, no study has specifically considered the
moderator role of individuals age on this relationship. In light
of these considerations, another goal of this study was to
clarify the association among these variables and the differ-
ences linked to individuals age.
Autonomy, Relatedness, and Psychological Distress
A growing body of research has shown that both auton-
omy and relatedness are associated with psychosocial
3
adjustment (Chirkov 2012; Deci and Ryan 2000; Ingoglia
et al. 2011; Lo Cricchio et al. 2012; Kagitcibas i 2005; Ryff
and Singer 1998). During adolescence, researchers have
found several positive outcomes linked to acting in an
autonomous and self-determined way (for overviews, see
Deci and Ryan 2000; Vallerand 1997): Autonomous
functioning tends to be associated with high feelings of
well-being expressed in terms of self-esteem and life sat-
isfaction (Levesque et al. 2004). Adolescents relatedness
is usually linked to positive indices of adjustment such as
high levels of prosocial behavior (Karcher and Santos
2011) and low levels of externalizing problems (Samuolis
et al. 2005). Allen et al. (1994) suggested that a lack of
autonomy and relatedness between adolescents and their
parents may predict a deficiency in their behavioral regu-
lation system; without this guidance and relation, inter-
nalizing and externalizing behaviors become much more
likely.
Throughout emerging adulthood, the parallel develop-
ment of autonomy and relatedness leads to positive pro-
cesses of integration and consolidation of self and
relationships that are central for well-being (Arnett 2001),
whereas the lack of a sense of autonomy and/or relatedness
is dangerous for adjustment (Chirkov and Ryan 2001;
Luciano 2009). For example, some studies have found that
emerging adults displaying higher levels of autonomy and
connectedness with their parents tend to experience higher
self-esteem as well as fewer psychological and somatic
symptoms than their counterpart showing lower levels of
autonomy and connectedness (Lamborn and Groh 2009). In
a review of family ties during emerging adulthood, Aqui-
lino (2006) has found that, although young adults are more
independent from their parents, the latter continue to be
important in their lives, and having a positive relation with
them constitute a base for psychological well-being
through this period.
Taken together, these studies show the importance of
autonomy and relatedness for a variety of intra-psychic
indicators of adjustment during adolescence. For example,
some authors (Blatt 1995; Blatt and Zuroff 1992; Lead-
beater et al. 1995) have suggested that adolescents diffi-
culties in the fulfillment of need for autonomy tend to be
related to internalizing problems, whereas a lack of relat-
edness tends to be linked to some externalizing difficulties.
However, there is the need to test these patterns of rela-
tionships also in emerging adulthood.
Aims and Hypotheses of the Study
To sum up, the general purpose of the present study was to
give a contribution to the knowledge of autonomy and
relatedness during adolescence and emerging adulthood,
123
4 C. Inguglia et al.
and their relationships on the one hand with parental sup-
port and on the other hand with psychological distress. In
particular, the first aim was to analyze the relationships
between autonomy and relatedness, perceived parental
support to these needs, and some forms of psychological
distress among late adolescents and emerging adults.
Specifically, it was hypothesized that: (a) perceived
parental support for autonomy and relatedness would be
related positively to each other; (b) they would be predicted
positively by age; (c) autonomy and relatedness would be
related positively to each other; (d) they would be predicted
positively by parental support and age; (e) and psycho-
logical distress would be predicted negatively by auton-
omy, relatedness, and age.
The second aim of the study was to analyze the mod-
erator role of individuals age on these relationships. On
the basis of previous considerations, two hypotheses were
formulated.
1. Perceived parental support for autonomy and related-
ness would be more related to each other during
emerging adulthood than during adolescence. It is
reasonable to foresee that parents of emerging adults
would be more available to support both autonomy and
relatedness than parents of teens due to a view of their
children as more mature and responsible.
2. Autonomy and relatedness would be more related in
emerging adulthood than in adolescence. It is reason-
able to expect that the increased levels of autonomy
and the more consolidated sense of self of emerging
adults would let them feel more confident and
encouraged than adolescents; this feeling could give
them the possibility to experience more peacefully the
sense of relatedness to others.
No particular hypothesis was formulated regarding the
relationships of autonomy and relatedness with on the one
hand parental support and on the other hand psychological
distress. Although no specific hypothesis was initially
expressed about the relationships between gender and the
study variables, it was specified as a control variable in
the analyzed models due to gender differences in psy-
chological distress, autonomy, and relatedness showed by
earlier studies. Results of previous research have found
higher levels of negative emotional states (Galambos
et al. 2006; Visani et al. 2011) and lower levels of
externalizing problems (Dekovic et al. 2004; Gavazzi
et al. 2008; Lewinsohn et al. 1993; Storvoll and Wich-
strom 2003) in females than males. With regard to
autonomy and relatedness, there is no consensus about the
gender differences; in a recent meta-analysis, Guerin et al.
(2012) have found no consistency in the results of pre-
vious studies.
123
Method
Participants
The study included 325 adolescents and emerging adults
(males = 41 %) ranging in age from 17 to 26 years and
living in Sicily (southern Italy). All participants were
Caucasian. Adolescents were 143 (males = 34 %) ranging
in age from 17 to 18 years (mean age = 17.86,
SD = 0.66); they attended several high schools in the area
of Palermo. All adolescents were living in one household
with their parents; 93 % of them came from two-parent
families, 6 % had divorced or separated parents, and 1 %
came from a family in which one of the parents had died.
Of the adolescents parents, 13 % were professional or
managerial, 34 % were trades people, 17 % were skilled
workers, 34 % were unskilled workers, and 2 % were
retired. Of all participants, 57 % had parents who had
obtained their secondary school-leaving certificate.
Emerging adults were 182 university students
(males = 47 %) ranging in age from 20 to 26 years (mean
age = 22.96, SD = 2.21); all of them were unmarried. They
came from several Sicilian universities; 63 % of them were
residential students (living on campus), 21 % lived off
campus without their family, and 16 % lived off campus
with their family. Of all participants, 90 % came from two-
parent families, 9 % had divorced or separated parents, and
1 % came from a family in which one of the parents had
died. Of emerging adults parents, 22 % were professional
or managerial, 21 % were trades people, 36 % were skilled
workers, 10 % were unskilled workers, and 11 % were
retired. Of all participants, 68 % had parents who had
obtained their secondary school-leaving certificate.
Measures
Autonomy and Relatedness
Participants completed two subscales from the Basic Psy-
chological Needs Scale (BPNS; Deci and Ryan 2000):
(a) autonomy (7 items, e.g., I feel like I am free to decide
for myself how to live my life), which measures the
degree to which the person experiences satisfaction of
autonomy need and (b) relatedness (7 items, e.g., I
get along with people I come into contact with), which
measures the degree to which the person experiences sat-
isfaction of relatedness need. Participants were asked to
indicate the degree of agreement with each statement on a
5-point scale (1 = a very bad description of me; 5 = a
very good description of me). In the present study, the
subscales had adequate internal consistency: Cronbachs a
was .75 for autonomy and .84 for relatedness.
Relationships with Parental Support and Psychological Distress
Parental Support for Autonomy and Relatedness
Participants completed the measure proposed by Chirkov
and Ryan (2001), using items drawn from the Perceptions
of Parents Scale (PPS; Robbins 1994). This measure con-
sists of ten items articulated in two subscales: (a) parental
autonomy support (5 items, e.g., My parents provide me
with choices and options of how to run my life), which
measures perceived autonomy support from parents and
(b) parental relatedness support (5 items, e.g., My parents
care about me), which measures perceived relatedness
support from parents. Participants were asked to indicate
the degree of agreement with each statement on a 5-point
scale (1 = a very bad description of me; 5 = a very good
description of me). In the present study, the subscales had
adequate internal consistency: Cronbachs a was .74 for
parental autonomy support and .77 for parental relatedness
support.
Externalizing Behavioral Problems
Participants externalizing behavioral problems were
assessed using the Achenbach family of instruments: the
Youth Self-Report (YSR; Achenbach 1991) and the Adult
Self-Report (ASR; Achenbach and Rescorla 2003). Ado-
lescents were administered the YSR; it measures general
psychopathology and behavioral difficulties within youth
ages 1118 and consists of 118 items that captures aspects
of aggression, delinquency, hostility, hyperactivity, and
immature behavior. These measures included questions
such as: I get in many fights, I destroy things belonging
to others, and I have trouble concentrating or paying
attention. On this measure, adolescents indicated on a
3-point scale how the behavioral descriptions applied to
them (0 = not true, 1 = sometimes or somewhat true,
2 = often or very true). The internal consistency in this
study was good (Cronbachs a was .78).
Emerging adults were administered the ASR; it similarly
measures general psychopathology and behavioral diffi-
culties with adults and consists of 122 items of similar
content and the same scales as the youth version. Exter-
nalizing behavior subscales on this measure included
aggressive behavior, rule-breaking behavior, and intrusive
behavior. The internal consistency in this study was good
(Cronbachs a was .89).
Loneliness Feelings
Participants were administered the UCLA Loneliness Scale
(Russell et al. 1980). It consists of 20 items measured on a
4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (often).
Examples of items include I am no longer close to any-
one and I lack companionship. In the present study, the
5
scale had adequate internal consistency with a Cronbachs
a of .81.
Negative Emotional States
Participants were administered the Depression Anxiety
Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21; Lovibond and Lovibond 1995).
It is a 21-item self-report measure, articulated in three
subscales: (a) depression (7 items, e.g., I couldnt seem to
experience any positive feeling at all); (b) anxiety (7
items, e.g., I was worried about situations in which I
might panic and make a fool of myself); and (c) stress (7
items, e.g., I found it hard to wind down). Items on the
DASS-21 are rated on 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 0
(Did not apply to me at all) to 3 (Applied to me very much,
or most of the time). High scores on each subscale indicate
more depression, anxiety, and stress. In the present study,
the scale had adequate internal consistency with Cron-
bachs a ranging from .75 to .81.
Procedure
The self-report questionnaires were administered during
the regular school day at the start of the second term
(February). Data collection took place in small group ses-
sions under the supervision of four undergraduate students
in psychology and took no longer than 50 min. The par-
ticipation in the study was voluntary and anonymous, and
written parental consent was obtained for minors. Prior
permission was obtained from each participant, the uni-
versity dean, and school director as well as from each
course professor.
Data Analysis Approach
In order to test the hypothesized model, a path analysis was
performed using EQS 6.1 (Bentler 2006). All models testing
used maximum likelihood estimation. In addition, robust
statistics were used in order to account for the multivariate
non-normality of variables (normalized Mardias coefficient
was 4.79, p [ .001); robust statistics included the Satorra
Bentler v2 test statistic (SB v2) and robust Comparative Fit
Index (CFI, Satorra and Bentler 1994), both of which adjust
standard errors to calculate parameter estimates in situations
where multivariate normality cannot be assumed. In evalu-
ating the overall goodness of fit for path analysis models, the
following criteria were used: the SatorraBentler robust v2
test statistics (SB v2/df \ 3), the robust CFI (CFI [ .90), the
standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR \ .08),
and the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA \ .05). Finally, in order to test the hypothesis of
moderated effects of age, a multisample analysis was per-
formed. The model was firstly run separately for adolescents
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6 C. Inguglia et al.

and emerging adults in order to obtain a model with an
adequate fit in each of the two groups. Subsequently, a
multisample analysis was performed. The starting point was
an unconstrained model that was estimated for each group
separately. This less restrictive model was used as a baseline
model for testing a more restrictive model including con-
straints on all paths. Nested models were compared by using
the scaled difference chi-square statistic (Satorra and Bentler
2001), with the more parsimonious model being compared
with the most complex model. A significant reduction in v2,
relative to change in degrees of freedom, indicates that the
less constrained model provides a better fit to the data than
the more constrained model.
Results
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
Means and standard deviations of the study variables, and
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients are sum-
marized in Table 1. Data were normally distributed with
skewness and kurtosis values ranging approximately from
-1.0 to ?1.0 (Muthen and Kaplan 1985). Skewness values
ranged between -.72 and .92; kurtosis values ranged
between -.42 and 1.50.
Relationships Between the Study Variables
The hypothesized model had a good fit to the data: SB
v2(13) = 36.55, p \ .001, SB v2/df = 2.81, CFIrobust = .97,
RMSEA = .07. Tables 2 and 3 present the standardized
parameter estimates. The perceived parental support for
autonomy and relatedness were related positively to each
other, and they were positively predicted by age. Autonomy
and relatedness were related positively to each other; auton-
omy was positively predicted by parental support for auton-
omy; relatedness was positively predicted by parental support
for autonomy and relatedness. Externalizing problems were
predicted negatively by relatedness; stress was positively
predicted by gender and negatively by relatedness; anxiety
was negatively predicted by age and positively by gender;
depression was positively predicted by gender and negatively
by age, autonomy, and relatedness; loneliness feelings were
positively predicted by gender and negatively by autonomy
and relatedness.
Moderator Role of Age
Firstly, the model was run separately for adolescents and
emerging adults. The model had a good fit to the data for
both samples. For adolescents, SB v2 = 12.39, df = 12, v2/
df = 1.03, CFIrobust = .99, RMSEA = .01; for emerging
adults, SB v2 = 18.28, df = 12, v2/df = 1.52, CFIrobust =
.95, RMSEA = .07.
Subsequently, a multisample analysis was performed.
The goodness-of-fit criteria are summarized in Table 4. As
a first step, a simultaneous baseline model was evaluated in
which all parameters were free to vary in the two groups.
The fit of the model was adequate. As a second step, a more
restrictive model was evaluated in which equality con-
straints across the two groups were imposed on all direct

Table 1 Means and standard deviations of study variables, and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 Autonomy
2 Relatedness .20***
3 Auto. par. supp. .27*** .31***
4 Relat. par. supp. .13* .32*** .62***
5 Ext. prob. .02 -.17** -.14** -.22***
*
6 Stress .01 -.13 -.09 -.22*** .33***
7 Anxiety -.10 -.09 -.07 -.21*** .22*** .59***
8 Depression -.18** -.26*** -.22*** - - .30*** .18*** .63*** .59***
9 Loneliness -.24*** -.35*** -.18** -.19*** .24*** .27*** .29*** .45***
10 Gender -.02 .04 .01 .04 -.01 .16** .15** .18** .21***
11 Age .06 .14* .17** .13* -.10 -.04 -.19*** -.18** -.11* -.15**
Mean 3.50 3.86 3.80 3.93 2.01 1.17 .81 .72 2.24 1.59 1.56
Standard deviation .71 .70 .65 .70 .43 .57 .56 .60 .60 .49 .50
Auto. par. supp. = perceived parental support to autonomy, relat. par. supp. = perceived parental support to relatedness, ext. prob. = exter-
nalizing problems. Age is coded as adolescent = 1, emerging adult = 2; gender is coded as male = 1, female = 2. For dichotomous variables,
biserial and tetrachoric coefficients were computed
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01; *** p \ .001

123
Relationships with Parental Support and Psychological Distress 7

Table 2 Standardized estimates of the path coefficients

Age

Auto. par. supp. .17

Relat. par. supp. .13
Age Gender Par. supp. auto. Par. supp. relat.

Autonomy .01 -.02 .30 -.05

Relatedness .09 .05 .16 .20

Age Gender Autonomy Relatedness

Ext. prob. -.08 -.01 .06 -.17

Stress .01 .17 .03 -.14
Anxiety -.16 .13 -.07 -.06
Depression -.11 .17 -.13 -.23
Loneliness -.03 .21 -.17 -.32

Auto. par. supp. = perceived parental support to autonomy, relat. par. supp. = perceived parental support to relatedness, ext. prob. = exter-
nalizing problems
All path coefficients estimates were significant at p \ .05, except those reported in italics

Table 3 Standardized estimates of the residual correlations and between stress and loneliness. The partially constrained
model had a good fit to the data as revealed by a non-signifi-
Ext. prob. Stress Anxiety Depression Loneliness
cant scaled v2 difference test (see Table 4). Tables 5 and 6
Ext. prob. present the standardized parameter estimates of this model.
Stress .32 Results showed that relatedness predicted negatively and
Anxiety .21 .59 significantly externalizing problems for adolescents, but not
Depression .15 .62 .56 for emerging adults; autonomy and relatedness were posi-
Loneliness .22 .23 .24 .35 tively and significantly associated for emerging adults, but not
for adolescents; stress and loneliness were more related for
Autonomy
emerging adults than for adolescents.
Relatedness .14

Auto. par. supp.

Relat. par. supp. .62
Auto. par. supp. = perceived parental support to autonomy, relat. par.
supp. = perceived parental support to relatedness, ext.
prob. = externalizing problems
All coefficients estimates were significant at p \ .05
paths. This constrained model did not have a good fit as
revealed by a significant scaled v2 difference test (see
Table 4). Lagrange multiplier (LM) test suggested releas-
ing the constraint relative to the direct effect of relatedness
on externalizing problems. The partially constrained model
had a good fit to the data as revealed by a non-significant
scaled v2 difference test (see Table 4).
As a third step, a more restrictive model was evaluated in
which equality constraints across the two groups were
imposed on all covariances. This constrained model did not
have a good fit as revealed by a significant scaled v2 difference
test (see Table 4). LM test suggested releasing the constraints
relative to the covariance between autonomy and relatedness,
Discussion and Conclusions
The general purpose of this study was to investigate
autonomy and relatedness during adolescence and emerg-
ing adulthood, analyzing on the one hand their relation-
ships with perceived parental support for these needs and
some forms of psychological distress, and on the other
hand the moderator role of age on these relationships.
Globally, findings showed that autonomy and relatedness
are fundamental needs both for teens and emerging adults
related to parental support and psychological health. Not-
withstanding, age seems to moderate some of the rela-
tionships investigated suggesting that autonomy and
relatedness may have different meanings and play different
roles in these two developmental stages.
Age and Gender Differences in Study Variables
Preliminarily, we examined age and gender differences in
study variables. Differently than hypothesized, adolescents

123
8 C. Inguglia et al.

Table 4 Goodness-of-fit indexes for the multisample analyses

SB v2 df SB v2/df Dv2 Ddf CFIrobust RMSEA

Baseline model 37.52* 24 1.56 .98 .06

Constrained model 82.66** 57 1.45 45.14* 33 .96 .05
Partially constrained model 59.04 54 1.09 21.57 30 .99 .02
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

Table 5 Standardized estimates of the path coefficients for the come out if we compare emerging adults with early or
multisample analysis (adolescents/emerging adults)
middle adolescents. In light of this result, it is possible to
Gender Auto. par. supp. Relat. par. supp. suppose that Italian late teens tend to report levels of
autonomy and relatedness very similar to young adults.
Autonomy -.03/-.03 .32/.29 -.05/-.05
Although no age difference was found in autonomy and
Relatedness -.04/.04 .15/.13 .25/.22
relatedness levels reported by our participants, age varia-
Gender Autonomy Relatedness tions were evident when we looked at the parental support
Externalizing problems -.01/-.02 .04/.05 -.30/-.04 for both these needs. Indeed, as hypothesized, adolescents
Stress .17/.17 .04/.04 -.14/-.14 were found to perceive their parents as being less auton-
Anxiety .12/.14 -.07/-.07 -.06/-.07
omy and relatedness supportive than emerging adults.
Depression .16/.18 -.12/-.13 -.22/-.25
Globally, these findings suggest that on the one hand teens
Loneliness .20/.21 -.18/-.18 -.31/-.32
tend to feel themselves as autonomous individuals capable
to experience high levels of relatedness with close people,
Auto. par. supp. = perceived parental support to autonomy, relat. par. but on the other hand they also tend to perceive low levels
supp. = perceived parental support to relatedness, ext. of support from parents in these basic needs when com-
prob. = externalizing problems
pared to emerging adults. Yet these results leave one
All coefficients estimates were significant at p \ .05, except those
reported in italics. In bold, coefficients differing across groups
question unanswered: Do emerging adults perceive their
parents as more available to be autonomy and relatedness
supportive than teens because their mothers and fathers are
Table 6 Standardized estimates of the residual correlations for the
effectively willing, or because they feel more self-confi-
multisample analysis (adolescents/emerging adults)
dent, and so, more open to view parents as supportive? This
Ext. Stress Anxiety Depression Loneliness question is due to a limitation of the study using only self-
prob.
report measures. Moreover, as hypothesized, emerging
Ext. prob. adults were found to report lower levels of anxiety and
Stress .30/.33 depression than adolescents, but differently than hypothe-
Anxiety .19/.22 .58/.59 sized, they did not diverge from teens in the reported levels
Depression .13/.16 .59/.65 .52/.60 of externalizing behavioral problems, stress, and feelings
Loneliness .20/.24 .13/.30 .23/.25 .33/.37 of loneliness. The findings concerning the differences seem
to corroborate results of previous studies (Thompson et al.
Autonomy
2011) showing that adolescence can be considered as a
Relatedness -.05/.28 developmental period during which psychological distress
is more frequent than the later phases of the life cycle;
Auto. par. supp.
emerging adulthood may therefore be viewed as a time of
Relat. par. supp. .56/.66 improving psychological well-being. In this direction, we
found that age differences for some forms of internalizing
Auto. par. supp. = perceived parental support to autonomy, relat. par.
supp. = perceived parental support to relatedness, ext.
problems (specifically, anxiety, and depression) are more
prob. = externalizing problems noticeable in adolescence than in emerging adulthood.
All coefficients estimates were significant at p \ .05, except those Anxiety and depression may be thought as kinds of psy-
reported in italics. In bold, coefficients differing across groups chological maladjustment purposely associated with the
typical crisis of the adolescent years that requires a
did not diverge from emerging adults in the levels of rethinking about oneself and ones relation with others.
autonomy and relatedness. This finding could be explained With regard to gender, males and females did not differ
taking into account the teens age, ranging from 17 to in the reported levels of autonomy and relatedness. It is
18 years; probably, more consistent differences could possible to suppose that for Italian male and female

123
Relationships with Parental Support and Psychological Distress
youngsters, autonomy and relatedness are equally relevant
needs. As outlined by Guerin et al. (2012) in their recent
meta-analytical review, probably when autonomy is
viewed as volition, as in the present study, there are no
substantial gender differences. Moreover, as hypothesized,
females were found to report higher levels of negative
emotional states than males, confirming results of several
studies showing that females of every age tend to experi-
ence more intense internalizing distress than males (Gal-
ambos et al. 2006; Visani et al. 2011). However, differently
from our predictions, they did not differ in the levels of
externalizing problems.
Relationships Between Parental Support for Autonomy
and Relatedness
As hypothesized, parental perceived support for autonomy
was positively associated with perceived support for
relatedness, but differently than hypothesized, there was no
moderator role of age on this association. Adolescents and
emerging adults who feel parents as being supportive of
their need of autonomy also tend to view mother and father
as responsive and supporting their need of relatedness.
These results suggest that parental support may be viewed
as a sort of global pattern which reflects parents ability to
regulate their own behaviors depending on their children
needs (Sheldon and Bettencourt 2002; Soenens and Vans-
teenkiste 2005). In other words, parents who are experi-
enced as autonomy supportive seem to be able to promote
and fulfill all their childrens basic needs irrespective of
their nature (Soenens and Vansteenkiste 2005; Vans-
teenkiste et al. 2006).
Relationships Between Autonomy and Relatedness:
The Moderator Role of Age
As hypothesized, autonomy and relatedness were posi-
tively related to each other for emerging adults, but they
were not related for teens, showing the moderator role of
age on this association. Among emerging adults, the
capacity to function in an autonomous and self-directed
manner is associated with the capacity to establish positive
relations with others: Individuals who report that their need
for relatedness is met, on average, also report that their
need for autonomy is met (Rankin-Esquer et al. 1997;
Sheldon and Bettencourt 2002; Vansteenkiste et al. 2006).
Our findings provide evidence for the assertion that
autonomy and relatedness are not opposite needs but
complementary motives characterizing the existence of
emerging adults (Hodgins et al. 1996). However, the same
does not appear to be true for adolescents. These two basic
needs considered by emerging adults as two compatible
psychological dimensions are in fact viewed as more
9
independent from each other by adolescents. It is possible
to hypothesize that the drive to be self-directed individuals
is central for teens who are involved in the developmental
task of reaching autonomy, particularly from their parents.
In this perspective, the achievement of autonomy could
also be more important than the sense of connectedness to
others. Our results seem to confirm the findings of a recent
study conducted with Italian mother-adolescent dyads
using an observational procedure to investigate autonomy
and relatedness processes (Ingoglia and Lo Cricchio 2013).
The authors showed that teens behaviors which promote
autonomy and those which inhibit autonomy were posi-
tively related to each other, suggesting that both behavioral
categories are relevant for the fulfillment of their autonomy
need. Moreover, behaviors promoting autonomy were
found to be unrelated to behaviors promoting relatedness
and positively associated with behaviors inhibiting relat-
edness. According to Ingoglia and Lo Cricchio, in a culture
such as the Italian one, in which connectedness has been
traditionally emphasized over independence (Van de Velde
2008), the expression of autonomy may be in some cir-
cumstances viewed as a risk for the parentchild relation-
ship. Other scholars have found that Italian culture places a
high value on interpersonal relations and this affects par-
entchild interactions and parental practices (Bornstein
et al. 1998; Senese et al. 2012). In this perspective, Scabini
et al. (2006) showed that the Italian family is characterized
by a high degree of emotional bonding and support from
both parents, yet also by restrictions to childrens
autonomy.
The Role of Parental Support on Autonomy
and Relatedness
Adolescents and emerging adults who perceived parents as
supportive of their sense of autonomy reported higher
levels of both autonomy and relatedness; moreover, those
who perceived their mother and father as more supportive
of their sense of relatedness reported higher levels of
connectedness to others. However, no moderator role of
age on these relationships was found. Results confirmed the
key role played by parents in the development of autonomy
and relatedness during adolescence and emerging adult-
hood, highlighting the relevance of supportive parenting
for childrens psychological well-being. As expected,
parental support to relatedness positively affected off-
springs desire to engage in relationships and to be con-
nected with significant others, while it is noteworthy that
autonomy-supportive parenting predicted both childrens
sense of autonomy and also their sense of relatedness.
Thus, it could be argued that childrens perception of being
supported by their parents in the achievement of autono-
mous behaviors contributes to strengthen not only their
123
10
own sense of autonomy but also their trust in the possibility
to engage in effective and positive interpersonal relation-
ships (Kagitcibas i 2005; La Guardia et al. 2000; Soenens There are a series of limitations to this study to be kept in
and Vansteenkiste 2005). Individuals who act upon their
personal interests and values tend to experience their
relationship with parents as more honest, open and satis-
fying (Hodgins et al. 1996). Research has also shown that
parents who are experienced as autonomy supportive tend
to be viewed as responsive and caring and that autonomy-
supportive parenting tends to facilitate an autonomous
regulation of childrens friendships, which, in turn, posi-
tively predicts their social competence (Soenens and
Vansteenkiste 2005).
Effects of Autonomy and Relatedness on Psychological
Distress: The Moderator Role of Age
As hypothesized, autonomy and relatedness were related
negatively to psychological maladjustment, but there were
differences for some forms of distress. Specifically,
autonomy predicted negatively depression and loneliness,
while relatedness predicted negatively externalizing prob-
lems (only for adolescents), stress, depression, and loneli-
ness; anxiety was not significantly predicted. On the one
hand, the development of an autonomous sense of self
seems to protect individuals from negative emotional states
related to depression and feelings of loneliness during
adolescence and emerging adulthood. On the other hand,
the development of a sense of relatedness to other people
seems to protect individuals from negative emotional states
related to depression, feelings of loneliness, and stress
during adolescence and emerging adulthood, but it is also
protective from the expression of externalizing problems
among adolescents. Taken together these results suggest
that both autonomy and relatedness are relevant for both
adolescents and emerging adults psychological adjust-
ment, but the engagement in positive and satisfying rela-
tions with significant others appears to be more influential
for individuals psychological well-being than the sense of
autonomy, especially during adolescence. It is reasonable
to assume that in this stage of life, the opportunity to feel
connected to significant others, such as parents and/or
peers, plays a central role for individuals well-being. As a
matter of fact, positive interpersonal relations, especially
with parents and siblings, during adolescence can play a
significant role with regard to the onset of externalizing
problems because in this context teens can learn to manage
their emotions, to control their behaviors, and to develop a
set of skills which are protective from the development of
behavioral problems (Dekovic et al. 2004; Smetana et al.
2006).
123
C. Inguglia et al.
Limitations of the Study
mind. First, the cross-sectional design of the research
restricts the causal inferences that might be drawn from the
results with regard to the developmental trends of auton-
omy and relatedness. It would be rather interesting to set up
further longitudinal studies following the same participants
from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Second, our
findings are limited since they concern only Italian
youngsters. Nevertheless, as many authors have under-
scored (Chirkov et al. 2003; Kagitcibas i 2005) there are
evident cultural differences in the development of auton-
omy and relatedness; thus, more cross-cultural studies are
needed in order to deeply investigate the cultural meaning
of these results. Third, although previous research sug-
gested that adolescents reports on how they perceive their
parents behavior is not inherently inferior to more objec-
tive measures (Chen et al. 1998; Reitz et al. 2006), it would
be remarkable to perform a multi-informant replication of
this study in which, in addition to the children, parents
should also be questioned. Despite these limitations, the
findings from this research seem to corroborate many of
our assumptions on the development of autonomy and
relatedness during adolescence and emerging adulthood,
also providing some interesting hints about the topic of the
study.
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