Indonesian

Study on Ashes of BlendedMining Journal

Coal-Biomass for Co-Firing
Vol. 16, No.
System
1, February
... Ikin Sodikin
2013 : and
37 - Datin
48 F. Umar

Study on Ashes of Blended Coal-Biomass

for Co-Firing System in A Coal Fired Boiler

STUDI ABU DARI CAMPURAN BATUBARA BIOMASSA UNTUK

SISTEM PEMBAKARAN BERSAMA PADA BOILER BATUBARA

IKIN SODIKIN AND DATIn F. UMAR

R & D Centre for Mineral and Coal Technology
Jalan Jenderal Sudirman 623 Bandung 40211, Ph. 022 6030483, fax. 022 6003373
e-mail: ikin@tekmira.esdm.go.id

Abstract

Biomass and coal blend combustion or co-firing is a promising combustion technology. However, significant
development work is required before large-scale implementation can be realized. Issues related to successful
implementation of coal biomass co-firing mainly for power generation should be identified. This paper presents
the results of the study on blended coal-biomass characterisation, particularly the ash chemical composition
and ash fusion temperature to predict the slagging and fouling propensity in a coal fired boiler. The coal used
in this research has a calorific value of 5,067 cal/g and the ash fusion temperature of softening temperature
in oxidation condition (softening temperature-ox) is 1,228C, while the biomass used was baggase, straw and
rice husk with the calorific value of 4,144; 3,545; 3,301 cal/g and the softening temperature-ox of 1,303; 1,420
and >1,500C, respectively. Experimental results for some varieties of fuel blends indicate that the proportion
of 95%-5% of coal and baggase has the highest softening temperature-ox of 1,225C. The blend of coal and
straw resulted in the highest softening temperature-ox of 1,240C at 95%-5%, while the blend of coal and rice
husk, the highest softening temperature-ox of 1,235C was reached at the proportion of coal and rice husk at
90%-10%. According to the slagging and fouling index, blended coal and straw shows the best performance
compared to that of blended coal either with baggase or rice husk.

Keywords: coal, biomass, co-firing, ash fusion temperature, slagging and fouling index

SARI

Pembakaran campuran batubara dan biomassa atau pembakaran bersama merupakan suatu teknologi yang
menjanjikan. Namun penelitian dan pengembangan yang cukup luas sangat diperlukan sebelum teknologi
ini diterapkan pada skala komersial. Isu-isu penting yang berkenaan dengan keberhasilan penerapan sistem
pembakaran bersama, terutama pada pembangkit listrik perlu untuk diketahui. Makalah ini menyampaikan hasil
studi tentang karakteristik campuran batubara biomassa, terutama komposisi abu dan titik leleh abu dari bahan
bakar tersebut untuk menelaah kemungkinan terjadinya slagging dan fouling pada boiler batubara. Batubara
yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini mempunyai nilai kalor sebesar 5.067 kal/g dan titik leleh abu pada soften-
ing temperature suasana oksidasi (softening temperature-ox) 1.228C, sedangkan biomassa yang digunakan
adalah bagas, jerami dan sekam padi dengan nilai kalor masing-masing 4.144; 3.545; 3.301 kal/g dan softening
temperature-ox masing-masing 1,303; 1.420 dan>1,500C. Hasil penelitian dengan berbagai variasi campuran
menunjukkan bahwa campuran antara bagas 5% dengan batubara 95% mempunyai softening temperature-ox
yang tertinggi, yaitu 1.225C. Campuran batubara dan jerami menghasilkan softening temperature-ox tertinggi,
yaitu 1.240C dengan komposisi batubara dan jerami 95%-5%, sedangkan campuran batubara dan sekam
padi softening temperature-ox tertinggi, yaitu 1.235C dicapai oleh campuran dengan komposisi 80%-20%.
Berdasarkan indeks slagging dan fouling, campuran batubara dengan jerami menunjukkan kinerja yang terbaik
dibandingkan dengan campuran batubara dengan bagas mau pun dengan sekam padi.

Kata kunci: batubara, biomassa, pembakaran bersama, titik leleh abu, indeks slagging dan fouling

Received : 27 September 2012, first revision : 20 December 2012, second revision : 23 January 2013, accepted : February 2013 37
 Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, February 2013 : 37 - 48
INTRODUCTION
Currently, Indonesias coal resources are esti-
mated at 161 billion tons, which are 120 billion
tons open pit and 41 bilion tons underground.
Among them of about 28 billion tons are catego-
rized as reserved (Adisoma, 2013). There are two
major coal bearing formations by geological age,
namely Paleogene and Neogene. Both ages are
present in Kalimantan, while in Sumatra mostly
Neogene Formation, with the exception in Om-
bilin, West Sumatera. Resources allocation for
coal production is imbalance. Largely coal comes
from Kalimantan (92%) and the rest comes from
Sumatera, particularly South Sumatera (8%). On
the contrary, the coal potential in Sumatra is more
than the coal in Kalimantan (Figure 1). This situa-
tion mostly due to the infrastructural limitations in
Sumatera area. In Kalimantan, most coal mines
located near to the coastline or along the rivers
were developed fully taking advantage of inland
water transportation and loading at the offshore/
nearshore coal terminal for shipping to the over-
seas and domestic markets. While in Sumatera,
coal transportation is carried out by using trains
and trucks.
Coal has shown its strategic role in development
since it creates the multiplied effects on the na-
tional and regional economy. From the standpoint
of stability of energy supply and economics, coal
also has the advantage of being cheaper and not
being subject to the price swings characteristic
Source: Adisoma (2013)
Figure 1. Indonesias coal resources and reserves
38
of alternative energy choices. As a result, coal
is expected to continue to play an important role
among primary energy supplies in the future. In
the last fifteen years, coal became another ma-
jor export commodity to earn foreign exchange
for the country. However, the reserves of high
rank coal (HRC) such as bituminous and high
sub-bituminous coal that are currently exploited
are limited.
In general, the strategic planning of coal utiliza-
tion is derived from the quality proportion of the
resources in order to meet the market demand
and domestic consumption for energy genera-
tion. In the near future, the Indonesia government
will encourage to use the low rank coal (LRC) as
the main source of energy in the national energy
mixed policy. In that sense, the government is
encouraging to use more coal domestically, while
maintaining the export level. However, the use of
coal as a fuel will have a negative impact on the
environment. Air pollution from coal-fired power
plants is large and varied and contributes to a
significant number of negative environmental and
health effects. When coal is burned, the combus-
tion releases a combination of toxic chemicals into
the environment, and thus the human body. Coal
combustion releases nitrogen oxides, sulphur
dioxide, particulate matter (PM), mercury, and
dozens of other substances known to be hazard-
ous to human health. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the
most significant greenhouse gas that contributes
to global warming. The dangers of global warm-
 Study on Ashes of Blended Coal-Biomass for Co-Firing System ... Ikin Sodikin and Datin F. Umar
ing include disruption of global weather patterns
and ecosystems, flooding, severe storms, and
droughts.
To reduce the environmental effects due to the
use of coal, co-firing of coal and biomass is one
of the techniques that can be applied. Co-firing
is the combustion of two different types of materi-
als at the same time. One of the advantages of
co-firing is that an existing plant can be used to
burn a new fuel, which may be cheaper or more
environmentally friendly. As a matter of fact, this
interest on co-firing has grown in the last decade
mainly due to the increasing social concerns
on global warming and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
The concept of co-firing is quite simple. It in-
cludes in the use of two or more fuels inside the
same combustion device. It is applicable to all
kind of combustion systems traditionally used for
power generation (pulverized fuel, fluidized bed
combustion and grate firing). Co-firing in cement
kilns is already a quite widespread solution for
valorization of waste materials mostly, as well as
for biomass. The iron industry (blast furnace) and
domestic sector (coal stoves) are also sectors
where co-firing could be implemented.
Co-firing between coal and biomass is one of the
most easily implemented. Biomass is biological
material derived from living, or recently living
organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-
derived materials which are specifically called
lignocellulosic biomass (Carroll and Somerville,
2009). As a renewable energy source, biomass
can either be used directly via combustion to
produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to
various forms of biofuel.
Biomass can provide numerous benefits when
used as a fuel to supplement coal, including
potentially lower fuel costs, reductions in sulphur
emissions (vs. burning coal only), reductions in
NOx emissions under most combustion scenarios,
reductions in mercury emissions (Mentz et al,
2005), and reductions of landfill material when
co-firing municipal waste, construction debris,
or other biomass material that would otherwise
be landfilled, or when larger amounts of ash
from coal must be landfilled for disposal (Nichols
and Zerbe, 2012). Biomass fuels are considered
environmentally friendly for several reasons.
First, there is no net increase in CO2 as a result
of burning a biomass fuel (i.e. fossil generated
CO2). Biomass consumes the same amount of
CO2 from the atmosphere during growth as is
released during combustion. Therefore, blending
coal with biomass fuels can reduce fossil-based
CO2 emissions (Sami et al, 2001).
The implementation of coal biomass co-firing
is undebatable, because co-firing with biomass
could be an excellent bridge strategy to quickly
reduce GHGs for a given facility whether or not
coal would be used in the future. To support the
successfully of co-firing implementation, some
characteristics of the coal and biomass should be
identified. The primary objective of this paper is to
describe the characteristics of the blended coal
and biomass, mainly the chemical ash composi-
tion and ash fusion temperature (AFT). Because
ashes in coal and in biomass have different
characteristics, theoretically it would cause the
difference in the AFT. However, a discussion of
co-firing combustion of fuel blends is beyond the
scope of this paper. Previous works on the use
of blended sawdust and coal through co-firing
technology were carried out using a cyclo burner
(Sodikin, 2013).
METHODOLOGY
Blending of coal and biomass was conducted to
obtain a more environmentally friendly combus-
tion through co-firing system. In this case, coal
and three kinds of biomass have been used.
The coal is categorized as subbituminous coal
with relatively high moisture content. While the
biomasses are baggase, straw and rice husk.
Bagasse is the fibrous matter that remains after
sugarcane or sorghum stalks were crushed to
extract their juice. It is currently used as a biofuel
and in the manufacture of pulp and building ma-
terials. Bagasse is a by-product of the cane sugar
industry. The high moisture content of bagasse,
typically 40 to 50%, is detrimental to its use as a
fuel. In general, bagasse is stored prior to further
processing. For electricity production, it is stored
under moist conditions, and the mild exothermic
reaction that results from the degradation of re-
sidual sugars dries the bagasse pile slightly. For
paper and pulp production, it is normally stored
wet in order to assist in removal of the short pith
fibres, which impede the papermaking process,
as well as to remove any remaining sugar. Many
research efforts have explored using bagasse as
a renewable power generation source and for the
39
 Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, February 2013 : 37 - 48

production of bio-based materials. The resulting
CO2 emissions due to the baggasse burning are
equal to the amount of CO2 that the sugarcane
plant absorbed from the atmosphere during its
growing phase, which makes the process of co-
generation greenhouse gas-neutral (Barosso et
al, 2003; Radke, 2012).
Straw is an agricultural by-product, the dry stalks
of cereal plants, after the grain and chaff have
been removed. Straw makes up about half of the
yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice,
rye and wheat. The use of straw in large-scale
biomass power plants is becoming mainstream
in the EU, with several facilities already online.
The straw is either used directly in the form of
bales, or densified into pellets which allows the
feedstock to be transported over longer distances
(Evald, 2011).
Rice husks or rice hulls are the coatings of seeds,
or grains, of rice. To protect the seed during the
growing season, the husk is formed from hard
materials, including opaline silica and lignin. The
husk is mostly indigestible to humans. Rice husk
is a typical dry or membranous outer covering of
the rice. When compared to other agro residues,
rice husk has higher ash content (20-22.4%),
higher potash content, 1.0% crude protein, 0.3%
crude fat and 30% carbohydrate. However, rice
husk is an exceptional biomass, it has good flow
ability, normally available with 10-12% moisture
and the ash contain fewer alkaline minerals.
In fact, it makes an excellent fuel although its
calorific value is less than wood and other agro
residues (Yahaya and Ibrahim, 2012). With proper
techniques, rice husks can be burned and used to
power steam engines. Some rice mills originally
disposed of hulls in this way. Unfortunately the
direct combustion of rice hulls produces large
quantities of smoke. An alternative is gasification.
Rice hulls are easily gasified in a moving-bed
downdraft gasifier reactor in combination with a
gas- conditioning devices that remove impurities
from the gas thereby making it highly suitable fuel
for heat engines (Belonio et al, 2011).
According to Stams et al (2009), the biomass co-
firing in large coal fired utility boilers is relatively
low co-firing ratios (in most cases up to 20%
mass based). With increase of co-firing level,
the impacts on plant performace and integrity
will become more significant, particularly with the
lower grade biomass material. Principal techni-
cal concerns are associated with the behaviour
of the mixed coal biomass ashes, and there are
significant concerns about the potential impacts
of ash deposition on surfaces in the boiler and
asscociated equipment. Therefore, in this re-
search the composition of blended coal-biomass
was designed limited up to 80% coal and 20%
biomass as can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Experimental design of the blended coal-biomass composition

Sample mark Composition of coal Composition of baggase

CB-1 95% 5%
CB-2 90% 10%
CB-3 85% 15%
CB-4 80% 20%
Sample mark Composition of coal Composition of straw
CS-1 95% 5%
CS-2 90% 10%
CS-3 85% 15%
CS-4 80% 20%
Sample mark Composition of coal Composition of rice husk
CRH-1 95% 5%
CRH-2 90% 10%
CRH-3 85% 15%
CRH-4 80% 20%

40
 Study on Ashes of Blended Coal-Biomass for Co-Firing System ... Ikin Sodikin and Datin F. Umar
To support this research, the coals and biomasses
of baggase, straw and rice husk were analysed
for the proximate, ultimate, calorific value, ash
composition and ash fusion temperature. The
proximate analysis covered the determination of
inherent moisture, ash and volatile matter and
the calculation of fixed carbon. While the ultimate
analysis of coal is the determination of carbon
and hydrogen in the material, as found in the
gaseous products of its complete combustion,
the determination of sulphur, nitrogen and ash
in the material as a whole, and the calculation of
oxygen by difference. The proximate and ultimate
analysis have been conducted according to the
ASTM Standard Method.
The calorific value of the coal was determined
according to the ASTM D 5865-04. Gross calo-
rific value (gross heat of combustion at constant
volume), Qv (gross) was the heat produced by
complete combustion of coal at constant volume
with all water formed condensed to a liquid under
specified conditions, while net calorific value (net
heat of combustion at constant pressure) Qp (net),
was the heat produced by combustion of coal at
constant pressure of 0.1 MPa (1 atm), with any wa-
ter formed remaining as vapour. This test method
pertained for determination of the gross calorific
value of coal by either an isoperibol or adiabatic
bomb calorimeter. In this investigation the adiabatic
bomb calorimeter was used to determine the calo-
rific value. Adiabatic calorimeter was a calorimeter
that operated in the adiabatic mode and provided
with microprocessor. The initial temperature before
initiating the combustion and the final temperature
were recorded by a microprocessor.
When coal is used as a fuel in boilers, ash formed
after combustion of coal is required to be removed
as powder residue. But the characteristic beha-
viours of the coal ash at high temperature region
inside the boiler is very critical since the ash,
which melts at below the temperature prevailing in
the boiler undergoes glass transitions and fuses to
form slag on the wall and the bottom of the boiler.
It is therefore of vital importance to determine
the ash fusion temperature (AFT) of the coal for
determination of its suitability and efficiency of
the boiler. The AFT test gives an indication of
the softening and melting behaviour of coal ash
at high temperatures within the boiler. Blended
two types of coal or blended coal-biomass for
co-firing sytem, the AFT cannot be calculated
directly according to the weight ratio of each
material used.
The ash fusion characteristic is directly related to
its ash composition. Therefore, the data of ash
composition in the coal and biomass are very
important. Each sample, which consists of 100
to 200 mg of coal and or biomass ash ground to
pass through a 100-mesh sieve, is mixed with a
reagent-grade lithium metaborate-lithium tetra-
borate flux and fused at 1,000 C for 45 minutes
in a graphite crucible. Use of a mixed flux (1 part
anhydrous lithium metaborate (LiBO2) and 2 parts
anhydrous lithium tetraborate (Li2B4O7)). The
bead that results from the fusion of 0.2 g of sample
is dissolved in dilute nitric acid and diluted to 250
mL. Concentrations of major elements in this
solution are determined by gravimetry for SiO2,
spectrophotometry for TiO2 and P2O5, turbidi-
metry for SO3 and by AAS for Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO,
MgO, Na2O, K2O, and MnO2 (Speight, 2005).
AFT were determined by viewing a moulded
specimen of the coal ash through an observation
window in a high-temperature furnace in both
reducing and oxidizing conditions. The ash, in
the form of a cone, pyramid or cube, was heated
steadily past 1,000C to as high a temperature
as possible, preferably 1,600C (2,910F). The
following temperatures either in reduction or oxi-
dation condition were recorded:
- Deformation temperature (DT): This is
reached when the corners of the mould first
become rounded.
- Softening (sphere) temperature (ST): This is
reached when the top of the mould takes on
a spherical shape.
- Hemisphere temperature (HT): This is reached
when the entire mould takes on a hemisphere
shape.
- Flow (fluid) temperature (FT): This is reached
when the molten ash collapses to a flattened
button on the furnace floor.
The shapes of the DT, ST, HT and FT are shown
in Figure 2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
If biomass co-firing is planned for a coal fired
boiler, several fuel related impacts have to be
considered. Table 2 compares analyses of coal
to those of three typical biomasses of baggase,
straw and rice husk. The blended coal and bio-
masses are also presented according to the
comparison as can be seen in Table 1.
41
 Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, February 2013 : 37 - 48

Original Deformation temperature 2r Flow temperature

Hemisphere temperature

Figure 2. Shape characterisitcs of AFT

Table 2. Analysis results of the proximate, ultimate and calorific values of coal, biomasses and blended coal-
biomass

Sample IM Ash VM FC FR C H N O S CV
mark % % % % % % % % % cal/g
Coal 17.69 5.77 40.90 35.64 0.87 55.40 5.77 0.59 32.34 0.13 5067
Baggase 7.17 5.41 73.86 13.56 0.18 44.79 5.96 0.36 43.38 0.10 4144
Straw 6.62 15.50 61.81 16.07 0.26 37.72 5.34 0.87 40.49 0.08 3545
Rice husks 7.77 21.17 57.72 13.34 0.23 35.21 5.00 0.43 38.14 0.05 3301
CB-1 17.16 5.75 42.55 34.54 0.81 54.87 5.78 0.58 32.89 0.13 5021
CB-2 16.64 5.73 44.20 33.43 0.76 54.34 5.79 0.57 33.44 0.13 4975
CB-3 16.11 5.72 45.84 32.33 0.71 53.81 5.80 0.56 34.00 0.13 4929
CB-4 15.59 5.70 47.49 31.22 0.66 53.28 5.81 0.54 34.55 0.12 4882
CS-1 17.14 6.26 41.95 34.66 0.83 54.52 5.75 0.60 32.75 0.13 4991
CS-2 16.58 6.74 42.99 33.68 0.78 53.63 5.73 0.62 33.16 0.13 4915
CS-3 16.03 7.23 44.04 32.70 0.74 52.75 5.71 0.63 33.56 0.12 4839
CS-4 15.48 7.72 45.08 31.73 0.70 51.86 5.68 0.65 33.97 0.12 4763
CRH-1 17.19 6.54 41.74 34.53 0.83 54.39 5.73 0.58 32.63 0.13 4979
CRH-2 16.70 7.31 42.58 33.41 0.78 53.38 5.69 0.57 32.92 0.12 4890
CRH-3 16.20 8.08 43.42 32.30 0.74 52.37 5.65 0.57 33.21 0.12 4802
CRH-4 15.71 8.85 44.26 31.18 0.70 51.36 5.62 0.56 33.50 0.11 4714
Notes:
IM: inherent moisture, VM: volatile matter, FC: fixed carbon, CV: calorific value, FR: fuel ratio (FC/VM)

The data in Table 1 highlight some of the critical
differences between the coal and biomasses. The
biomasses have low moisture content. It means
that the biomasses were in dry condition. If too
much moisture is present, the biomass will not
spontaneously react. The ash content of the coals
were lower than that of the biomasses except the
baggase. The low ash of baggase was due to the
washing process during sugarcane extraction.
Excessive ash in the fuels can cause fouling de-
posits in the combustion equipment. Ash has an
erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage
to the refractories at high temperatures and gives
rise to high temperature corrosion and fouling of
equipments.
The amount of volatile matter indicates whether
the fuel will burn with a short or long flame and

42
 Study on Ashes of Blended Coal-Biomass for Co-Firing System ... Ikin Sodikin and Datin F. Umar

whether it will tend to produce smoke. The more
volatile in the fuel, the more it will smoke. When
compared the coals, biomasses have significantly
higher volatile matter contents than that of the
coals and their fuel ratio (the content of fixed
carbon divided by the content of volatile matter)
is much below unity. Volatile matter helps in the
ignition of the fuel and high volatile matter in the
biomasses indicates a potential for creating large
amounts of vapors during combustion.
The content of fixed carbon divided by the content
of volatile matter is called the fuel ratio. From the
data in the Table 2, it can be seen that the fuel ratio
of baggase is the lowest compared to the others.
Consequently, the fuel ratio of the blended coal
and baggase is also low. Lower fuel ratio are char-
acterized by a greater oxygen, that aids ignition
and enhances combustibility and flame stability.
High combustibility improves carbon burnout (re-
duce carbon carryover) and hence boiler efficiency
and for pulverized coal fire units, this allows the
coal to be ground to a coarser size.
The calorific value of the coal is the highest
compared to the biomasses. The rice husk has a
lowest calorific value due to its high ash content
(21.17% adb). The higher the calorific value, the
higher is the combustion efficiency. Carbon con-
tent of the coals are higher than that of biomasses
in line with the fixed carbon content of them. While
the hydrogen content is not significantly different.
Low sulphur and low nitrogen contents of the bio-
masses lead to low SOx and NOx emissions, due
to decreased fuel sulphur and nitrogen conversion
to SOx and NOx. Thus, biomasses are low NOx
fuels and co-firing of biomass and coal can reduce
the NOx emissions from coal fired boilers.
The ash fusion characteristic of coal is directly
related to its composition primarily SiO2, Al2O3,
CaO, Fe2O3 and under oxidizing condition, the
three component system of SiO2-Al2O3-CaO and
SiO2-Al2O3-Fe2O3. The alkalis present in the form
of oxides as K2O and Na2O also contribute to the
fusion temperature of the ash as base component
in separate three component system, when pres-
ent in considerable amount. It is also believed that
under reducing conditions (CO/CO2), the base
component of iron exist as FeO. Apart from that
other reductions in the system also occur reducing
the AFT to a lower value. The ash composition
of the coal and biomass ashes were analysed
through gravimetry, colorimetry and AAS. The
result of the ash composition analyses can be
seen in Table 3.
From Table 4, it can be seen that the silica oxide
(SiO2) of the biomasses were very dominant and
significantly higher than that of the coal. There are
2 types of coal ash, bituminous ash and lignite
ash. The bituminous ash, the base/acid ratio is

Tabel 3. Ash chemical composition of coal, biomass and blended coal-biomass

Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 K2O Na2O CaO MgO TiO2 MnO P2O5 SO3
mark % % % % % % % % % % %
Coal 53.90 15.55 12.97 0.56 0.38 5.76 5.59 0.62 0.21 0.03 3.32
Baggase 71.30 7.21 3.29 7.43 0.58 2.98 2.30 0.16 0.20 0.62 1.38
Straw 94.10 0.49 0.25 1.73 0.29 0.58 0.45 * 0.10 0.87 0.23
Rice Husks 81.30 0.43 0.38 7.86 1.37 2.24 1.36 * 0.20 0.80 0.48
CB-1 54.77 15.13 12.49 0.90 0.39 5.62 5.43 0.60 0.21 0.06 3.22
CB-2 55.64 14.72 12.00 1.25 0.40 5.48 5.26 0.57 0.21 0.09 3.13
CB-3 56.51 14.30 11.52 1.59 0.41 5.34 5.10 0.55 0.21 0.12 3.03
CB-4 57.38 13.88 11.03 1.93 0.42 5.20 4.93 0.53 0.21 0.15 2.93
CS-1 55.91 14.80 12.33 0.62 0.38 5.50 5.33 * 0.20 0.07 3.17
CS-2 57.92 14.04 11.70 0.68 0.37 5.24 5.08 * 0.20 0.11 3.01
CS-3 55.23 13.27 11.05 0.65 0.35 4.95 4.80 * 0.19 0.11 2.85
CS-4 61.94 12.54 10.43 0.79 0.36 4.72 4.56 * 0.19 0.20 2.70
CRH-1 55.27 14.79 12.34 0.93 0.43 5.58 5.38 * 0.21 0.07 3.18
CRH-2 56.64 14.04 11.71 1.29 0.48 5.41 5.17 * 0.21 0.11 3.04
CRH-3 58.01 13.28 11.08 1.66 0.53 5.23 4.96 * 0.21 0.15 2.89
CRH-4 59.38 12.53 10.45 2.02 0.58 5.06 4.74 * 0.21 0.18 2.75
Note:
*: not detected

43
 Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, February 2013 : 37 - 48

Tabel 4. Ash fusion temperature of coal, biomass and blended coal-biomass

Reduction Oxidation
Sample mark DT ST HT FT DT ST HT FT
C C C C C C C C
Coal 1,055 1,145 1,163 1,225 1,138 1,228 1,245 1,295
Baggase 1,150 1,240 1,325 1,460 1,210 1,303 1,420 >1,500
Straw 1,283 1,415 1,435 1,465 1,300 1,420 1,445 1,475
Rice husk >1,500 >1,500 >1,500 >1,500 >1,500 >1,500 >1,500 >1,500
CB-1 1,125 1,160 1,170 1,240 1,165 1,255 1,295 1,355
CB-2 1,100 1,145 1,160 1,300 1,130 1,230 1,255 1,325
CB-3 1,100 1,145 1,165 1,280 1,130 1,220 1,255 1,335
CB-4 1,095 1,140 1,155 1,230 1,130 1,215 1,245 1,345
CS-1 1,095 1,155 1,170 1,220 1,150 1,240 1,285 1,335
CS-2 1,195 1,225 1,260 1,310 1,200 1,235 1,270 1,315
CS-3 1,175 1,220 1,250 1,310 1,175 1,220 1,265 1,320
CS-4 1,165 1,210 1,270 1,325 1,195 1,220 1,275 1,355
CRH-1 1,155 1,215 1,230 1,260 1,170 1,225 1,240 1,300
CRH-2 1,105 1,160 1,180 1,240 1,200 1,235 1,255 1,305
CRH-3 1,105 1,145 1,165 1,270 1,120 1,230 1,250 1,310
CRH-4 1,130 1,160 1,165 1,205 1,190 1,230 1,255 1,325
Notes:
DT: deformation temperature ST: softening temperature
HT: Hemisphere temperature FT: Flow temperature

more than 1 or the Fe2O3 more than the total sum
of CaO+MgO contents in the coal. While the lignite
ash, the base/acid ratio is less than 1 or the Fe2O3
less than the total sum of CaO+MgO. From Table
4, all of the fuels, the ash types are characterized
as lignite ash with the Fe2O3 content is less than
the total sum of CaO and MgO.
One difference between biomass and coal is that
all of biomasses contain more alkali metals com-
pared to the coal. Alkali metals like potassium (K)
and sodium (Na) have lower melting and evapo-
ration point than other inorganic materials in the
fuel. The alkali metal in biomass, potassium oxide
content is higher than sodium content for all of the
biomass. However, elements such as Al, Si and S
are able to trap alkalies, limiting the formation of
alkalichlorides. These elements (Al, Si and S) exist
naturally in coal and it is therefore favourable to
mix coal and biomass (Aho and Ferrer, 2005).
The use of coal, biomass or blended coal-biomass
as co-firing in coal fired boiler cannot be separated
with the fouling and slagging problems. Slagging
occurs in boiler furnaces where ash deposits are
exposed to the radiant heat of the coal flames,
while fouling occurs in the boilers convective
passes. The process of slagging is closely related
to that of fouling. Slagging refers to deposition of
solid layers on the boiler tube, formed by sintering.
Slagging is quite hard to remove (although it is
sintered material) and also the slagging material
is usually still a good insulator. For these reasons,
most modern sootblowing systems are aimed at
prevention of slagging.
Fouling occurs in the colder section of the boiler
where inorganic volatiles condensate as com-
pounds on the colder tube surface forming a
deposit layer. Also particles in melt phase may hit
the tube, be cooled down to solid state and get
stuck on the tubes. The deposit layer may be po-
rous or it may be sintered to a hard and compact
layer as it interact with the surrounding gases or
with other components in the deposit layer. On
over time the deposit layer grows in thickness
and the temperature of outer surface increases
as the deposit itself insulates the cooler water or
steam inside the tube from the hotter flue gas.
The temperature will then eventually reach the

44
 Study on Ashes of Blended Coal-Biomass for Co-Firing System ... Ikin Sodikin and Datin F. Umar
melting point of at least some the constituents of
the deposit. This process gradually accelerates
nearly anything that hits the deposit on the tube
may get stuck. Ash particles in solid state as well
as small particles from the bed material in the
combustion chamber may then continue to build
up a thick deposit layer on the tubes. Thus the
surface temperature continues to increase and it
is possible that a larger part of the deposit is in the
molten phase increase and the deposit material
may start to flow. In the end the deposit becomes
so heavy that it falls off the tube under its own
weight. This process is called slagging.
The propensity of coal, biomass and blended
coal-biomass for producing slagging and fouling
deposits based on the results of either ash fusion
or chemical composition of the ash depends on
its ash content commontly the ratio of the base
metal oxide (Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O and K2O)
to the acidic oxide (SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2). From
the results of ash composition analyses of coal
and biomasses and the calculated ash composi-
tion of blended coal-biomass, it was found that
all of the ash type is lignite type. Therefore the
calculation to predict the propensity of slagging
following the formula:
((max HT) + 4 (min IT))
Slagging Index: ,
5 It is to be considered that during combustion in
(www.bisyplan.bioenarea.eu)
Where max HT is the highest value of the he-
misphere ash fusion temperature under reducing
or oxidising conditions and min IT is the lowest
initial deformation temperature under reducing or
oxidising conditions.
In most of biomass materials, potassium tends to
be the dominant alkali metal, and this is generally
released by volatilaization (Stams et al, 2009).
Therefore, the fouling index that have been de-
veloped for the assesment of biomass material
tendency, the total alkali metal content of the bio-
mass is a governing factor (Sandberg, 2007).
Fouling Index (Rf) of biomass and blended coal-
biomass:
Base/acid x (% Na2O+%K2O)
Fouling Index (Rf) of Coal:
Base/acid x % Na2O
For blended two types of coal or blended coal-
biomass for co-firing sytem, the AFT cannot be
calculated directly according to the weight ratio of
each material. Therefore the AFT had been tested
in which the blended coal-biomass sample ratios
were prepared according to the experimental
design as described in Table 1. The results of
the ash fusion temperature test are presented
in Table 4.
The ash softening temperature (ST) is the tem-
perature at which the ash softens and becomes
plastic. This is somewhat below the melting point
of ash. All of the biomasses show that the ST are
higher than that of the coal. The best is the rice
husk where the ST was >1,500C. The design of
steam generator greatly depends on the ash ST of
the fuel. If the furnace temperature is higher than
the ash ST, the ash will melt and would come out
of the furnace bottom continuously as molten slag.
For furnace that would discharge ash in the solid
form, as high as softening temperature would be
required. A stoker furnace must use coal with a
high ash ST otherwise clinkers would be formed.
Clinkers which are large masses of fused ash,
cause troubles in discharging and also make inef-
ficient combustion. Therefore the ash ST ought to
be more than 1,150C.
pulverized (PF) boilers and in (circulating fluid-
ized bed combustion (CFBC) boilers the furnace
temperatures during combustion are different. In
PF boilers, the average furnace temperature at the
combustion is about 1,400 to 1,600C, where in
CFBC boilers the furnace bed temperature is 880
to 940C. From Table 4, ash fusion temperature in
any fuel was greater than 1,000C. So in PF boil-
ers, the ash fusion temperature will be achieved,
and it is known that clinkers will be also formed,
and these clinkers could be collected in the bot-
tom ash hopper. In case of CFBC boilers, the
temperature is below the ash fusion temperature
of the fuels, so that the bed temperature could not
increase beyond the ash fusion temperature.
The coal used in this research has AFT of soften-
ing temperature in oxidation condition (ST-ox) of
1,228C, while the biomasses of baggase, straw
and rice husk, blended coal with baggase of
95%-5% has the highest ST-ox of 1,225C. The
blend of coal and straw resulting the highest ST-
ox of 1240C at 95%-5%, while the blend of coal
and rice husk, the highest ST-ox of 1,235C was
reached at the proportion of coal and rice husk
45
 Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, February 2013 : 37 - 48

at 90%-10%. The slaging and fouling indexes
related to the slagging and fouling types tend to
produce slaging and fouling in coal fired boiler
as presented in Table 5. While Table 6 shows the
fouling and slagging indexes of the coal, biomass
and blended coal-biomass.
As presented in Table 6, according to empirical
approach by traditional methods based on the use
of simple slagging and fouling indexes using the
data normaly available on fuel specification, i.e.
the ash chemical composition and the ash fusion
temperature, the tendency to produce slagging

Table 5. Slagging and fouling index

Sample mark Composition of coal Composition of baggase

CB-1 95% 5%
CB-2 90% 10%
CB-3 85% 15%
CB-4 80% 20%
Sample mark Composition of coal Composition of straw
CS-1 95% 5%
CS-2 90% 10%
CS-3 85% 15%
CS-4 80% 20%
Sample mark Composition of coal Composition of rice husk
CRH-1 95% 5%
CRH-2 90% 10%
CRH-3 85% 15%
CRH-4 80% 20%

Table 6. The propensity to slaging and fouling of the coal, biomass and blended coal-biomass

Sample mark Basic/acid ratio Slagging Fouling

Index, C Category Index Category
Coal 0.36 1,093 Severe 0.14 Low
Baggase 0.21 1,204 High 1.69 Severe
Straw 0.03 1,315 Medium 0.07 Low
Rice Husks 0.16 >1,500 Low 1.49 Severe
CB-1 0.36 1,159 High 0.46 Medium
CB-2 0.35 1,131 Severe 0.57 High
CB-3 0.34 1,131 Severe 0.68 High
CB-4 0.33 1,125 Severe 0.78 High
CS-1 0.34 1,133 Severe 0.34 Medium
CS-2 0.32 1,210 High 0.34 Medium
CS-3 0.32 1,193 High 0.32 Medium
CS-4 0.28 1,187 High 0.32 Medium
CRH-1 0.35 1,172 High 0.48 Medium
CRH-2 0.34 1,135 Severe 0.60 High
CRH-3 0.33 1,134 Severe 0.72 High
CRH-4 0.32 1,155 High 0.83 High

46
 Study on Ashes of Blended Coal-Biomass for Co-Firing System ... Ikin Sodikin and Datin F. Umar
and fouling were mostly high and severe. For
co-firing system between coal and biomass, the
propensity of the coal to produce slagging was
categorized as severe eventhough the slagging
was low. While the rice husk has the lowest pro-
pensity to the slagging, but severe to be fouling
due to the high total alkali metal content. Ac-
cording to the slaging and fouling propensity, the
best material to be blended with coal for co-firing
system in coal fired boiler is straw compared to
that of baggase and rice husk. The composition of
coal 90%, 85% and 80% and 10%, 15% and 20%
of straw respectively, best slagging and fouling
propensity are obtained eventhough categorized
as high slagging and medium fouling.
Based on these results, the control of slagging
and fouling in a boiler is a fairly complex issue,
involving fuel diet, boiler design and operational
factors. The key factors are (Sandberg, 2007):
- The careful design of the furnace and boiler
convective section, which recognises properly
the characteristics and behaviour of the fuel
ashes.
- The incorporation of specific furnace and
boiler design features, where appropriate, to
minimise ash deposition, to aid the removal
of ash, and to avoid the accumulation within
the system.
- The correct design, operation and mainte-
nance of the combustion equipment.
- The intensive cleaning of the furnace and
boiler surfaces.
CONCLUSION
The coal used in this research is categorized as
subbituminous coal with a calorific value of 5,067
cal/g and the AFT of softening temperature in
oxidation condition(ST-ox) is 1,228 C, while the
biomass used were baggase, straw and rice husk
with the calorific values of 4,144; 3,545; 3,301
cal/g and the ST-ox of 1,303; 1,420 and >1,500
C, respectively. Experimental results for some
varieties of fuel blends indicate that the proportion
of coal and baggase of 95%-5% has the highest
ST-ox of 1,225 C. The blend of coal and straw re-
sulting the highest ST-ox of 1,240 C at 95%-5%,
while the blend of coal and rice husk, the highest
ST-ox of 1,235 C was reached at the proportion
of coal and rice husk at 90%-10%. According to
the slagging and fouling index, blended coal and
straw shows the best performace compared to
that of blended coal either with baggase or rice
husk. To avoid the accumulation of ash deposits
in the boiler due to the high slagging and fouling
index of the fuels, the correct operation and main-
tenance of the combustion equipment should be
closely controlled.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the contri-
bution of the tekMIRA coal utilization group. The
authors also gratefully acknowledge financial and
other support for this work that was provided by
the Republic of Indonesias Government.
REFERENCES
Adisoma, G.S., 2013. Low rank coal potential and
clean technology development, the 4th Indonesia-
Thailand Energy Forum, May 23-24 2013, Kuta,
Bali., 19 p.
Aho, M. and Ferrer E, 2005. Importance of coal ash
composition in protecting the boiler against chlo-
rine deposition during combustion of chlorine-rich
biomass, Fuel, 84, p. 201-212.
Barroso, J., Barreras F., Amaveda, H. and Lozano, A.,
2003. On the optimization of boiler efficiency using
bagasse as fuel, Fuel, 82, p. 1451-1463.
Belonio, A., Ocon, V. and Co, A., 2011. Small-scale rice
husk gasifier plant for community street lighting,
Brochure of Garbage-In Fuel-Out (GIFO) Project
Suki Trading Corporation, Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu,
Philippines.
Carroll, A. and Somerville, C., 2009. Cellulosic biofuels,
Annual Review of Plant Biology 2009, Vol. 60, p.
165-182.
Evald, A., 2011. Biomass statistics: Straw, Danish
Energy Agency, FORCE Technology, 5th Edition,
October 2011, 7 p.
Mentz, K., Pinkerton, J., and Louch, J., 2005. Potential
mercury and hydrochloric acid emissions from
wood fuels. Forest Products Journal. 55 (2), p.
46-50.
Nicholls, D. and Zerbe, J., 2012. Co-firing biomass and
coal for fossil fuel reduction and other benefits
Status of North American facilities in 2010, United
States Department of Agriculture Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station General Tech-
nical Report PNW-GTR-867.
47
 Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 1, February 2013 : 37 - 48
Radke, B., 2012. Sugarcane bagasse ash waste, Inter-
nal Report of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Nevada, Las Vegas UNICAMP, Brazil
June 5, 2012, 16 p.
Sami, M., Annamalai, K., and Wooldridge, M., 2001. Co-
firing of coal and biomass fuel, Progress in Energy
and Combustion Science 27, p. 171214.
Sandberg, J., 2007. Fouling in biomass fired boiler.
Malardaren university press licentiate theses, no.
75, Department of Public Technology, Malardaren
University, 54 p.
Sodikin, I., 2013. Pembakaran bersama tepung batu-
bara dan serbuk gergaji menggunakan pembakar
siklon sederhana untuk industri kecil menengah,
Jurnal Teknologi Mineral dan Batubara, vol. 09, no.
02, Bandung, hal. 108-117.
48
Speight, J., 2005. Handbook of coal analysis, A John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication Copyright 2005 by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey,
p.1-222.
Stams, A.F., Livingstone WR., Gremers MFG., and
Brem G., 2009. Review of model and tools for slag-
ging and fouling prediction for biomas co combus-
tion, Workshop on High cofiring percentages in new
coal fired power plants, Hamburg, 18 p.
www.bisyplan.bioenarea.eu/ash_appendix.pdf, ac-
cessed on 27 August 2013, 9 p.
Yahaya, D.B. and Ibrahim, T.G. 2012. Development
of rice husk briquettes for use as fuel, Research
Journal in Engineering and Applied Sciences 1(2),
p. 130-133.