Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Individual Behavior in Organization: Pom Study Materials: Unit-5 Citizen/ PU
Individual Behavior in Organization: Pom Study Materials: Unit-5 Citizen/ PU
Individual Behavior in Organization: Pom Study Materials: Unit-5 Citizen/ PU
PU
Human behavior is complex and every individual is different from another, the
challenge of an effective organization is in successfully matching the task, the
manager and the subordinate. Under ideal situation, a manager would first
analyze the task, then determine the required skills and assemble a team that
complement each other skills; thereby creating an enriching & conflict free team.
In reality, a manager has to use the existing resources for a given task, and must
have the ability to understand the differences in individual behaviors and use
them appropriately to increase the synergy. In order to understand individual
behavior and personalities, it is important to understand the basics of human
cognition.
The stimuli demands some action (even the decision to ignore the stimuli is an
action), the perceived stimuli combined with a set of related and abstracted
experiences forms the initial input to the minds analytical process. This input is
also influenced by the emotional and rational factors which in turn depend upon
individuals values and beliefs. The other two important parameters are the
desired outcome and the required response time to the stimuli. At the center of
the analytical mind is a myriad of cognitive processes that operate sequentially
or in parallel, in complex permutations in order to satisfy these primary
constraints. The consequence of this entire cognitive activity is a response to the
environmental stimuli, which is the observed as the behavior of the individual.
Persons thought process is an internal activity while the behavior can be
observed. Finally, the resulting behavior is feed backed into the memory; it
modifies the existing perceptual knowledge, seeds a new one or the stimuli and
its response is simply ignored.
Although, research concludes that men and women are equal in their mental
abilities and job performance, society does emphasize differences. However,
absenteeism is one area where differences are found and can be attributed to
being primary caregiver to children. However, this creates a difference in self
perception of ones abilities, personal values and social behavior. Similarly, a
managers personal values might influence how he considers gender as factor in
his task assignment and evaluation.
Race
Race and culture exert significant influence when both workplace and society
have considerable diversity. Stereotyping and attributing behavior based on race
and culture are common mistakes that influence individual behavior. It is
important for both management and the staff of diverse workforce to learn about
different cultures, their values, common artifacts and communication protocols.
This would create a more comfortable corporate culture and would subdue
behaviors that might be perceived as insensitive and offensive.
Perception
Perception is the basic cognitive process that transforms sensory stimuli into
meaningful information. Most real life problems are multidimensional and the
rational approach is often entwined with the gut feeling, resulting in individual
perception. This quells the famous notion that reality is objective and thus
everyone must perceive it the same way. Both managers and subordinates must
recognize that perceptual differences exist and often are the reason for mutual
dissatisfaction.
Stereotyping: It is categorization of individuals on basis of single attribute, it
ends up creating a generalized and simplified belief that do not take into account
other significant characteristics. Age, race and sex are the three most common
basis of stereotyping; not only they are unethical but can cost missing resources.
In general, stereotyping leads to decisions that are based on inaccurate data that
can result in unfair performance evaluations, job design or promotion.
Selective Perception: It is the process of selecting only the information that
supports our pre-existing belief system, thereby eliminating the discomforting
information. Selective perception acts like a catalyst to stereotyping because
people tend to notice things that fit their existing notion and not notice things
that dont.
Both stereotyping and selective perception can be beneficial only by chance
since they are based on partial information. The specific situations in which they
can be positively exploited cannot be used as reliable methods.
Attribution
Attribution is the process of observing behavior and then determining its cause
based on individuals personality or situation. Attribution based on personality is
due to internal causes and is termed as dispositional attribution. It includes
LEADERSHIP
Leadership has been described as the process of social influence in which one
person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a
common task".
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal". The leader may
or may not have any formal authority. Leadership is a process of getting things done
through people. Leadership is not a science. So being a leader is an adventure
because you can never be sure whether you will reach your goal. Leadership
means responsibility. It's adventure and often fun, but it always means
responsibility. The leader is the guy the others look forward to get the job done.
A leader works with two things: a job and a group. You can always tell when a
leader succeeds, because:
1. The job gets done.
2. The group holds together.
Leadership is not magic that comes out of a leader's head. It's skill. The leader
learns how to get the job done and still keep the group together.
Does this mean that the leader does the same things in every situation? No.
Here's why.
Leadership differs with the leader, the group, and the situation.
Leaders -- like other people are all different. No leader can take over another
leader's job and do it the same way.
Groups are different, too. A great football coach might have difficulty leading an
orchestra. A good sergeant might be a poor Scoutmaster. So when a leader
changes groups, he changes the way he leads.
Situations differ, too. The same leader with the same group must change with
conditions. A fellow leading a group discussion needs to change his style of
leadership when a fire breaks out. As a Scout leader, you probably can't lead the
group in the rain the same as you do in the sunshine.
An effective leader, then, must be alert at all times to the reaction of the
members of the group; the conditions in which he may find himself; and be aware
of his own abilities and reactions.
NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
Are leaders born or are they made? There is evidence to prove that there is a
Personality Profile that exists in successful leaders, whether born or made. In fact
there are 5 specific Personality Traits that define the nature of a Leader. A
dynamic Leader is someone who is willing to lead and has the social ability, self
confidence, assertiveness and boldness to take on team responsibilities and Lead
others.
These profiles can be tested and proven. A successful leader will test extremely
high in areas of Social Ability, Self Confidence, Assertiveness, and Boldness.
Leadership itself is another Personality Trait that comes into play.
LEADERS vs MANAGERS
business". At first glance, this definition might be mistaken for that of a leader. A
leader however is defined as "a person in control of a group, country or
situation". Both of these definitions describe each role as being controlling;
however, there are distinct differences.
This is not to say that leaders are not doers. They work very hard to reach their
position of power, but leaders tend to be more charismatic big thinkers. Leaders
normally hire managers to carry out the tasks of their vision. It's a manager's
responsibility to make sure that all of the details of a specific vision, idea or
concept are handled whether they do the work themselves or delegate some of it
to their subordinates.
Managers are usually limited to the type or amount of decisions they can make
before approval from a superior is required. Even then, those decisions usually
only affect the immediate people or department the manager is responsible for.
Leaders on the other hand, have the ability to make key decisions large and small
that may affect the entire organization without approval from anyone.
Often times, managers are in their positions for a short amount of time. This is
because they are working their way up the corporate ladder and may be
promoted. Another reason is because they see greener pastures somewhere else
and transfer their skills and knowledge to another company.
Leaders are usually in it for the long haul. Whether they worked their way up
from the bottom or started the company from the ground up, leaders generally
have a vested amount of time and effort in a company. Most leaders do not want
to throw away all of the blood, sweat and tears they put into an organization to
start over somewhere else. Many leaders, however, enter other ventures
There are some leaders who try to lead and manage at the same time but usually
not successfully. By trying to do everything, something is going to suffer. Do you
need management skills to be a leader? To a certain degree, I suppose. To be a
good leader you need to be able to manage ideas and be organized enough to
put the people in place that will help you be successful.
Do you need leadership skills to be a manager? Sadly, the answer is no. There
are many managers in the corporate world who have no leadership ability. Many
pass on their work to their employees and cower when problems arise. Many
employees go over their heads to get answers because they make themselves
unavailable or impossible to communicate with. These managers will probably
not go on to be company leaders. There are some managers though, that their
employees aspire to be and their bosses would trust their lives with; leaders in
their own right who rise to the challenge and go above and beyond the call of
duty. These managers are incredibly valuable to any company and have a much
easier time getting promotions and recognition for their efforts.
FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP
The Leaders are the decision makers so they are free to take decision. But first of
all, they must consult with the team and then impose the decision. But there are
some points which are no liable to be consulted with staff. They are the principles
set by the organization and governing the code of conduct. The most important
quality of the Leadership is to assess the performance of the Organization and
Reputation among the public. If the organization is an educational Institute, then
it must sustain its standard and provide quality education along with talented
scholars. The leadership functions also contains alignment of organizational
practices with values and Vision. This mean that the Organization must follow
values and the Vision .The Leader can alter Organizational practices and
standards so as to make them suitable for the people to adapt and avail. He
takes initiative for the improvement of the intuition and its products. He also
facilitate s the quality interactions among the staff as well as the general public
or consumers.
A business tool that describes the three core roles of leadership as overlapping
and interdependent spheres. The models 3 spheres are: achieving the task,
building and maintaining the team, and developing the individual. These areas
are mutually dependant and equal. In addition to these three roles, Adair
identified eight vital leadership functions or behavior types. These functions are:
defining the task, planning, briefing, controlling, evaluating, motivating,
organizing and providing examples.
Achieving the task is dependent not only on a clear plan, but on individuals being
motivated and the group pulling together. The group can only effectively operate
if the task is achievable and well defined and the individuals are motivated. The
individuals development and motivation require the task to be clear and
achievable and the group to be supportive and effective. In this sense, each role
needs to be functioning effectively in order that the other two areas be satisfied.
To achieve this equilibrium, the leader must continually perform the eight
leadership functions:
1. Defining the task: This sets a clear objective allowing the group and the
individual to have a collective goal.
2. Planning: Both leader and team need to be aware of timescales and
responsibilities to achieve cohesion, efficiency and clarity of procedure.
4. Controlling: The leader needs to exercise self control, but also needs to
implement effective control systems on the group and individuals. This
ensures standards are met to achieve the task, and builds confidence in the
leadership capabilities from the individuals and teams.
The model demonstrates the unity of leadership and shows how acting on any
one of the eight functions or behaviors by the leader has a knock-on effect across
the three core areas. The tool provides an integrated approach to leadership and
is relevant for all team members and leaders.
STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
There are many ways to lead and every leader has his or her own style. Some of
the more common styles include autocratic, bureaucratic, democratic, and
laissez-faire.
--Autocratic
--Bureaucratic
--Laissez-faire
--Democratic
This is often considered the classical approach. It is one in which the manager
retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager
does not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees
are expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations. The motivation
environment is produced by creating a structured set of rewards and
punishments.
This leadership style has been greatly criticized during the past 30 years. Some
studies say that organizations with many autocratic leaders have higher turnover
and absenteeism than other organizations. Certainly Gen X employees have
proven to be highly resistant to this management style. These studies say that
autocratic leaders:
Yet, autocratic leadership is not all bad. Sometimes it is the most effective style
to use. These situations can include:
--New, untrained employees who do not know which tasks to perform or which
procedures to follow
--Effective supervision can be provided only through detailed orders and
instructions
--Employees do not respond to any other leadership style
--There are high-volume production needs on a daily basis
--There is limited time in which to make a decision
--A manager's power is challenged by an employee
--The area was poorly managed
--Work needs to be coordinated with another department or organization
Democratic leadership can produce high quality and high quantity work for long
periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with
cooperation, team spirit, and high morale. Typically the democratic leader:
Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most
successful when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when
implementing operational changes or resolving individual or group problems.
The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the "hands-off style. It is one
in which the manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as much
freedom as possible. All authority or power is given to the employees and they
must determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.
While the proper leadership style depends on the situation, there are three other
factors that also influence which leadership style to use.
3. The company. The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the company
will influence how a manager acts.
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.
Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between
leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such
as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories
have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
The great man theory of leadership became popular during the 19th-century. The
mythology behind some of the world's most famous leaders such as Abraham
Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, and Alexander the Great helped
contribute to the notion that great leaders are born and not made. In many
examples, it seems as if the right man for the job seems to emerge almost
magically to take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or
success.
Historian Thomas Carlyle also had a major influence on this theory of leadership,
at one point stating that, "The history of the world is but the biography of great
men." According to Carlyle, effective leaders are those gifted with divine
inspiration and the right characteristics.
Some of the earliest research on leadership looked at people who were already
successful leaders. These individuals often included aristocratic rulers who
achieved their position through birthright. Because people of a lesser social
status had fewer opportunities to practice and achieve leadership roles, it
contributed to the idea that leadership is an inherent ability.
Even today, people often describe prominent leaders as having the right qualities
or personality for the position, implying that inherent characteristics are what
make these people effective leaders.
2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people
inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership.
The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the
study of personality. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are
composed broad dispositions. Consider how you would describe the personality of
a close friend. Chances are that you would list a number of traits, such as
outgoing, kind and even-tempered. A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable
characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.
A new trait theory often referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged. This five-
factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to form human
personality. While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each
dimension, the following are described most commonly:
1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness
4. Neuroticism
5. Openness
3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the
environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best
suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all
situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership
style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based
upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate
for certain types of decision-making.
5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are
made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the
actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this
theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
(Ohio State University and Michigan University studies are discussed later)
6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one
that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation
and contributions from group members and help group members feel more
relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories,
however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
7. Management Theories:
Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of
supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership
on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in
business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail,
they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theories of transactional
leadership.
8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the
connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders
motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and
higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group
members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with
this style often have high ethical and moral standards.
As leadership studies that were aimed at identifying the appropriate traits didn't
yield any conclusive results, a group of people from Ohio State University
developed a list of 150 statements from their generated responses that included
1,800 hundred statements. The list was designed to measure nine different
behavioral leadership dimensions. The resulting questionnaire is now well-known
as the LBDQ or the Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire.
As part of the study, the LBDQ was administered to various groups of individuals
ranging from college students and their administrators, private companies
including military personnel. One of the primary purposes of the study was to
identify common leadership behaviors. After compiling and analyzing the results,
the study led to the conclusion that there were two groups of behaviors that were
strongly correlated. These were defined as Consideration (People Oriented
behavioral Leaders) and Initiating Structure (Task Oriented Leaders).
Initiating
Organizing
Clarifying
Information Gathering
Encouraging
Observing
Listening
Lead by the famous organizational psychologist, Dr. Rensis Likert, the leadership
studies at the University of Michigan identified three characteristics of effective
leadership; two of which were previously observed in studies that had been
conducted at Ohio State University. The study showed that task- and relationship-
oriented behaviors weren't of major significance within the world of
organizational psychology. However it was the third observation that introduced a
new concept, one of participative leadership!
Highly
< Not participative
participative >
Leader Team
proposes proposes Joint Full
Autocratic
decision, decision, decision delegation
decision by
listens to leader has with team as of decision
leader
feedback, final equals to team
then decides decision
Leaders trait
In order to assess the attitudes of the leader, Fiedler developed the least
preferred co-worker (LPC) scale in which the leaders are asked about the person
with whom they least like to work. The scale is a questionnaire consisting of 16
items used to reflect a leaders underlying disposition toward others. The items in
the LPC scale are pleasant / unpleasant, friendly / unfriendly, rejecting /
accepting, unenthusiastic / enthusiastic, tense / relaxed, cold / warm,
Friendly Unfriendly
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Fiedler states that leaders with high LPC scores are relationship-oriented and the
ones with low scores are task-oriented. The high LPC score leaders derived most
satisfaction from interpersonal relationships and therefore evaluate their least
preferred co-workers in fairly favorable terms. These leaders think about the task
accomplishment only after the relationship need is well satisfied. On the other
hand, the low LPC score leaders derived satisfaction from performance of the task
and attainment of objectives and only after tasks have been accomplished, these
leaders work on establishing good social and interpersonal relationships.
Situational factor
Leadership Effectiveness
favorable situation is when leader-member relations are good, the task is highly
structured, and the leader has a strong position power.
Research on the contingency model has shown that task-oriented leaders are
more effective in highly favorable (1, 2, 3) and highly unfavorable situation (7, 8),
whereas relationship-oriented leaders are more effective in situations of
intermediate favorableness (4, 5, 6).
Fiedler also suggested that leaders may act differently in different situations.
Relationship-oriented leaders generally display task-oriented behaviors under
highly favorable situations and display relationship-oriented behaviors under
unfavorable intermediate favorable situations. Similarly, task-oriented leaders
frequently display task-oriented in unfavorable or intermediate favorable
situations but display relationship-oriented behaviors in favorable situations.
Leadership Styles
Directive: Here the leader provides guidelines, lets subordinates know what is
expected of them, sets performance standards for them, and controls behavior
when performance standards are not met. He makes judicious use of rewards and
disciplinary action. The style is the same as task-oriented one.
Supportive: The leader is friendly towards subordinates and displays personal
concern for their needs, welfare, and well-being. This style is the same as people-
oriented leadership.
According to the theory, these leadership styles are not mutually excusive and
leaders are capable of selecting more than one kind of a style suited for a
particular situation.
Contingencies
The theory states that each of these styles will be effective in some situations but
not in others. It further states that the relationship between a leaders style and
effectiveness is dependent on the following variables:
Conclusion
The theory has been subjected to empirical testing in several studies and has
received considerable research support. This theory consistently reminds the
leaders that their main role as a leader is to assist the subordinates in defining
their goals and then to assist them in accomplishing those goals in the most
efficient and effective manner. This theory gives a guide map to the leaders
about how to increase subordinates satisfaction and performance level.
MOTIVATION
Motivation is a term that refers to a process that elicits, controls, and sustains
certain behaviors. For instance: An individual has not eaten, he or she feels
hungry, as a response he or she eats and diminishes feelings of hunger.
According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a basic need to
minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific
needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being,
ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism,
selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality. Conceptually, motivation
should not be confused with either volition or optimism. Motivation is
related to, but distinct from, emotion.
Nearly all the conscious behavior of human being is motivated. The internal
needs and drives lead to tensions, which in turn result into actions. The need for
food results into hunger and hence a person is motivated to eat.
What is motivation?
interest. The concept of motivation is situational and its level varies between
different individuals and at different times. If you understand what motivates
people, you have at your command the most powerful tool for dealing with them.
Defining motivation
Motivation is a general term applied to the entire class of drives, desires, needs,
wishes and similar forces. To say that managers motivate their subordinates is to
say that they do those things which they hope will satisfy these drives and
desires and induce the subordinates to act in a desired manner.
In the initiation a person starts feeling lack nesses. There is an arousal of need so
urgent, that the bearer has to venture in search to satisfy it. This leads to
creation of tension, which urges the person to forget everything else and cater to
the aroused need first. This tension also creates drives and attitudes regarding
the type of satisfaction that is desired. This leads a person to venture into the
search of information. This ultimately leads to evaluation of alternatives where
the best alternative is chosen. After choosing the alternative, an action is taken.
Because of the performance of the activity satisfaction is achieved which than
relieves the tension in the individual.
In short, all people have needs that they want satisfied. Some are primary needs,
such as those for food, sleep, and waterneeds that deal with the physical
aspects of behavior and are considered unlearned. These needs are biological in
nature and relatively stable. Their influences on behavior are usually obvious and
hence easy to identify.
Secondary needs, on the other hand, are psychological, which means that they
are learned primarily through experience. These needs vary significantly by
culture and by individual. Secondary needs consist of internal states, such as the
desire for power, achievement, and love. Identifying and interpreting these needs
is more difficult because they are demonstrated in a variety of ways. Secondary
needs are responsible for most of the behavior that a supervisor is concerned
with and for the rewards a person seeks in an organization.
In his theory, Maslow identified five levels of human needs. Table 1 illustrates
these five levels and provides suggestions for satisfying each need.
Participation in decision
making
Pleasant supervisor
Job security
Although research has not verified the strict deficit and progression principles of
Maslow's theory, his ideas can help managers understand and satisfy the needs
of employees.
In his two-factor theory, Herzberg identifies two sets of factors that impact
motivation in the workplace:
Existence needs are desires for physiological and material well-being. (In
terms of Maslow's model, existence needs include physiological and safety
needs)
Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
(In terms of Maslow's model, relatedness correspondence to social needs)
This approach proposes that unsatisfied needs motivate behavior, and that as
lower level needs are satisfied, they become less important. Higher level needs,
though, become more important as they are satisfied, and if these needs are not
met, a person may move down the hierarchy, which Alderfer calls the frustration-
regression principle. What he means by this term is that an already satisfied
lower level need can become reactivated and influence behavior when a higher
level need cannot be satisfied. As a result, managers should provide
opportunities for workers to capitalize on the importance of higher level needs.
McClelland associates each need with a distinct set of work preferences, and
managers can help tailor the environment to meet these needs.
Set moderately challenging goals and perform best when they perceive
their probability of success as 50-50
Tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others
than with effective performance
People with the need for affiliation seek companionship, social approval, and
satisfying interpersonal relationships. People needing affiliation display the
following behaviors:
May not make the best managers because their desire for social approval
and friendship may complicate managerial decision making
Interestingly enough, a high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a
good manager, especially in large organizations. People with high achievement
needs are usually interested in how well they do personally and not in influencing
others to do well. On the other hand, the best managers are high in their needs
for power and low in their needs for affiliation.
Flexible working time....Two types of working table can be used. The first
fixed time working and second flexible working time. The working time from
9 am to 4 pm is called fix time working. Most of the countries of the world
use this type of time. But using this working time, employees cannot get
time to pay electricity tariff, children's fee to school, post office to drop the
letters, draw money from bank etc. So the employees should be given the
facility to reach office earlier in morning and leave it before office time or
reach late in the morning and work there even after the office time or use
the long break for such private work and work in the office up to late
evening. If such facility is given they need to take leave and can do their
private work.
2. Self managed team: The tea formed without formal supervision is called
self managed team. The duties, authorities and responsibility of the
members of such organization are not formally defined. The leadership of
such team is held on the basis of personal charisma. The member of the
team work with discipline and become goal oriented. They have high
morale. They utilize the freedom to use to show their ability. Self managed
team is a group of 10 to 15 employees. They have responsibility of planning
and scheduling of work, task assignment to members, taking action to
solve problems, decision making about operation and collective control
over performance. The characteristics of such team are....
The team becomes responsible for the whole work.
The member becomes gifted with various qualities and skills.
Self managed team is spontaneously formed. The team members get opportunity
to show their efficiency and skill in performance.
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