TELEPROTEO PARA

LINHAS DE TRANSMISSO

ANEXO 1

Telecommunications channels are routinely established between protection systems at

either end of a line, in order to achieve the following performance criteria:
Rapid and simultaneous tripping at all terminals of the line for faults occurring at any
location along the line.
Absolute selectivity, i.e. fast tripping is only executed for faults occurring between the
terminals of the protected line, while maintaining stability in the case of external faults.

4.1.1.3 OPTICAL FIBRE

Fibre optic technology offers huge advantages to power utility communication in terms
of:
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Natural isolation
High bandwidth
Multiple strands of fibre are normally run together and integrated into the ground wires
of overhead power lines (called Optical Ground Wire or OPGW). Alternatively, helical
wrapping of the fibre optic cable around a ground or phase wire may be preferred.
Optical fibre consists of an optical core surrounded by optical cladding material, the
cladding having a lower refractive index than the core. Various types of glass or plastic
may be used, however, silica glass dominates in telecommunication applications. The
optical transmitters consist of light-emitting diodes (LED) or laser diodes (LD); while
receivers use photodiodes or phototransistors.
Light propagates along the core in one of three transmission modes, depending on the
type and diameter of core material used, as illustrated in Figure 4.1.
In multimode stepped index fibre, light is guided along the core by multiple reflections
at the core boundary. The reflections cause pronounced dispersion of the transmitted
signal and stepped index fibre is consequently very limited in terms of the bit rate and
transmission distance that can be achieved. Multimode graded index fibre achieves
lower dispersion by using a core material with a variable refractive index. Light is
refracted by an increasing amount as it approaches the core boundary, causing it to
bend smoothly rather than reflecting abruptly off the cladding. These fibres also have
limited usefulness in direct end-to-end teleprotection applications because of their
limited range of typically 1 or 2 km. However, they are commonly applied in line
protection applications for short runs across the substation to connect the protection
device to a telecommunications network multiplexer (see 4.1.2.2).

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Core diameters of 50 m and 62.5 m are common for multimode graded index fibre,
with 125 m cladding, the fibres then being classed 50/125 m and 62.5/125 m types.
In single mode or mono mode fibre, the core diameter is approximately equivalent to
one wavelength (typically 8-10 m) and light propagates along a single, dispersionless
path, enabling data rates of some gigabits per second to be achieved. Single mode fibre
is commonly applied, using more expensive LD transmitters, for direct end-to-end line
protection applications, supporting transmission distances of tens of km over 9/125 m
or 10/125 m fibre. Optical repeaters or amplifiers are required for very long
transmission lines of hundreds of km.
Infrared light, at certain optimal wavelengths, is generally used. Fibre absorption is
minimal for 1550 nm light and dispersion is minimal around 1310 nm. These are
consequently the wavelengths used for longer distance applications, often with LD
transmitters. A local absorption minimum occurs at around 850 nm, a wavelength for
which low cost transmitters and receivers can be designed, and this wavelength is often
used for short distance applications with multimode fibre. The speed of light in fibre is
around 200000 km/s, or 70% of that in air, giving a propagation time of approximately
50 s for a 10 km run of fibre.
The actual distance that can be covered by a particular fibre optic link depends on the
types of transmitter and receiver module provided at either end and on the type of link
used. It can be determined by carrying out an optical budget calculation, which takes
into account the
optical transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity, the losses per km of fibre, and any
other losses caused by connectors and fibre splices.
There are various types of connectors used to terminate optical fibres which differ in
their dimensions and method of mechanical grip. The most common types are denoted
LC, FC, ST and SC. Fibres can be connected together either by the use of connectors or
by splicing their ends together.
The provision of dedicated fibre optic links is very attractive for line protection
applications because of the advantages mentioned previously. Furthermore, they provide
low and consistent propagation delays. However, the cost of dedicated links often

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cannot be justified due to the apparently inefficient use of bandwidth by the relatively
low data rates required by protection equipment.
The cost of multiplexed links, where the fibre connections are shared by a number of
applications may be easier to justify. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), whereby
signal channels from different applications are interleaved in time slots, has been most
commonly applied in the field of line protection communication. The available
bandwidth is divided into 64 kbit/s channels, each of which typically use an 8-bit A/D
conversion at a sampling rate of 8 kHz; the digital equivalent of a traditional voice
channel. The transmitted signal is known as a Pulse Code Modulated (PCM) signal, and
hence the current differential IEDs designed to operate over this type of link are often
referred to as PCM relays.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is an increasingly widely used technique in
fibre optic systems, in which channels are stacked at different wavelengths within a
single fibre.
The most advanced systems apply Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
to enable a very large number of channels (typically 40 or 80) to be carried by a single
link, enabling data rates in the Tbit/s range to be realised.
A more detailed description of multiplexing techniques can be found in [1].

4.1.1.4 MICROWAVE RADIO

Microwave radio channels have been established by various utilities for a number of
different purposes, including protection signalling, and they have the significant
advantage of being relatively immune to interference generated by the power network.
They operate in the frequency range between 400 MHz and 40 GHz and can achieve
transmission distances up to 100 km without the need for repeaters. Modern systems are
generally digital and highly bandwidth-efficient.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is routinely applied to combine a number of digital
channels onto an aggregate data stream.
Microwave radio systems are susceptible to signal degradation due to adverse weather
conditions or the presence of obstacles, and suffer multi-path fading as a result of
reflections.
Microwaves travel at the speed of light in air, resulting in faster propagation times than
those achieved with optical fibre, typically 33 s for a 10 km link.

4.1.1.5 SPREAD SPECTRUM RADIO

Spread spectrum technology uses Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) techniques
which allow multiple users to occupy the same frequency band. This is generally
applied in areas of the frequency spectrum reserved for unlicensed applications and
therefore no transmission licence is required, unlike traditional microwave radio
applications. It has found a number of application areas and has recently been applied to
line protection; however, field experience is limited as yet. A detailed review of this
technology and its application to protection is available in [7].

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4.1.1.6 TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Whereas it is generally considered preferable for line protection communications to be
carried between terminals over a dedicated point-to-point link; this is not always
practical or cost-effective in modern power systems. Not only is the provision of
dedicated links over long distances expensive; the relatively low data rate required by
line protection systems is an apparently inefficient use of the high communication
bandwidth that can be supported by fibre optic and microwave links. As described in
4.1.1.3 and 4.1.1.4 above, utilities have constructed privately owned multiplexed
systems in order to make better use of fibre optic or microwave technologies. An
alternative to the provision of a dedicated link is to make use of the services of public
carrier telecommunications companies.
Public telephone companies commonly provide access to digital channel services over
public data networks (PDN). Modern line protection systems and associated
teleprotection interfaces have been designed specifically to communicate over digital
networks.
Two generations of multiplexing structure, or digital hierarchies, can be identified as
the backbone technologies of modern digital networks.
Optical Fibre
Multi-mode, graded-index fibre provides sufficient range within the confines of the
substation, and local networks can be connected in star or ring configuration.
Local Area Network (LAN) technologies
Ethernet is an increasingly common LAN technology being applied in the substation
environment, bringing the advantages of high data rates and widely available network
components. The introduction of the UCA 2.0 and IEC 61850 standards for substation
communication has led to the provision of Ethernet ports on protection IEDs. Ethernet,
as standardised in IEEE 802.3, is a networking technology which uses the principle of
carrier sense multiple access / collision detection (CSMA/CD) by which devices share
the channel.
The physical Ethernet interfaces are commonly twisted-pair (10BaseT or 100BaseTX)
or fibre optic (10BaseFL or 100BaseFX), where the numbers 10 or 100 denote the
network transmission rate of 10 Mbit/s or 100 Mbit/s respectively. 1 Gbit/s and 10
Gbit/s Ethernet technologies are available, but have, as yet not been widely
implemented in protection IEDs.
Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology according to IEEE 802.11 has also been trialled for
use in substations but has also not been widely applied as yet.

4.2.2 COMMUNICATION STANDARDS AND PROTOCOLS

The most common communication standards and protocols which have been
implemented in protection IEDs are:
IEC 60870-5-103
IEC 60870-5-104
DNP 3.0
LON

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 SPA
Modbus
Profibus
UCA 2.0
IEC 61850
A description of these standards can be found in [10].
4.2.3 REMOTE ACCESS
Remote access to line protection IEDs, either for retrieval of stored data or for remote
settings change or control operations is achieved by one of a number of means.
4.2.3.1 MODEM ACCESS VIA TELEPHONE LINE
If a public telephone line is available in the substation then a commercially available
modem can be used to gain remote access to devices connected to a local network in the
substation on a dial-up basis. Protection IED manufacturers generally provide PC-based
software to facilitate this process.
4.2.3.2 ACCESS VIA SCADA / RTU AND SAS
Many utilities implement Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
for distributed measurement and control purposes. A remote terminal unit (RTU)
connects to the physical equipment in the substation and can access data stored by
protection IEDs, providing protocol conversion if necessary. Communication between
the RTU and SCADA master station (control centre) may be by modem connection;
radio link; or increasingly by incorporation into the utilitys wide area network (WAN)
infrastructure.
In larger substations the data concentrator function is often performed by a substation
automation system (SAS) consisting of a station computer which automatically gathers
data from all IEDs in the substation via a LAN. Communication with the remote control
centre is then performed by a router or gateway.
In the past, integration of protection devices into such systems has often been difficult
due to protocol issues and the devices often continued to have their own proprietary
access systems operating in parallel, particularly for data-intensive tasks such as settings
changes and disturbance record retrieval. More recently, new Ethernet-based protocols
such as IEC 61850 have enabled protection IEDs to be fully integrated into the SAS.
4.2.3.3 INTERNET / INTRANET ACCESS
IEDs fitted with web-server functionality can be accessed using a standard web-browser
programme via the utilitys intranet, or even over the internet. Data gathered in this way
from distributed devices may be used for a variety of purposes at the system level; and
has been applied for multi-terminal fault location and fault analysis purposes on
transmission lines [11].
4.3.2 EXTENSION OF IEC 61850 FOR COMMUNICATION OUTSIDE OF THE
SUBSTATION
IEC 61850, the international standard for substation communications, was originally
limited to use in the exchange of information between the devices of a substation
automation system.

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Subsequently, however, the concepts of IEC 61850 have been applied outside of the
substation in other utility installations such as distributed generation and renewable
energy plants, and it is increasingly being seen as the foundation for a more wide-
ranging standard for utility communications. Its title is changing to the more general
Communication networks and systems for power utility automation, and as part of
this process, IEC Technical Committee TC57 has initiated work towards creation of new
parts of IEC 61850 to define the use of the standard for communication between
substations [12], and for communication between substations and control centres [13],
parts 90-1 and 90-2 respectively.
IEC 61850 Part 90-1, under preparation at the time of writing, will standardize the
exchange of information which has previously been implemented using dedicated
communication links and proprietary protocols, for applications such as:
Line distance protection with teleprotection schemes
Directional comparison protection
Transfer tripping
Interlocking
Multi-phase auto-reclosing for parallel lines
Line current differential protection
Phase comparison protection
Multi-terminal fault location
This work is clearly of significance for line protection telecommunications.
IEC 61850 Part 90-2, also currently under preparation, will have a less direct impact on
line protection devices, but it is intended that the provision of direct and seamless access
from the control centre to the individual IEDs will bring efficiency benefits to data
management.
4.4 REFERENCES
[Main Ref.] Modern Techniques for Protecting and Monitoring of Transmission Lines
FINAL DRAFT (6) (14 July 2010) Working Group B5.07
[1] CIGR JWG 34/35.11, Protection Using Telecommunications, 2001
[2] IEEE PSRC WGH9, Digital Communications for Relay Protection
[3] CIGR SC34 WG01, Reliable Fault Clearance and Back-up Protection, 1997
[4] IEEE C37.114, Guide for Determining Fault Location on AC Transmission and
Distribution Lines
[5] H. Y. Li and P. A. Crossley, Optimum Message Transfer Rate for Distribution
Feeder
Protection Operating over Switched Telephone Networks, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol.17, No. 2, April 2002
[6] G. P. Baber, et al, Numerical Line Differential Protection over Metallic Pilot
Circuits, 15th International Conference on Power System Protection, Bled, Slovenia,
2006.

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[7] IEEE PSRC WGH2, Using Spread Spectrum Radio Communications for Power
System Protection Relaying Applications, 2005
[8] I. Hall, et al, New Line Current Differential Relays using GPS Synchronisation,
IEEE PES Bologna Power Tech, 2003
[9] IEEE Std C37.94, IEEE Standard for N Times 64 Kilobit Per Second Optical Fiber
Interfaces Between Teleprotection and Muliplexer Equipment, 2002
[10] CIGR SCB5 WG07, The Automation of New and Existing Substations: Why and
How, 2004
[11] K. Hamamatsu, et al, A New Approach to the Implementation of Intranet-Based
Measurement and Monitoring, IEE DPSP, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2001.
[12] IEC TC 57, 57/759/NP Use of IEC 61850 for the communication between
substations, 2005
[13] IEC TC 57, 57/760/NP Use of IEC 61850 for the communication between
substations and control centres, 2005

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5.3 DISTANCE PROTECTION
5.2.4 POLARISATION TECHNIQUES
Directional determination is accomplished by comparing the current with a
reference. The reference is typically a voltage, but may also be a dual polarization
source (current and/or voltage) depending on the switchgear available. Directionality
enhances the ability of an overcurrent function to determine if a fault is within its zone
of protection, permitting the function to be set more sensitively than traditional non-
directional elements. The time coordination is also improved as it need only be
coordinated in one direction.
Negative and zero sequence quantities are usually only present in substantial levels
during unbalanced faulted conditions on a power system, when the positive sequence
voltage is likely to be corrupted. Zero sequence quantities are associated with the
unbalanced conditions due to ground faults and can be used to detect phase-to-
ground and phase-to-phase-to-ground faults. Hence, the most common methods of earth
fault polarisation use the zero sequence voltage or the transformer neutral current;
however, negative sequence quantities are also used.
Protection IEDs extract phasors from the measured voltages and currents and
determine the direction based on the sign of the angle between the operating
quantity (e.g. residual current) and the reference quantity (e.g. V0). E.g. the fault is
declared in the forward direction for a positive angle or in the reverse direction for a
negative angle.
5.2.4.1 ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE POLARIZATION
The zero sequence voltage polarization technique measures the angle difference
between V0 at the protection location and the residual current (3I0) flowing in the
transmission line.
The V0 at the protection location will vary depending on the zero sequence sources of
the system, the line impedance, fault type and location.
Zero sequence voltage is typically obtained from a set of open-delta connected VT
secondary windings. IEDs may also calculate the V0 quantity internally as the
summation of the three phase voltage measurements.
V0 must exceed a certain minimum threshold above the measuring errors of the
device and VTs to act as a stable angle reference for polarizing. Where insufficient
voltage is available, then another polarization quantity should be used.
5.2.4.2 ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT POLARIZATION
Zero-sequence current polarization may be used if there is a ground current source
at the bus, such as the current measured in a transformer neutral-to-ground
connection. However, the polarizing zero sequence current must flow in the same
direction relative to the fault current in the protected line for all line faults for this
method to be accurate.
Polarization is achieved by comparing the angle between the residual current
flowing in the line (3I0) with the transformer neutral current. The transformer
neutral current will flow in the same direction as the line residual current for a forward
fault, and in the opposite direction for a reverse fault.
The suitability of the transformer neutral current as a polarizing source will also depend
on the transformer primary-secondary winding connections. When the transformer

8
neutral current is temporarily unavailable, e.g. due to maintenance etc., dual
polarization with both the zero sequence voltage and transformer neutral current
may be effective.
5.2.4.3 NEGATIVE SEQUENCE POLARIZATION
The use of negative sequence quantities for protection has increased due to their
ready availability in IEDs which calculate them from the measured phase quantities.
This would have been both difficult and costly with previous technologies.
Negative sequence quantities, which are a measure of the system unbalance, are not
present during normal load conditions or balanced faults. As such, they are
characteristic of phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults. Therefore, they may be set
to operate faster and more sensitively than traditional positive sequence elements (i.e.
below the load level).
Negative-sequence directional elements declare a forward or reverse fault based on the
phasor relationship between V2 and I2, adjusted by the impedance angle of the
protected line.
When the negative-sequence source behind the protection is strong (i.e. low
negative-sequence source impedance), the amount of V2 measured at the protection
location can be very low. This reduction of V2 is most pronounced for remote faults.
In order to overcome low V2 magnitudes, certain negative-sequence directional
protection functions use a compensated V2 value. Negative-sequence ground
directional protection should be applied with care when set to look towards a large
source.
The benefits of negative-sequence polarization are:
V2 may be larger in magnitude than V0.
Negative-sequence directional elements are not affected by the mutual coupling
associated with parallel transmission lines.
There is often more I2 than I0 for remote ground faults with high fault
resistance, allowing higher sensitivity with reasonable and secure sensitivity thresholds.
Negative-sequence quantities are inactive during normal operation. They can therefore
be set to operate faster and more sensitively.
An additional CT is not required for negative-sequence polarization as is the case for
zero-sequence current polarization.
Dual polarization is not needed, e.g. when the zero-sequence source is unreliable.
I2 is accurately obtained from the measured phase currents and is unaffected by V0.
Negative sequence polarized protection is often applied when zero-sequence mutual
coupling effects would otherwise cause zero-sequence directional protection to fail.
It can be shown that the V2 developed during a fault is inversely proportional to the strength of the source
either behind the protection location for a forward fault or in front of it for a reverse fault. This coupled
with the effect of fault resistance which will tend to lower the amount of fault and negative-sequence
current available during a fault, previously would have determined the minimum sensitivity for the
traditional negative-sequence directional protection.
The negative sequence elements have been developed for use in IEDs which use the
ratio of V2 to I2, rather than the previously used product of these quantities.

9
Whereas a ratio of voltage to current is used, faults with very little V2 can be
detected.

5.2.5 SENSITIVE RESIDUAL OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

IEDs may offer a sensitive current input in addition to the other measuring inputs of
the device. This input is typically 10 times more sensitive than the standard inputs
and permits the reliable detection of high impedance ground faults that cannot otherwise
be sensed by the current inputs with normal sensitivity. For many ground fault
applications, it is sufficient to provide the sensitive current input with the summated
current from the phase CTs (i.e. Holmgreen connection); however, for very sensitive
measurement it is preferable to use a dedicated core-balance CT.
General sensitive ground fault protection may be used in isolated or compensated
systems to detect ground faults. In solidly or low-resistance grounded systems, sensitive
ground fault protection is used to detect high impedance ground faults. Due to their
high sensitivity, sensitive current measuring inputs are not suitable for the detection of
high magnitude ground faults.

5.3 DISTANCE PROTECTION

In many countries, distance protection serves as the main protection for overhead lines.
The principle of operation of this function is well documented. There has been
significant progress from the older electromechanical relays to todays IEDs. A distance
protection IED comprises, amongst others, the following functionality:
Six independent fault detection systems, one for each of the fault loops (ph-g, ph-
ph).
Measurement circuits, phase selection logic and ground fault processing.
Digital signal processors for the impedance measuring systems.
Six directional determination systems with sound phase polarization and memory
stored voltages (also effective for series compensation).
Adaptive filter algorithms.
Timers for delayed back-up distance protection stages.
Reliable discrimination between load and fault conditions combined with high
fault sensitivity.
Phase segregated tripping logic.
Initiation of auxiliary functions.
Channel aided scheme logic.
There have been improvements to distance protection IEDs in terms of filtering,
signal processing, hardware, etc. and to the distance protection function in term of
directionality, impedance characteristic flexibility, setting, number of zones, etc.

5.3.1 POLARIZING METHODS

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The use of polarizing quantities for overcurrent protection has been described earlier
(Section 5.2.4). The dependability of a direction functions response to a specific
fault is related to its polarizing quantity. Distance elements may be voltage or current
polarized (or both), or by zero or negative sequence quantities. Different polarizing
techniques may be applied depending on the manufacturer, the type of impedance
characteristic used, or the type of fault. The most commonly used techniques are:
Positive sequence voltages.
Cross polarization.
Self polarization.
Zero sequence voltage polarization.
Zero sequence current polarization.
Negative sequence voltage polarization.
Memory voltage polarization.
When a fault occurs the polarizing quantity should be stable and last long enough to
guarantee that the protection element remains picked up until the fault is cleared. The
following are basic requirements for the polarizing quantity:
Reliable operation for all in-zone faults.
Security against operation for all external faults.
Stable operation during single-pole open conditions.
Fault resistance tolerance.

5.3.1.1 MEMORY VOLTAGE

The purpose of memory voltage is to ensure that reliable polarization is available in
the case of a balanced three phase fault. Whereas all of the voltages collapse, it
becomes necessary to use the memorised pre-fault voltages. IEDs are equipped with
memory voltage with adaptive memory depth. The directional element typically needs
at least a minimum level of the normal measured polarizing voltage for correct
operation (e.g. 10%). When the measured voltage is below this level, the device uses the
memory voltage (e.g. for close-in short-circuits).
This memory voltage supports several aspects of the distance protection function.
Allows the distance function to operate for close-in three-phase faults in front of the
protection location.
Prevents the distance function from operating for close-in three-phase faults behind
the protection location.
Allows the distance function to maintain directionality during voltage inversion in
series-compensated lines.
The choice of memory time constant (or the length of polarizing memory) is always a
critical design issue.
Considerations in choosing the time constant should include the following:
The maximum clearance times of both internal and external zero-voltage faults.

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 Backup-zone fault clearance times on system with high source impedance ratio (SIR)
where the available voltage may be very small, even for remote faults.
The bypass-switch operating time of series-compensation capacitors.
Typically all of the settings can be changed while the IED is in normal service. The
maximum duration of the memory voltage can be fixed (e.g. in the source code of the
device software), user settable, or adaptive. The protection function itself decides
whether to use measured or stored, or a mixture of these voltages. The memory time is
mostly variable. It typically starts with 2 cycles but can be extended up to 20 cycles
when there has been no earlier trip decision. After the maximum memory time has
elapsed, the directional decision is maintained until drop-off of fault detection.
A potential problem with fixed memory time involves faults beyond the reach of the
Zone 1.
On lines with high SIR, the magnitude of the steady-state fault voltage at the protection
location for three-phase faults at the remote end of the line may be less than the voltage
required for the protection to operate. For these conditions, the delayed overreaching
distance zones may not operate if the time delay is greater than the fixed memory time.
Voltage inversion in series-compensated lines endangers the directional security; in
which case, the memory voltage is always used.

5.3.1.2 DIRECTIONALITY
In the case of distance protection with a quadrilateral characteristic, the function
consolidates several directional elements into one in order to determine the direction of
all fault types.
This consolidation permits the function to evaluate the results and to make the best
directional decision. The directional elements serve to determine the fault direction;
supervise distance elements and form polygonal distance characteristics.
These properties offer added security with respect to the distance elements especially
for:
Close-in forward faults with small voltages.
Reverse faults.
Directional determination is a prerequisite for correct operation of the distance
protection function, and is similar to the impedance calculation. The principle is to
obtain a reliable and secure directional determination that is not affected by sensitivity
limitations, load conditions, source impedances or fault location. For a polygonal
distance element a combination of at least five elements is used to shape a directional
(e.g. forward) zone characteristic:
Directional element.
Forward reactance reach element (top).
Forward resistance reach element (right).
Reverse reactance reach element (bottom)
Reverse resistance reach element (left).
The quadrilateral distance zone is non-directional and requires a separate directional

12
element to make a directional distance characteristic. A typical theoretical directional
extension is shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Directional characteristic of a distance relay

When memory voltage or cross-polarisation is used, the directional determination will
be dependent on the source impedance and load conditions prior to fault inception, as
shown in Figure 5.4. The source impedance will displace the characteristic such that all
faults up to the protection location (CTs) are clearly identified as forward faults. The
load condition will result in a voltage drop across the source impedance which will
rotate the characteristic by the load angle ().

Figure 5.4 Offset and rotation of the directional element

Sound phase and stored memory voltages are typically used as references for directional
determination. A common approach in IEDs is to use the 90 relationship between the
operating and polarizing quantity. The reference voltages for both phase-ground and
phase-phase loops are always at right angles to the short circuit voltages. By comparing
the phase angle between the operating and polarizing quantity the function is able to
determine the fault direction. This is shown in Figure 5.5 for a phase-ground fault.

13
This phase angle difference will produce a torque like motion such that the comparator
will produce a positive torque if the fault is in the forward direction, and a negative
torque if the fault is in the reverse direction. The comparator is shown below for a phase
L1 fault.
|TL1| = |VL2-L3|*|IL1| * Cos(VL2-L3 - IL1) (5.1)
That is, if
270 < (VL2-L3 - IL1 ) < 90 a positive torque and thus a forward fault
90 < (VL2-L3 - IL1 ) < 270 a negative torque and thus a reverse fault.
Typical fault loops and operating and polarizing quantities are shown in Table 5.1.

Series compensated lines Series capacitors influence the magnitude and the direction of
fault currents which in turn influences the magnitudes and phase angles of voltages
measured at different points in the network. This has an impact on the performance of
protection functions whose operation depends on the magnitude and phase angle
properties of measured voltage and currents.
Other phenomena like voltage and current inversion at the relay location, sub-harmonic
frequency oscillations, series capacitor metal oxide varistor (MOV) protection, and
series capacitor bypassing controls may influence the performance of different
protection functions.

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Voltage inversion is a phenomenon that affects distance and directional element
discrimination. A voltage inversion is a change of 180 in the voltage phase angle. For
elements responding to phase quantities, voltage inversion can occur for a fault near a
series capacitor if the impedance from the relay to the fault is capacitive rather than
inductive. In general, phase relays that utilize voltage information from the line side
(fault side) of the series capacitor will correctly declare the fault direction. Relays
measuring the voltage from the bus side of the capacitor with respect to the fault
location may incorrectly declare the fault direction.
Memory polarization, which uses prefault voltage to enhance relay directional
discrimination, solves the voltage inversion problem and the zero-voltage, three-phase
fault problem for mho and directional elements responding to phase quantities. In a
memory-polarized mho element, when the memory is active, the relay uses a
combination of prefault and fault voltage information. When the memory expires, the
relay uses only fault voltage information.
Memory action needs to be time-limited to avoid relay errors for system disturbances in
which prefault voltage and fault voltage are out of phase with each other [1].

Improvements Reverse ground faults

A forward-set ground distance element can pick-up for a reverse ground fault due to the
impact of zero sequence current, which may be due to the unbalanced fault condition, or
the zero sequence current flowing in the sound phases during an open-pole condition on
a reverse line. In distance protection applications, long forward reaching distance
elements may be set to provide remote line backup protection, or to protect the
downstream side of a remote transformer. Maloperation of the distance elements may be
prevented by supervising the distance element by an independent directional element,
so that tripping for forward faults only can take place.
Improvements Reverse Phase-Phase Faults
Typically the operating quantities for phase distance elements use phase-phase currents.
That is, an L1-L2 phase distance element uses (IL1 IL2) as its operating quantity. For
a close-in reverse L1-L3 phase fault, a forward reaching L1-L2 phase distance element
can sense the fault due to the effect of the IL1 current. A negative-sequence directional
element may be used to supervise the phase distance elements and avoid such
maloperations.
Improvements Reverse Three-Phase Faults

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Forward-reaching distance elements lack security for reverse three-phase faults if all of
the following conditions are fulfilled:
A significant load current flows into the bus from a weaker source.
The fault includes a small but critical amount of fault resistance.
The polarizing memory voltage expires.
Under these conditions, the angle between the polarizing and operating quantities is less
than 90 for forward phase distance elements. This is the angular difference required to
pick up a forward-reaching distance element as described in the torque-like equation:
270 < (VL2-L3 - IL1 ) < 90 a positive torque and thus a forward fault.
One solution to this problem is to supervise the three-phase distance elements with a
positive-sequence directional element.
5.3.2 PHASE SELECTORS
Some manufacturers have implemented phase selection logic which is an independent
measuring function compared with the distance function. It comprises both impedance
and current-based measurement criteria. Its main purpose is to augment the phase
selectivity of the complete distance protection in networks with long and heavily loaded
lines.
It is generally intended for use in directly earthed networks, where correct and reliable
phase selection for single-phase-to-ground faults, combined with single-pole tripping
and automatic reclosing, secures the stability of complete power systems. Independent
phase selection, combined with directional measurement for each fault loop, secures a
selective operation for simultaneous close-in faults on parallel circuits.
For impedance-based phase selection, all six fault loops are measured separately and
continuously. The reactive and resistive reaches are typically independently settable for
phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults. Checks based on the level of residual current
determine which loops, i.e. phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase, are evaluated. The
faulted phase(s) is determined by which of the loops operate. Operation of a loop occurs
when the measured impedance within that loop is within the set boundaries of the
characteristic. The impedance-based output will activate the selected loop of the
distance protection measuring zone(s) to which the impedance-based phase selection
output is connected. The current-based phase selection is based on the same residual
current checks as those used to select the phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase loops of
the impedance-based phase selection function for evaluation. In this case the current-
based output will activate either all of the phase-to-ground loops or all the phase-to-
phase loops of the distance protection measuring zone(s) to which the current-based
phase selection output is configured.

5.3.3 INCREASED NUMBER OF DISTANCE ZONES

The distance function is often used as the primary protection for transmission lines. The
choice of using distance protection is getting more attractive as numerical technology
further improves the performance of this function. The increased number of zones
available to the user means that the distance function can serve as a better main
protection, because speed and selectivity does not have to be compromised. An example
of this is shown in Figure 5.7.

16
With fewer zones available, a compromise between speed and selectivity may be
required. Selectivity might be compromised, for example, due to overestimation of the
level of infeed; and speed compromised due to the probability of getting a certain fault
at a certain location.
With more zones available the fault clearing time for certain faults can be decreased by
adding a faster zone 2 than would have been possible with fewer zones. Some utilities
would have decreased the speed of the indicated zone 3 despite the inselectivity towards
the zones of downstream protection, or reduced the selectivity margin risking more
contingencies.
These zones might easily be switched on/off in the software. In some cases it might be
useful to set a reverse zone covering the busbar if infeed was causing problems for the
remote protection. It is also possible to distinguish the forward backup protection zones.
For instance by having a faster backup zone set selectively over the line distance
protection, with a margin against low voltage transformer faults, and a slower forward
backup zone set selectively over the transformer protection and starting criteria.
It is quite common to offer 5 different zones in an IED, in addition to a starting
criterion. Previously, 2 to 3 zones were offered with the static and electromechanical
relays. In many
cases this increased number of zones offers a cost effective solution as it could replace
the
need for additional devices, as well as an improved technical solution.
5.3.4 HIGH-SPEED DISTANCE ZONE
IEDs may offer a high-speed zone in addition to the traditional distance zones. The
speed here refers to the measuring, filtering and algorithm technique rather than to
any set time delay. These high-speed zones generally operate within three quarters of a
cycle inclusive of command output relays. However, they often exhibit high transient
overreach.
The loadability of a network depends on the fault clearing time, which must be short in
order to avoid transient instability. The higher speed may be useful for some lines where
stability is critical and where fast tripping is needed. However, it is only possible for
certain fault types and locations on the line, and not all the combinations. This zone can
very quickly eliminate the high short circuit capacity and limit the damage to
equipment, reduce the risk for system instability, etc.
Such high speed zones should be set carefully with regard to security and selectivity.
5.3.5 MORE FLEXIBLE CHARACTERISTIC
With legacy electromechanical and static relay technologies, the shape of the distance
characteristic was fixed (e.g. ice cream, circle, etc.). In IEDs, the shape is adjustable, to
a certain degree (e.g. adjustable polygonal). This implies a better fault coverage and
selectivity.
Reactive and resistive reach In older technologies, the reactive and resistive reach
settings were applied in steps using the available electrical links, knobs or switches.
These settings were also dependent, in that, the X/R ratio would have to be specified.

17
Therefore, the desired calculated settings could not be applied directly, but rather
reasonable compromise settings instead. These compromise settings could result in lack
of resistive or reactive coverage (e.g. insufficient reach for high impedance faults); load
encroachment; or inselective operation, etc.
The characteristics of distance zones in IEDs are independent of one another with
regard to their directionality and reach. The resistive and reactive setting ranges are
wider and more precise (2-3 decimal places) due to an almost continuous setting range,
and can be set with current sensitivity down to 10%. This means that the actual relay
setting can directly match the calculated optimal setting.
Separate settings for ph-ph and ph-g IEDs facilitate the setting of separate phase-phase
and phase-ground characteristics which, though common with static relays, was unusual
with the electromechanical relays.
IEDs normally have separate settings for each zone. A separate reactive and resistive
settings means an even more flexible characteristic to deal with possible differences
between ph-ph and ph-e fault resistances (e.g. due to the zero sequence impedance).
This is typically useful in cabled networks. The zone angle is also adjustable where it
depends on the fault type, ph-ph (per phase basis) or ph-g fault (per loop basis).
5.3.6 LOAD COMPENSATION FACTOR
Some IEDs have an integrated load compensation factor, typically for the non-delayed
zone 1, which compensates the zone reactive reach depending on the actual pre-load
situation. The load transfer may have a major impact on the impedance as seen from the
relay. With static relays, the user would have to pre-calculate the worst load transfer and
its impact on the setting. This could result in a low reactive reach e.g. for the zone 1
setting to avoid spurious tripping for remote busbar faults, with consequent slower
tripping for certain fault locations. By letting the IED adjust the angle, a faster fault
clearing time, compared with a static relay for the same fault, would result.
5.3.7 LOAD CHARACTERISTIC
Some IEDs have a settable load characteristic, which typically cuts into the distance
characteristic. This is settable in resistive reach (to allow maximum load) and load angle
(to permit the worst power factor).
With the load characteristic, the maximum load is now visualized on the distance
characteristic of the device, which ensures that the protection engineer fully controls
any possible load encroachment problems. However, the user must ensure that there is
sufficient coverage for all faults, and that these are not cut off by the load characteristic.
5.3.8 DIFFERENT PARAMETER GROUPS
It is possible to have several parameter groups within the same IED, where the user may
select which group to activate by actuating a binary input or via a communications
interface from a substation automation system.
This feature is useful when maintenance on the network results in reduced or different
short circuit capacity for an extended period, and especially when the substations are
inaccessible.
Different short circuit capacity may result in stronger infeed from the remote end due to
a higher source impedance behind the protection location. Switching to a different
parameter set could take account of the network change, however, failure to changing

18
the parameters could, for example, result in slower tripping (back up zones) with severe
cascading effects and blackouts.
5.3.9 INTEGRATED DISTANCE TO FAULT LOCATION
With increasing bandwidth and faster communication between devices, the quality of
the distance to fault measurement is likely to improve as the devices can exchange
information about the source and remote impedances.
This impedance is not adaptive to the real situation, but has to be set in advance by the
engineer based on pre-calculated situations. This will, in some way, limit the distance to
fault calculation itself with respect to accuracy. But its integration within the distance
function will, nevertheless, improve the possibility to find the fault location faster
which, in some cases, is crucial to the restoration process.
5.3.10 GROUND RETURN COMPENSATION FACTOR
Distance protection settings are typically applied as positive sequence impedances.
Therefore, ground return compensation is required to reconcile the phase and residual
quantities measured during single-phase-to-ground faults by the distance protection with
these positive sequence settings.
Furthermore, the impedance of the ground path is not known with the same certainty as
the impedance of the phase conductors, and is dependent on the type of soil (e.g. rock or
sand) and whether the line is equipped with earth conductors, etc.
Setting a correct ground return or zero sequence compensation factor is critical to avoid
incorrect tripping for single-phase-to-ground faults. In IEDs, this factor is typically
settable by value and angle and separately for each zone. This is in contrast to static
relays where, typically, a single common factor for all zones was set. The setting of
different compensation factors may be particularly useful when protecting lines that are
partly cabled, or where the transmission line has been partially upgraded or changed in
any way that affects the zero sequence impedance.
Cables have a significantly different positive to zero sequence impedance relationship
(Z1/Z0) compare with overhead lines. By considering this relationship, more flexible
characteristics can be set. The need for cables is expected to increase in the future due to
environmental considerations, and it will be more common to use partly cabled sections
of transmission lines.
5.3.11 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE
Circuits in a multi-circuit parallel overhead line configuration exercise strong mutual
influence on each other. The influence is primarily in the zero sequence system and can
be neglected in the positive and negative sequence systems. The mutual coupling
imposes a particular problem for the setting procedure in the case of Ph-G faults
because it tends to disturb the measured fault impedance as seen by the protection,
depending on the specific fault type, location and load transfer, so that the distance
protection would otherwise overreach and trip inselectively with a non-adjusted setting.
In IEDs the earth current of the adjacent line may be fed into the device so that the
impact of the mutual coupling can be accounted for. The mutual impedance is then set
according to the geometry of the parallel circuits and its impedance, and offers more
secure and selective protection.
Most cases, in practice, pertain to Class 1 networks [2] where the positive and zero
sequence sources are common. The impedance based distance measurement without

19
mutual compensation is distorted and must allow for correct measurement with the
parallel line either in or out of service.
Whereas mutual compensation is of advantage for faults on the protected line, it
introduces disadvantages for faults on the parallel line. Hence, the following are
observed:
a) In distance to fault measurement functions, mutual compensation improves accuracy
and is recommended because only faults on the protected line are displayed and
recorded.
b) In distance protection functions with mutual compensation, a close-in fault on the
parallel line might affect the directional element. Therefore, the directional element may
not be compensated. Mutual compensation is omitted or is used only for faults near or
beyond the remote end substation. This can be automatically done by allowing
compensation only if the zero sequence currents in both lines are of same sign and
similar in magnitude.
Distance protection using mho characteristics which combine both measurement and
directionality should not be compensated.
Distance protection often may not be compensated in the following circumstances:
In case of communication assisted schemes like PUTT, POTT or Blocking, the zero
sequence current compensation does not noticeably improve the overall distance
protection performance provided suitable settings are used.
In PUTT schemes, the overlapping of the underreaching zone 1 measurements from
both sides is ensured even without compensation. If one end has reduced reach, other
has extended reach.
In overreaching schemes like POTT or Blocking, the communications dependent
overreaching zone can be set sufficiently long to overreach the opposite bus under all
conditions. In order to allow settings for long overreach, the protection should have an
independent overreaching distance zone used exclusively for communication schemes.
If Zones 2 and 3 are used as back-up protection zones and in the non-delayed mode also
as communication dependent zones, severe limitations in distance zone impedance
grading must be accepted. In principle, the current reversal logic is applicable to
permissive or blocking overreaching schemes.
The scheme is explained in section 5.6.2.6. With permissive schemes, it is necessary to
activate the logic for an overreaching zone set greater than 150% of the line length.
However, to cover all contingencies which may arise due to different settings adopted at
either end, unexpected fault current distributions due to unequal sources, line
impedances, etc.; the logic is, by default, always activated since it is not detrimental in
any case. The ease with which such features can be activated/de-activated is one of the
main advantages in utilisation of IEDs.
The use in IEDs of separate zero sequence compensation factors (k0) in each zone
improves the grading of the back-up distance zones even without mutual compensation.
One commonly used philosophy is as follows:
Underreaching zone 1 set with normal k0.
Communication dependent zone (i.e. used for PUTT, POTT or Blocking) set with k0II
. Distance zones 2 and 3 with k0 or k0II, depending on network configuration, i.e.
short or long adjacent lines

20
 Higher zones with k0.
Mutual zero sequence compensation helps to improve the grading of the overreaching
back-up zones, which shall operate for faults beyond opposite line end. This is a typical
sub-transmission requirement since such systems have no redundancy. Redundancy is
provided by the back-up zones of remote up-stream protection devices and hence
selective time-graded impedance back-up zones become more important.
In networks where parallel lines on common towers have isolated positive, as well as
zero sequence, sources (Class 2 networks, [2]), or where the positive sequence source is
common but the zero sequence is isolated (Class 3 networks, [2]), there is a remote
danger of unwanted trips of the DEF protection function and special solution is
necessary.
5.3.12 DRIFTING OF PARAMETERS
The setting of electromechanical relays was an empirical process to reconcile the
mechanical setting links or dials, which could differ from nominal settings due to drift
of the nominal values of the capacitors, resistors and inductors in the relay; to the
desired setting.
This drifting could result in different performance to the nominal distance characteristic
settings, e.g. a fault nominally in the set zone 1 being detected in zone 2, resulting in a
slower tripping time. Therefore extensive testing was necessary to verify that the setting
was accurate. With numerical technology this problem is greatly reduced because the
impedance calculation is performed digitally and based on software algorithms.
5.3.13 ZONE EXTENSION
Zone Extension (so called Poor Mans Carrier) is used to achieve fast fault clearance
over the whole line length when a communications link is not available or is out of
service for maintenance etc. It operates by tripping from a non-delayed overreaching
forward zone, which is released by the auto-reclosing function for the first fault. The
overreach is then blocked by the AR close command and subsequent tripping is normal
time-graded distance.
Hence, a transient fault beyond the end of the line, but within the overreaching zone,
will result in an unwanted trip and reclosing cycle, and a persistent fault at the end of
the line (i.e. beyond the reach of Zone 1) will result in delayed Zone 2 trip. Caution
must be exercised in the case of parallel lines with 3-pole tripping and reclosing, and it
must be ensured that synchronism is not lost for a fault on adjacent line.
In a redundant transmission protection scheme, the zone extension feature may be
automatically enabled upon either of the following conditions being satisfied:
Communication links of both redundant protection systems fail.
Communication link of one system fail and the other IED is in a Test mode or out of
service.
When zone extension is enabled, Zone 1 can still trip phase selectively since zone
extension itself is also a phase selective function.
Frequency modulation techniques were later introduced to enable conventional pilot
wire relays to operate over dedicated fibre optic links to avoid the susceptibility of pilot
wire current differential protection systems to electrical interference. These systems
were a step forward in the field of current differential protection for transmission lines.

21
However, a fully digital approach exploits more fully the benefits of modern digital
communication systems and is discussed in more detail in this section.
5.4.2 DIGITAL CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The line current differential protection function compares the currents from a local
terminal with the currents received through a communications channel from the remote
line terminal to determine whether the fault is inside or outside of the zone of
protection. It provides instantaneous protection for the entire length of the transmission
line circuit. The function can be implemented on a segregated-phase basis or on a
combined sequence-current basis; where segregated-phase system compares the currents
on a per-phase basis and the combined sequence-current system compares a local and a
remote single-phase signal proportional to the positive, negative, and zero-sequence
currents.
Current differential protection systems combine phase and magnitude current
information in a single comparison. The line current differential function requires a
wide bandwidth communications channel to transmit and receive current information to
and from the remote terminal. It is, therefore, channel dependent. The development of
high-capacity, long haul digital communication systems has made possible the
application of an all-digital transmission line current differential protection system. The
availability of fibre-optic and digital microwave communications channels permits
modern current differential systems to exchange raw sampled currents or phasor current
information using a 64 kbit/s digital channel.
5.4.3 ADVANTAGES OF LINE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Line current differential protection only requires line currents to determine if the fault is
within the zone of protection. It does not require voltage information and, therefore, is
immune to the problems associated with loss of potential for close-in faults, blown VT
fuses, ferro-resonance in VTs, and CVT transients [4]. Line differential systems are also
immune to:
Mutual induction effects.
Stable and unstable power swings.
Series impedance unbalances.
Current reversals in parallel-line configurations.
Line current differential systems perform well during evolving, inter-circuit, and cross-
country faults. They are applicable to short transmission lines and can tolerate high line
loadings.
Depending upon their operating characteristic, line current differential systems may
handle out-feed conditions that may occur in series-compensated and three-terminal
lines; and during high-resistance faults with high load. The protection settings for
current differential schemes are few and easy to compute, however, the impact of line
and cable-charging currents, and shunt reactor applications in transmission line circuits
must be considered.
5.4.4 CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
The basic non-biased current differential protection shown in Figure 5.8 is not very
practical because it assumes ideal current transformers. Current transformers may have
different excitation characteristics or unequal burdens that may result in a false
differential (or spill) current during external faults. There is a consequent risk of relay

22
operation on a healthy line under transient conditions, which is clearly unacceptable.
The most common causes of false differential current in transmission line differential
relays are the following:
Line-charging current.
Tapped load.
Channel time-delay compensation errors.
Current transformer saturation.
Line-charging current may be significant in cables or long overhead lines. The false
differential current created by tapped loads may be the result of load current, tapped
transformer low-side faults or inrush current in the tapped transformer. Channel time-
delay compensation errors and CT saturation contribute to false differential current in
all types of differential elements. All of these factors serve to reduce the sensitivity of
the line current differential scheme if the scheme is optimized for security.
The most common line current differential operating principles, the percentage bias, the
-plane (alpha-plane), and the charge comparison characteristics are presented in the
following three sections.
5.4.5 PERCENTAGE BIAS CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC
The percentage bias current differential principle, originally developed for the
protection of transformers and generators, was extended to the protection of short
transmission lines in the 1930s. Early current differential protection systems required a
pilot wire channel to exchange analog information between the line terminals. Advances
in digital communications permit current differential IEDs to exchange current
information using a 64 kbit/s digital channel.
The spill current in the differential element depends on the magnitude of the through
current, which is negligible at low values of through-fault current but which may reach
large values for more severe faults. Setting the operating threshold of the differential
protection above the maximum level of spill current would result in poor sensitivity.
The low-level fault sensitivity is greatly improved by making the differential setting
approximately proportional to the fault current. Figure 5.10 shows typical percentage
bias current differential characteristics of modern devices designed to overcome the
problem. At low currents, the bias is small, thus making the relay sensitive. At higher
currents, such as would be obtained from inrush or through-fault conditions, the bias is
higher, and thus the spill current required to cause operation is higher. The relay is
therefore more tolerant of spill current at higher fault currents and therefore less likely
to maloperate, while retaining sensitivity at lower current levels.

23
Traditional percentage bias current differential characteristics
The operating current, IOP, is the magnitude of the vector sum of the currents. IOP is
proportional to the fault current for internal faults and ideally approaches zero for any
other operating conditions.
R L OP I I I + = (5.2)
The most common alternatives for obtaining the restraint current, IRT, are given below:
R L RT I I k I
rr
= (5.3)
( ) R L RT I I k I
rr
+ = (5.4)
( ) R L RT I , I Max I
rr
= (5.5)
The coefficient k is a constant that usually takes a value of 1 or 0.5. The operating
condition of the biased differential characteristic shown in Figure 5.10a is given by
(5.6). K1 in (5.6) is the percentage bias representing the slope of the characteristic.
RT 1 OP I K I (5.6)
A minimum pick-up current, ITH, is added as a condition:
TH OP I I (5.7)
Another possible definition of the operating condition of a biased differential
characteristic shown in Figure 5.10b is given by (5.8).
TH RT 1 OP I I K I + (5.8)
Errors relating to differential protection performance can be classified as fixed and
proportional component errors. Whereas fixed component errors occur regardless of the
magnitude of the systems primary current; proportional component errors are in
proportion to the magnitude of the systems primary current.

24
In general, the minimum sensitivity of the function, ITH, is determined taking into
account fixed component errors, such as offset and quantisation errors within the
protection device. ITH is also applied to accommodate external factors such as line
charging current, although this requirement can largely be eliminated by the
implementation of a dedicated charging current compensation function within the IED
[5]. Differential protection IEDs can achieve sensitivity in the range of 10% - 20% of
rated current.
Proportional component errors, such as CT measuring errors and errors related to
channel delay asymmetry, are accommodated by the slope, K1, of the percentage bias
characteristic.
Often, a dual bias slope characteristic is adopted, with a second slope introduced in the
high-current region, the gradient of which, K2, is determined so as to accommodate
false differential current caused by CT saturation under heavy through-fault conditions.
5.4.6 ALPHA-PLANE DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC
Some of the key factors to consider in defining a line differential protection
characteristic are: channel time-delay compensation errors, power system impedance
non-homogeneity, CT saturation, and low frequency oscillations in series-compensated
lines.
Figure 5.11 shows the -plane differential element characteristic for transmission line
protection [6]. The restraining region in the current-ratio plane is the area between two
circle arcs and two straight lines and includes the a = 1 point. Two amplitude and one
phase comparison elements are needed to create this characteristic. Amplitude
comparison provides the circular parts of the characteristic with independent settings R
and 1/R (circle radii). Phase comparison provides the linear parts of the characteristic
and defines the angular setting . The horizontal axis variable a is the real part of the
complex ratio of IR/IL (5.9) and the vertical axis variable b is the imaginary part of the
complex ratio of IR/IL (5.10).

=
L
R
I
I
a Re (5.9)

25


=
L
R
I
I
b Im (5.10)
Note that the characteristic is designed to match the different fault and load regions
depicted in Figure 5.10 and yet accommodate CT saturation, channel delay errors and
current out-feed; in addition to low-frequency oscillations present in series-compensated
lines. The characteristic is symmetrical with respect to the a-axis, and the radii of both
circle arcs are reciprocal.

Alpha- -- -plane line current differential characteristic plane line current differential
characteristic plane line current differential characteristic plane line current differential
characteristic
5.4.7 CHARGE COMPARISON
Charge comparison is an alternate form of line current differential protection intended to
reduce the communications channel bandwidth requirements [7]. Charge comparison
performs a numerical integration of the samples of the phase and residual currents over
half a cycle. The sample integration process takes place between current zero-crossings.

26
The system stores the resulting ampere-seconds area in memory (converted into an
r.m.s. current equivalent), together with polarity and start/finish time-tag information.
Storage occurs only if the magnitude exceeds a certain threshold, and the half-cycle
pulse width is greater than or equal to 6 ms. Every half cycle the local system also sends
information to the remote terminal. The charge comparison system provides higher
tolerance to channel asymmetry and out-feed than traditional phase comparison or
traditional current differential systems. However, the required zero-crossing detection
introduces a half cycle latency that penalizes speed and introduces an additional time
delay for internal faults with full DC offset.
External faults with CT saturation that affect zero crossings may jeopardize system
security.
5.4.8 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION USING ZERO OR NEGATIVE-
SEQUENCE CURRENT
In general, phase-segregated current differential protection can achieve high sensitivity,
giving good coverage for high-resistance faults. However, maintaining this high
sensitivity under heavy load conditions can be difficult.
In the case of a high resistance fault, a large proportion of the pre-fault load current can
continue to flow, although the fault current itself may be small. This situation is
presented in Figure 5.12 below.
Charging Current Compensation
The line charging current is related to capacitive coupling and increases with the line
length. It appears as a differential current and can reduce the sensitivity of the
differential protection unless measures are taken to suppress it. Estimation of the
current, based on measured voltage and the capacitance is a conventional approach that
also needs voltage inputs on the IED. A newer approach which obviates the need to use
voltage inputs is described below.
When a differential current is detected it is automatically deducted from the differential
current before evaluation against the bias current. This is done gradually, rather than in
one step. Furthermore, the current deducted cannot be more than the minimum
differential current setting. During disturbances, the pre-fault differential currents are
not updated and the updating process is only resumed after normal conditions are
restored. Such a principle is seen to produce good results for stability on external faults.
The advantage of this feature is that voltage analog inputs are not required for the
differential protection.
5.5 SWITCH ONTO FAULT PROTECTION
The switch-onto-fault (SOTF) function permits accelerated three-phase tripping,
typically by one of the distance protection zones or by a dedicated overcurrent element,
for faults detected on the entire line during line energization. Such faults are most
typically due to the failure to remove three-phase grounding clamps after maintenance
work. SOTF tripping is typically non-directional in order to ensure tripping for close-in
three-phase faults, when there may be insufficient measured or memory voltage for
polarisation. The function must first recognize the de-energized state of the line and
then, on fault detection, rapidly trip the CB.
The de-energized state (or dead line condition) is typically detected using a
combination of the open status indication from the CB, no current and no voltage.
Following a set delay after de-energization, instantaneous three-phase tripping is

27
permitted if either a manual closing command (CBCloseCd) is detected (i.e. in advance
of the actual energization), or the conditions for de-energization (DeadLineCntr) are
lost, as per Figure 5.15. The instantaneous tripping permission expires following a set
delay after energization.

The distance protection zone used with the SOTF function should extend to cover (i.e.
overreach) the entire line. If an overcurrent element is used, then the setting should be
sufficiently sensitive to overcome weak infeed from behind the protection location or
high resistance faults on the line. Typically, remote end CB closing should be blocked,
via a communications channel, for a SOTF detection at the end being initially closed.
When SOTF is active in AR schemes with Zone Extension, care should be taken to
ensure that the SOTF trip does not issue upon reclosing onto a permanent fault on the
adjacent line within the coverage of the overreaching zone.
In Figure 5.18, both CBs C and A would trip for a phase fault on an adjacent line. At
end A, the SOTF sees a three-phase DLD. Upon reclosing onto permanent fault, CB A
trips again.
This may also arise in radial feeder installations. Therefore, the reach of the SOTF must
be reduced upon reclosing. Special logics may be applied to release tripping by Zone 1
non-directional rather than the usual Zone 2. However, if Zone 2 non-directional
persists after a settable time, then it should trip as backup protection for faults on the
adjacent line.

5.6 TELEPROTECTION FUNCTIONS

5.6.1 GENERAL
Distance or overcurrent protection elements must be time-graded with other
downstream protection in order to achieve selective clearance of faults. Where stand-
alone protection is applied; the contribution to a line-end fault will tend to be cleared
without delay by the protection at the faulted end, however, the protection at the
opposite end will clear the contribution from that end, necessarily, with a coordinating

28
time delay. Where a fault can be unambiguously classified by the protection as internal
to the line; non-delayed tripping by the protection may take place for faults throughout
the line. Furthermore, on interconnected transmission networks, it is preferable that such
non-delayed tripping should take place simultaneously at both ends of the faulted line.
A variety of telecommunication assisted protection schemes have been developed
which, in their simplest forms, are invariably based on the exchange of a single bit of
logical data between the ends of a transmission line. This supplements the locally
available data, confirming that a fault detected by at least one end, is in fact internal to
the line, such that otherwise time-delayed operation may be accelerated.
5.6.2 PERMISSIVE TELEPROTECTION
Permissive schemes operate on the basis that the protection shall either operate in a
normal time graded manner, or not at all, unless supplementary information from the
opposite line end confirms that the fault is internal to the line, permitting accelerated
tripping. Thus the operation of such schemes may be described as characteristically
secure.
Dependable communications channels are critical for such schemes and, as such, they
are not suited to use on direct keyed amplitude modulated PLC.
Permissive schemes are characterised by both an initial send criterion and an additional
tripping release criterion at the receiving end before accelerated tripping is permitted.
The principal permissive schemes are permissive underreach transfer tripping (PUTT);
basic directional comparison; permissive overreach transfer tripping (POTT); and
directional comparison unblocking (DCUB).
5.6.2.1 PERMISSIVE UNDERREACHING TRANSFER TRIPPING
A fault detected within a non-delayed underreaching (compared to the line length)
distance protection zone set forwards into the line, is definitively internal to the line;
and the CB, local to the protection, may be tripped without delay. PUTT uses fault
detection of this underreaching zone as the transmit criterion permitting the remote
ends to trip.
If the protection at any of the remote ends receives the permissive transfer tripping
command and has also detected the fault, but within a time-delayed overreaching zone
(set non-directional or forwards into the line); then accelerated tripping is permitted at
that end.
Thus, the maximum difference between tripping times at each end with a detectable
fault contribution, is the transmission delay from the sending to the receiving ends. In
the case of faults detected by the protection at only one end, but beyond the reach of the
underreaching zone; as may arise for faults at an open line-end, or an end with weak
infeed; no permissive transfer tripping command will be sent and the fault will only be
cleared by a time-graded overreaching zone.
Non-delayed tripping at the sending-end may prematurely terminate the permissive
command to the remote end prior to that end being released, due to slower or delayed
pickup of the function at that end due to weak infeeding or legacy technology. Therefore
the permissive command may be prolonged by a set delay.
The most significant modern refinement to this scheme is the ability to produce phase-
segregated permissive commands, for use with single pole tripping and auto-reclosing
schemes. The use of integrated telecommunications channels is ideally suited to cope

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with the resulting increased data exchange; as compared with traditionally wired
schemes where the numbers of binary inputs, outputs, and dedicated communications
channels required for such a scheme would otherwise have been considered prohibitive.

5.6.2.2 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON

5.6.2.3 PERMISSIVE OVERREACH TRANSFER TRIPPING
This scheme requires that a forward directional (into the line) overreaching element,
necessarily time-delayed, be set at each end of the line. When the devices at all ends of
the line see the fault as forward, it must therefore be internal to the line and accelerated
tripping of the overreaching element may take place.

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Thus, when not otherwise supplemented by echo or weak-end infeed logic,
accelerated tripping requires that the forward overreaching elements at each end of the
line must have detected the fault.
IEDs can provide phase-segregated POTT schemes, for additional security where
single-pole tripping is required. Furthermore, supplementary logic, to account for
conditions where the overreaching elements at the receiving-ends may not have detected
the fault but which can otherwise confirm that the fault is internal by effectively
eliminating external faults. This logic is described below under echo and weak-end
infeed.
5.6.2.4 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON UNBLOCKING
This scheme was originally applied to frequency shift keyed PLC in circumstances
where a fault on the carrier phase can cause significant attenuation of the PLC signal.
The scheme is basically a POTT scheme supplemented with monitoring of the PLC
guard channel, such that a fault detection by the overreaching element, coincident with
the absence of either a receive signal or of the guard tone; is a sufficient condition to
consider the fault to be internal to the line, permitting accelerated tripping. ZOR

5.6.2.5 ECHO AND WEAK-END-INFEED LOGIC

Basic overreaching schemes such as DC, POTT and DCUB will not, of themselves,
achieve accelerated fault clearance if the fault is not detected at one of the ends, either
due to the CB at that end being open; or due to there being little no fault contribution
into that end. If the CB status indication is monitored, a received permissive command
may be echoed back to the sending end without delay if the CB is open. This echo
will then be seen as a received permissive command at the original sending end,
permitting accelerated tripping at that end. Operation is delayed only by the
transmission time delays along the outward and return communications paths.
Network topology can result in significant differences between the fault contributions
from either end of the line for an internal fault on the line. Whereas this can result in
failure to detect the fault at that end, the definitively internal nature of the fault can
nonetheless be confirmed by eliminating the possibility that the fault is external. This
requires the use of a reverse directional element looking back through the busbar into
the adjacent lines and covering no less of those lines than the extent of overreach into
those lines by theoverreaching protection function at the opposite end of the protected

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line. Thus, the received permissive command from the strong infeeding end can be
echoed back if there is no fault detection by the reverse stage, or indeed by the
forward overreaching stage, at the weak end. The weak end would then otherwise have
to wait until the strong end had tripped before fault detection; however, an option of
echo and trip at the weak end may be employed.
There is a risk with echo and trip, in particular with traditionally electrically wired
teleprotection schemes, that a spurious permissive receive command at one end would
cause it to echo and trip because of the lack of a fault detection in the reverse direction.
The echoed command would then result in an echo and trip at the other end.
Therefore, the echo and trip will normally be secured by an undervoltage supervision
stage.

5.6.2.6 PERMISSIVE SCHEME CURRENT REVERSAL FUNCTIONALITY

When a fault occurs on one of a pair of parallel lines, the unfaulted line will see a
through fault contribution from the side with the stronger infeed. With one end seeing
the fault in the forward overreaching stage and the other end seeing the fault in the
reverse stage; no accelerated tripping will take place. If the CB at the weaker end of the
faulted line is tripped first (e.g. due to fault proximity to that end), during the time
before the CB at the stronger infeed side operates, a current reversal will be experienced
on the unfaulted feeder. This will be detected by the forward overreaching zone at the
end which had previously seen the fault in the reverse direction, which combined with
basic prolongation of the original received permissive command would result in an
incorrect trip at that end. This scenario is prevented by using a transient block for
approximately 100 ms for the case of current reversal.

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5.6.3 BLOCKING TELEPROTECTION
Blocking schemes operate on the basis that a fault detected by a time-delayed, but not
time-graded, overreaching zone set directional into the line; is assumed to be internal to
the line unless otherwise blocked by the device at the opposite end. The transmitted
blocking condition is that a fault external to the fault has been detected (i.e. by a reverse
directional stage extending further into the adjacent line than the forward overreaching
zone from the opposite end). The overreaching zone time delay is set only long enough
to permit a blocking signal to be generated at the remote end and transmitted. Whereas
the blocking command is used to prevent tripping, it is critical that the communications
channel should be fast and dependable.

5.7 NON-COMMUNICATIONS BASED PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR

PARALLEL LINES
Line differential protection remains the most selective form of protection for multiple
circuit line protection as it is immune to phenomena such as mutual coupling.
Communications requirements may be cost prohibitive and a solution with similar
advantages as line differential protection but without the communications requirements
are advantageous. The cross-differential scheme principle is illustrated below in Figure
5.25.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 5 55 5. .. .25 2525 25 Cross Cross Cross

Cross- -- -differential protection on double circuit line differential protection on double
circuit line differential protection on double circuit line differential protection on double
circuit line
5.8 EFFECT OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER TRANSIENTS ON
PROTECTION FUNCTIONS
Current and voltage transducers provide instrument level signals to protective devices.
The accuracy and performance of a protective device is directly related to the steady-
state and transient performance of the instrument transformers. Protective devices are

33
designed to operate in a shorter time period than that of the transient disturbance during
a system fault. Large instrument transformer transient errors may delay or prevent
protection operation. In this section the effect of conventional instrument transformer
transients on distance protection elements, in particular, is discussed.
5.8.1 CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT) TRANSIENTS
CTs use iron cores that can saturate symmetrically due to large symmetrical fault
currents or due to the prolonged presence of a DC component in the primary fault
current. During saturation, the CT operates in the nonlinear region of its excitation
characteristic [9] and the CT instantaneous current delivered to the protection device
deviates in both magnitude and shape from the current that actually flows in the power
system. Operation in this region is typically initiated by the following:
Large, asymmetrical primary fault currents with a decaying DC component.
Large, connected burden combined with high magnitudes of primary fault currents.
Residual magnetism left in the core from an earlier asymmetrical fault or field-testing
if the CT has not been properly demagnetized.
The DC component can cause CT saturation in the first few cycles of the fault, and a
long DC time constant can cause CTs to saturate many cycles after a fault. The fidelity
of the CT transformation is reasonably good until saturation takes place. High-speed
distance protection IEDs may operate before CT saturation occurs. Figure 5.28 shows a
simplified CT equivalent circuit that can be used for a simplified transient analysis.

5.8.10 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, distance protection Zone 1 elements exhibit a minor tripping delay and a
potential underreach for faults near the zone reach point due to CT saturation. In
general, faults near the reach point display a reduced current magnitude if the CT
saturates.
However, the likelihood of CT saturation near the reach point is much smaller than for
faults occurring near the protection location. CT saturation has a limited impact, aside
from a slight tripping delay, on longer set Zone 2 and Zone 3 distance elements.
However, Zone 2 distance protection settings may have to be adjusted for this potential
underreach. CVT and BPD transients reduce the fundamental component of fault
voltage and can cause overreach of Zone 1 distance protection elements. High BPD
electromechanical relay burdens can cause large magnitude and slow decaying BPD
transients that result in distance zone underreaching. Elements fitted with CVT transient
detection logic may introduce a slight (but necessary) tripping delay; however, they
exhibit greater security for faults near the protection reach point.
5.9 REFERENCES

34
[1] D. Hou, A. Guzmn, and J. B. Roberts, Innovative Solutions Improve Transmission
Line Protection, in 1997 24th Western Protective Relay Conference Proceedings.
[2] CIGR SC 34 WG-04 Application guide on protection of complex network
configurations, 1992.
[3] K. Faye-Hansen and G. Harlow, Merz-Price Protective Gear, IEE Proceedings, 911.
[4] J. Roberts, D. A. Tziouvaras, G. Benmouyal, and H. Altuve, The Effect of
Multiprinciple Line Protection on Dependability and Security, 54th Annual Conference
for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA,
April 2001.
[5] T. Kase and G. Baber, Advanced Techniques for Current Differential Feeder
Protection, CIGR SC B5 Colloquium, Madrid, Spain, October 2007.
[6] H. Altuve, G. Benmouyal, J. Roberts, and D. A. Tziouvaras, Transmission Line
Differential Protection with an Enhanced Characteristic, 8th International
Conferenceon Developments in Power System Protection, IEE Conference Publication
500, Vol. 2, April 2004, pp 414 419.
[7] Ernst, L. J., Hinman, W. L., Quam, D. H., and Thorp, J. S., Charge Comparison
Protection of Transmission Lines Relaying Concepts, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol. 7, No 4, October 1992, pp. 1834-1852.
[8] D. L. Mills, Internet Time Synchronization: The Network Time Protocol, IEEE
Transactions on Communications, vol. 39, no. 10, pp.1482-1492, Oct. 1991.
[9] IEEE PSRC Report, Transient Response of Current Transformers, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 96, No. 6, 1977, pp. 18091814.
[10] E. O. Schweitzer III and J. Roberts, Distance Relay Element Design, Paper
presented at 19th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, 1992.
[11] D. Tziouvaras et al., The Effect of Conventional Instrument Transformer
Transients on Numerical Relay Elements, Paper presented at 28th Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, 2001.
[12] D. Angell and D. Hou, Input Source Error Concerns for Protective Relays, Paper
presented at 33rd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, 2006.

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