Chapter-1: 1.0 The Concept

Mechanism and Model of an Electric Driven Highway Vehicle by Solar Power
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 The concept

The electrical highway concept is a two part system. The first involves the rollout of a
two pole catenary system along one or more lanes on freight transport routes that caters for
two-way electricity transmission and ensures a reliable power supply by feeding the overhead
wire via container substations. The substations used in the current test project feature a
medium voltage DC switching system, a power transformer, a rectifier and a controlled
inverter.
Electrical highway turns the future of electric-driven freight transport into reality. The
concept for the electrification of road-freight traffic has three core components:
Diesel-electric hybrid technology
Power supply via catenary lines and regenerative braking
Intelligently controllable pantograph for energy transmission
Figure 1.0: Electrical Highway vehicle
In normal operation, electrical highway HGVs draws electric energy from a catenary
system using an adaptive pantograph to establish contact with the overhead wire. Wherever
there is no overhead line, the electrical highway HGVs automatically switch over to their
Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 1

diesel-hybrid drive system. This means that they can be used just as flexibly and universally
as conventional HGVs.
1.1 Energy supply
Modern catenary systems ensure the reliable power supply of the electrical highway
HGVs. They are designed as two-pole systems for two-way electricity transmission.
The overhead wire is fed from a container substation. The substation used at our testing site is
equipped with:
Medium-voltage DC switching system
Power transformer
Rectifier 12-diode array
Controlled inverter (for the feedback of the electric energy generated by the vehicles
regenerative braking)
Figure 1.1: Energy supplied
1.2 Pantograph
An intelligent pantograph is used for direct transmission of electric power from the
overhead wire to the electrical highway HGV. The actively controllable pantograph can be
easily connected to and disconnected from the overhead line - at speeds of up to 90 km/h.
Depending on operating mode, connection is made either automatically or manually at the
push of a button. Another advantage of this flexible system is the automatic compensation for
any shifts in position within the lane. Moreover, the mobility of the pantograph minimizes the
risk of selective wear on the current collector, substantially extending its useful life.

Figure 1.2: Pantograph Connection
1.3 Hybrid drive

On electrified routes, electrical highway HGVs is powered via the overhead lines, but
they are also fitted with hybrid drive systems: in the HGV specially converted for our
development project this was a serial diesel hybrid; but the electrical highway concept
provides ample scope for a variety of hybrid drive technologies. The essential main
components that were tried and proven in our tests were:
Generator
Rectifier
Buffer store
Inverter
Traction motor
On highways and roads without catenary systems, the diesel engines output is
transmitted to the generator, which in turn powers the downstream electric motor turning the
cardan shaft.
1.4 Electrified shuttle transport of goods
Freight shuttle services can provide transportation over short to medium distances of
up to about 50 km, typically on highly frequented routes, for instance between a harbor and a
freight distribution hub. Hitherto, high HGV traffic volumes have led to high levels of
pollution with the corresponding negative impact on the environment, people and the quality
of life in cities.

Reduces pollutant emissions

Minimizes noise pollution
Saves fuel costs
Provides the same performance and flexibility of use as conventional HGVs
1.5 Electrified mining transport

Electrical highway is the optimum solution for transport between mines or pits and
storage or transhipment facilities, especially for mines that are not linked up to the railway
network. Conventional truck transport causes high CO2, nitrogen oxide, soot and noise
emission levels. The solution: electrical highway
Figure 1.3: Pantograph used mining transportation

Minimizes harmful emissions
Allows economic and ecological sustainability in mine operation
Allows economic and ecological sustainability in mine operation
1.6 Electrified networks as a whole

Worldwide road freight transport has the potential to become an exemplary model of
sustainability by adopting new, innovative solutions. Its ecological footprint can be improved,
for instance, with substantially reduced CO2 emissions as a result of a transition to electric
mobility. This is also the conclusion reached by the ENUBA research project, in the
framework of which Siemens developed the electrical highway concept. The electrical
highway field trials brought the following result: All the objectives were convincingly
achieved, as there were.
Figure 1.4: Electrified network vehicle

Full performance, irrespective of weather, light conditions and vehicle load
Speeds of up to 90 km/h reached without any difficulty
Easy manoeuvrability of vehicles thanks to mobile pantographs
1.7 Electric mobility in commercial vehicles

Increasing volumes of international freight traffic and the scarcity of resources are
leading to ever higher prices and the urgent necessity to reduce CO2 emissions. In the
passenger-vehicle market, these global trends have already prompted the introduction of
innovative concepts. In the freight-vehicle sector, however, alternative technologies have not
yet made any significant advance. Now Siemens has developed a cost-effective alternative to
the use of fossil fuels in freight transport on the road - electrification of freight traffic with
electrical highway as an efficient and resource-saving alternative to reduce environmental
damage. The concept combines innovation with extensive experience because it is based on
proven railroad technologies from Siemens.
1.8 Economic point of view
The electrical highway concept is particularly effective from an environmental and

economic point of view on heavily used and relatively short truck routes, e.g. between ports,
industrial estates, freight transport centers and central transshipment terminals. The intention
is to set up a "zero emission corridor" for shuttle traffic between the two sea ports and the
inland rail transshipment centers around 30 kilometers away. This will help to ease the
pressure on the environment in a region which is plagued by smog. The aim is to eliminate
local emissions completely, reduce the use of fossil fuels, cut operating costs and establish a
basis for using the system on a commercial basis in the future.

1.9 Mechanical actuation section
The mechanical system is considering as motion converter, this can be created by

implementing electro-mechanical techniques. The concept is to transform the motion from
one form to some other required form by using suitable mechanical and electrical devices.
For this purpose DC motors are used to create the motion for the vehicle movement and
control the movement of catenary system up and down to dock and undock with the electrical
lines. These motors are constructed with reduction gear mechanism which is built in with the
motor internally. As the machine is designed as prototype module, low rating motors are used
to drive the mechanism.
The advantage of selecting reduction gear mechanism motors are that a small motor
can drive heavy loads, as these motors are purchased from local market, ratings regarding
torque is not mentioned. Only speed and operating voltage is specified, as per this data the
motor is designed to operate at 12V DC and the motor speed is 60 RPM. These motors
driving capacity is tested practically, in our test we came to know that each motor can drive
an independent load of maximum 3Kg only approximately. There by according to the driving
capacity of these motors, one small mechanical module is designed for the demo purpose.
The rotary motion can be transferred from one shaft to another by a pair of rolling
gears. Depending up on the ratio of final shaft speed, number of gears is arranged in group
and is called as gear trains. These gear trains are mechanisms which are widely used either to
increase or to decrease the final shaft speed. When the speed is increased torque will be
reduced, where as if the speed is decreased torque will be increased i.e., speed (RPM) and
torque are inversely related to each other. In general these teethed gear wheels are coupled in
between two parallel shafts. When two gears are in mesh, the larger gear wheel is often called
as crown wheel and the smaller one is called as pinion. The vehicle movement will be started
when the push button is switched ON and by pressing the other control buttons (push buttons)
another motor will move the catenary system up or down to dock or undock.
A total of four buttons are used to control these DC motors independently. One motor
is connected with 2 push buttons for operating in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions to

dock and undock with electric lines. By pressing the push button, the controller through the H
Bridge IC provides supply to the DC motor by which the motor rotates in a particular
direction. Two more buttons are used to start and stop the vehicle.
If required suitable gear drives mechanism can be used to move the catenary system
up and down. Mechanical drives are used to provide variable output speed from a constant
speed power source. These mechanical gear drives are extensively used in automobile
industry. Mechanical drives provide simple control and are cheaper as compared to electrical
drives.
A gear drive is an assembly of gears turned by the motor to perform the specific task.
The first gear attached to the motor supplies the power and is known as input gear, while the
gear that amplifies the mechanical energy is called the output gear. There are various types of
gear drives such as harmonic drives, bevel gear drives, hypoid gear drives, combination
drives, worm drives, etc and many more.
Gears (or cogs) are toothed wheels used for the transmission of power in many
mechanical systems. When two gears are meshed with each other, a definite velocity ratio is
obtained. Velocity ratio (or gear ratio) is the ratio between the angular velocity of driving gear
and the angular velocity of driven gear.
Gears are typically used for short distance power transmission. They are compact and
have high transmission efficiency when compared to other power transmission systems. As
mentioned earlier the mechanical gear drive mechanisms are driven by the electric motors.
Chapter -2
LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Intelligent pantograph on trial

This paper presents the development of an actively-controlled pantograph by German
Railway and bombardier in an aim to permit operation of rail services at higher speeds in
2003. Active control mechanism of the system; Benefits from the scheme; Stages of control.
2. Synthesis study on the operational reliability of an urban transport

system using electrically driven trams
This paper is structured in five parts. The first part is a brief presentation of the
structure and the functioning of the urban transport systems using electrically driven trams
(EUTS), based on which, the equivalent reliability diagrams of these systems are presented.
Further on, based on the analysis of operational reliability, one can identify and there are
defined the time characteristics and the transport capacity of EUTS. In the third part there are
defined and analytically determined the safety and the availability of EUTS. The paper also
contains results of a comprehensive study of case on EUTS from Oradea, results on which
one can calculate, in the end, the availability indicators of the system. The last part of the
paper contains the results and conclusions of the carried out analysis.
3. Study on aerodynamic resistance to electric rail vehicles generated by the

power supply
This paper presents performance of the electric railway vehicles requires an analysis
to reduce their aerodynamic resistance. These vehicles cannot be set in motion without an
external power source, which demonstrates that the supply system is a key-element to their
operation. The power source is located on the rooftop which basically results in an increase of
their aerodynamic resistance. The present study discusses the aerodynamic resistance of the
electric railway equipment such as pantographs, automatic circuit breaker, insulators, etc. The
analyze is based on the equipment installed on the electric locomotive LE 060 EA of 5100
KW which is operational in Romania, emphasizing the pantographs role in capturing of
electricity
4. Pantographs pushed for higher speed

This paper presents an article on the collaboration between Deutsche Bahn (DB) and
Stemmann technique on a project to develop a pantograph. The design will be an evolution of

Stemmann's existing DSA380 model that is already in production, which is approved for
speeds in excess of 320 kilometers per hour. Initial technical studies into active pantograph
development were carried out by DB in co-operation with Bombardier, but Stemmann
technique took over Bombardier's share of the project and is now working with DB to assess
the product's suitability for series production.
5. Research on electromagnetic interference of wiring motor vehicle in coal

mine tunnel
This paper presents in the contact net of motor vehicle in coal mine tunnel is a
powerful industrial disturbance source; pulse interference generated by contact net is some
pulse group with random, repetitive amplitude and duration. When the train is in the rated
working current situation, the pantograph and overhead line is in the process of separation to
contact, the motor vehicle running speed is lower, the discharge current is larger, the more arc
radiation interference.
6. Capacity configuration and energy control strategy of stationary super

capacitor energy storage system of urban rail transit
This paper presents that installation of super capacitor in urban rail transit system
allows the recovery of the braking energy for increasing the energy efficiency as well as a
better pantograph voltage profile. An energy control strategy of the energy storage system
which is suitable for the urban railway transit is proposed in this paper. Then, the
methodology of capacity configuration is put forward based on the simulation platform in
Mat lab environment. Ultimately, the capacity configuration results of super capacitor energy
storage system are determined based on parameters of an actual metro line under different
traffic conditions.
7. Wide band and narrow band characterization of the propagation

channel in trains
This paper presents the characteristics of the propagation channel aboard trains are
investigated with specific reference to the effects of pantograph arcing onto
telecommunication signals, expressed in terms of channel power variations with time, and to
the attenuation law governing propagation within cars. Results show that the path loss

exponent is slightly smaller than in free space, possibly due to reflections by metal walls, and
that it does not depend significantly on the position of transmitter and receiver. It is also
shown that the transients generated at the pantograph may pose a threat to telecommunication
system's efficiency only if they come in clusters, as the duration of each event is not long
enough to affect bit streams. The main application of the study is the investigation of the
reliability features of telecommunication systems on board, for both infotainment and safety
purposes.
8. Unconventional current collection from a contact line for electric

traction vehicles
This paper presents some of the aspects regarding the difficulties of the current
collecting using the pantographs classical collectors. With the speed increasing of the
vehicles, the mechanical system of the pantograph cannot respond in an efficient mode to the
current collecting without detachment of the collector from the contact line and without a
strong wear. There are presented some contact-less supply methods using the magnetic
induction with an accent on the transfer of the electric energy by a controlled plasma jet. It is
presented the installation which uses the plasma controlled energy transfer with some
experimental results.
9. Simulation of vehicle-overhead power system interaction on electric

roads
This paper presents the upcoming lack of oil and the environmental problems that
conventional internal combustion engines are causing, electric vehicles have gained a
growing interest during recent years. One solution to improve the efficiency of the existing
road network is to make use of electric roads equipped with an overhead power system,
thereby allowing also long-distance truck and bus transports to be powered by electricity

without the need of heavy, bulky and expansive batteries. Providing electric power using an
overhead power system has primarily been used in railway applications and only to some
extent in road applications, for example in the case of trolley buses in urban areas. In this
study, an overhead catenary system providing electric power to a long-distance truck by
means of a pantograph mechanism that collects power through sliding contact with the
overhead wire is analysed through simulation. A model of a truck equipped with a pantograph
is developed and its interaction with an overhead catenary system model is simulated using
the finite element method. The current collection quality is evaluated by analysing the
pantograph-catenary contact force variation during the influence of different disturbances
such as road irregularities and contact wire vibrations due to multiple pantographs. The study
is an assessment of the possibility of using a conventional overhead power system developed
for trains in a new context by providing power to long-distance road transports. The results
show that the investigated disturbances influence the dynamics of the studied truck-
pantograph-catenary system, nevertheless the contact force variation is within the allowed
range according to the technical specifications for interoperability (TSI) for trains. It can be
concluded that an overhead power system is a promising solution for a more environmentally
friendly energy supply for trucks and buses at specific road sections.
Chapter -3
PANTOGRAPH
3.0 Introduction
A pantograph (or "pan") is an apparatus mounted on the roof of an electric train, tram
or electric bus to collect power through contact with an overhead catenary wire. It is a
common type of current collector. Typically, a single wire is used, with the return current

running through the track. The term stems from the resemblance of some styles to the
mechanical pantographs used for copying handwriting and drawings.
Figure 3.0: Pantograph

3.1 Invention
The pantograph was invented in 1879 by Walter Reichel, chief engineer at Siemens &
Halske in Germany. A flat slide-pantograph was invented in 1895 at the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad.
The familiar diamond-shaped roller pantograph was invented by John Q. Brown of

the Key System shops for their commuter trains which ran between San Francisco and the
East Bay section of the San Francisco Bay Area in California. They appear in photographs of
the first day of service, 26 October 1903. For many decades thereafter, the same diamond
shape was used by electric-rail systems around the world and remains in use by some today.
The pantograph was an improvement on the simple trolley pole, which prevailed up to
that time, primarily because the pantograph allows an electric-rail vehicle to travel at much
higher speeds without losing contact with the overhead lines.
3.2 Modern use

The most common type of pantograph today is the so-called half-pantograph
(sometimes 'Z'-shaped), which has evolved to provide a more compact and responsive single-
arm design at high speeds as trains get faster. Louis Faiveley invented this type of pantograph
in 1955. The half-pantograph can be seen in use on everything from very fast trains (such as
the TGV) to low-speed urban tram systems. The design operates with equal efficiency in
either direction of motion, as demonstrated by the Swiss and Austrian railways whose newest

high performance locomotives, the Re 460 and Taurus, operate with them set in opposite
directions.
Figure 3.1: Modern view of the pantograph use

3.3 Technical details
The electric transmission system for modern electric rail systems consists of an upper,
weight-carrying wire (known as a catenary) from which is suspended a contact wire. The
pantograph is spring-loaded and pushes a contact shoe up against the underside of the contact
wire to draw the electricity needed to run the train. The steel rails of the tracks act as the
electrical return. As the train moves, the contact shoe slides along the wire and can set up
acoustical standing waves in the wires which break the contact and degrade current
collection. This means that on some systems adjacent pantographs are not permitted.
Pantographs are the successor technology to trolley poles, which were widely used on
early streetcar systems. Trolley poles are still used by trolleybuses, whose freedom of
movement and need for a two-wire circuit makes pantographs impractical, and some streetcar
networks, such as the Toronto Streetcar System, which have frequent turns sharp enough to
require additional freedom of movement in their current collection to ensure unbroken
contact.
Pantographs with overhead wires are now the dominant form of current collection for
modern electric trains because, although more fragile than a third-rail system, they allow the
use of higher voltages.

Pantographs are typically operated by compressed air from the vehicle's braking
system, either to raise the unit and hold it against the conductor or, when springs are used to
affect the extension, to lower it. As a precaution against loss of pressure in the second case,
the arm is held in the down position by a catch. For high-voltage systems, the same air supply
is used to "blow out" the electric arc when roof-mounted circuit breakers are used.
Figure 3.2: Details about pantograph

3.4 Single- and double-arm pantographs
Pantographs may have either a single or a double arm. Double-arm pantographs are
usually heavier, requiring more power to rise and lower, but may also be more fault-tolerant.
On railways of the former USSR, the most widely used pantographs are those with a
double arm ("made of two rhombs"), but since the late 1990s there have been some single-
arm pantographs on Russian railways. Some streetcars use double-arm pantographs, among
them the Russian KTM-5, KTM-8, LVS-86 and many other Russian-made trams, as well as
some Euro-PCC trams in Belgium. American streetcars use either trolley poles or single-arm
pantographs.

Figure 3.3: Trolley with pantograph

3.5 Metro systems and overhead lines
Most rapid transit systems are powered by a third rail, but some use pantographs,
particularly ones that involve extensive above-ground running. Hybrid metro-tram or 'pre-
metro' lines whose routes include tracks on city streets or in other publicly accessible areas,
such as the MBTA Green Line, must of course use overhead wire, since a third rail would
normally present too great a risk of electrocution.
One exception to this is the tram system in Bordeaux that uses an underground system
called APS, which only applies power to segments of track that are completely covered by
the tram. This system has been used in the historic centre of Bordeaux because an overhead
wire system would cause a visual intrusion and, now, other cities (Dubai, Brasilia, Tours ...)
use it for the same reason.
Overhead pantographs are sometimes used as alternatives to third rails because third
rails can ice over in certain winter weather conditions. The MBTA Blue Line or the
Wonderland Line uses pantograph power for its entire surface route. The entire Metro
systems of Barcelona, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Seoul and Delhi use overhead wiring and
pantographs. Pantographs were also used on the Nord-Sud Company rapid transit lines in
Paris until the other operating company of the time, Compagnie du chemin de for
metropolitan de Paris bought out the company and replaced all overhead wiring with the
standard third rail system used on other lines.

Figure 3.4: Over head line with trolley

Until 2010 the Oslo Metro line 1 changed from third rail to overhead line power at
Freon station. Due to the many level crossings, it was deemed difficult to install a third rail
on the rest of the older line's single track.
3.6 Control systems
Heavy goods vehicles have been fitted with a brand new pantograph - the second part
of the concept - with an intelligent control system that can either automatically connect to an
overhead wire upon detection by a built-in scanner or be manually controlled by the driver. In
this project it is a manual operated one but for real time can be designed as automatic.
Installed above the driver's cabin, the system is said to be capable of detecting the relative
position of the overhead contact wire to the pantograph and counterbalances any lateral
movements of the truck via active horizontal adjustment.
The test vehicles can have also been retro-fitted with diesel-electric power trains,
where they are always powered by an efficient electric motor but when in diesel mode, the
vehicle's engine powers a generator, which in turn drives a downstream motor and turns the
cardan shaft. When traveling under e - Highway electric power, the vehicle is driven by the
electric motor only. The driver can switch the transitions between different drive modes i.e.,
diesel or electric.

The field trial in Germany is reported to have confirmed full performance potential,
independent of weather, conditions and load. The concept proved to be at least as flexible as
existing fuel-based road freight transport solutions thanks to the maneuverability of the
mobile pantographs, with reduction in carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, soot and noise
pollution and added fuel efficiency benefits. Keeping up with the flow of traffic doesn't
appear to have been a problem either, with speeds of up to 90 km/h (55 mph) being reached
without difficulty under direct transmission of electric power.
For the first time ever, electric trucks powered by overhead cables will run to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions. The electrical highway electrifies selected traffic lanes using an
overhead cable system. As a result, trucks can be supplied with electricity in the same way as
trams. The "e-trucks" are equipped with a hybrid drive system and intelligent current
collectors. Powered by electricity from overhead cables, they produce no emissions when
operating in the local area. On roads without overhead cables, the vehicles use an electric
drive system which can be powered by diesel, compressed natural gas, a battery or with other
energy sources. The current collector allows the vehicles to overtake and automatically dock
and undock at speeds of up to 90 kilometers per hour.
Chapter -4
GEARS AND DRIVE MECHANISMS

4.0 Gear
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh
with another toothed part in order to transmit torque, in most cases with teeth on the one gear
being of identical shape, and often also with that shape on the other gear. Two or more gears
working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage
through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can
change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for
a gear to mesh with another gear; however, a gear can also mesh with a non-rotating toothed
part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
Figure 4.0: Gear

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed belt pulley
system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage.
When two gears mesh, and one gear is bigger than the other (even though the size of
the teeth must match), a mechanical advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds and the
torques of the two gears differing in an inverse relationship.
In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles, motorcycles, and
cars, the term gear, as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear.
The term is used to describe similar devices even when the gear ratio is continuous rather
than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain any gears, as in a continuously
variable transmission.
The earliest known reference to gears was circa A.D. 50 by Hero of Alexandria, but
they can be traced back to the Greek mechanics of the Alexandrian school in the 3rd century
B.C. and were greatly developed by the Greek polymath Archimedes (287212 B.C.). The
Antikythera mechanism is an example of a very early and intricate geared device, designed to
calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and
100 BC.
4.1 Comparison with drive mechanisms

The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an advantage
over other drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches
that depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are proximal,
gears also have an advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required; the
downside is that gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication requirements
may impose a higher operating cost.
Figure 4.1: Different Types of velocity gear
4.2 Different types of gears

There are many different types of gears. For the purposes of this section we will focus
on different gear geometry and not different quality, materials, etc...
Each type of gear has its own purpose as well as unique advantages and
disadvantages.
4.2.0 Spur gears
General: Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are characterized by teeth
which are perpendicular to the face of the gear. Spur gears are by far the most commonly
available, and are generally the least expensive.

Figure 4.2: Spur gear
Limitations: Spur gears generally cannot be used when a direction change between the two
shafts is required.
Advantages: Spur gears are easy to find, inexpensive, and efficient.
4.2.1 Helical gears
General: Helical gears are similar to the spur gear except that the teeth are at an angle to the
shaft, rather than parallel to it as in a spur gear. The resulting teeth are longer than the teeth
on a spur gear of equivalent pitch diameter. The longer teeth cause helical gears to have the
following differences from spur gears of the same size:
Figure 4.3: Helical gears
Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer,

Greater surface contact on the teeth allows a helical gear to carry more load than a
spur gear
The longer surface of contact reduces the efficiency of a helical gear relative to a spur
gear

Helical gears may be used to mesh two shafts that are not parallel, although they are
still primarily use in parallel shaft applications. A special application in which helical gears
are used is a crossed gear mesh, in which the two shafts are perpendicular to each other:
The basic descriptive geometry for a helical gear is essentially the same as that of the spur
gear, except that the helix angle must be added as a parameter.
Limitations: Helical gears have the major disadvantage that they are expensive and much
more difficult to find. Helical gears are also slightly less efficient than a spur gear of the same
size.
Advantages: Helical gears can be used on non parallel and even perpendicular shafts, and
can carry higher loads than can spur gears.
4.2.2 Bevel gears
General: Bevel gears are primarily used to transfer power between intersecting shafts. The
teeth of these gears are formed on a conical surface. Standard bevel gears have teeth which
are cut straight and are all parallel to the line pointing the the apex of the cone on which the
teeth are based. Spiral bevel gears are also available which have teeth that form arcs.
Hypocycloid bevel gears are a special type of spiral gear that will allow nonintersecting, non-
parallel shafts to mesh. Straight tool bevel gears are generally considered the best choice for
systems with speeds lower than 1000 feet per minute: they commonly become noisy above
this point. One of the most common applications of bevel gears is the bevel gear differential.
Figure 4.4: Bevel gears
Limitations: Limited availability cannot be used for parallel shafts, can become noisy at high
speeds.

Advantages: Excellent choice for intersecting shaft systems.
4.2.3 Worm gears
General: Worm gears are special gears that resemble screws, and can be used to drive spur
gears or helical gears. Worm gears, like helical gears, allow two non-intersecting 'skew' shafts
to mesh. Normally, the two shafts are at right angles to each other. A worm gear is equivalent
to a V-type screw thread. Another way of looking at a worm gear is that it is a helical gear
with a very high helix angle.
Worm gears are normally used when a high gear ratio is desired, or again when the
shafts are perpendicular to each other. One very important feature of worm gear meshes that
is often of use is their irreversibility when a worm gear is turned, the meshing spur gear will
turn, but turning the spur gear will not turn the worm gear.
Figure 4.5: Worm gears
Limitations: Low efficiency. The worm drives the drive gear primarily with slipping motion,
thus there are high friction losses.
Advantages: Will tolerate large loads and high speed ratios. Meshes are self locking (which
can be either an advantage or a disadvantage).
4.2.4 Racks (Straight Gears)
General: Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion to translational
motion by means of a gear mesh. (They are in theory a gear with an infinite pitch diameter).
In theory, the torque and angular velocity of the pinion gear are related to the Force and the
velocity of the rack by the radius of the pinion gear.

Figure 4.6: Racks (Straight Gears)
Limitations: It is difficult to find such type of gears.
Advantages: The only gearing component that converts rotational motion to translational
motion. Efficiently transmits power. Generally offers better precision than other conversion
methods.
4.2.5 Sprocket gear

A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, cogs, or even sprockets
that mesh with a chain, track or other perforated or indented material. The name 'sprocket'
applies generally to any wheel upon which are radial projections that engage a chain passing
over it.
Figure 4.7: Sprocket Gear

It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly,
and differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are smooth. Sprockets are
used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and other machinery to transmit rotary
motion between two shafts where gears are unsuitable or to impart linear motion to a track,
tape etc. Perhaps the commonest form of sprocket is found in the bicycle, in which the pedal

shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel which drives a chain which in turn drives a small
sprocket on the axle of the rear wheel.
Early automobiles were also largely driven by sprocket and chain mechanism, a
practice largely copied from bicycles. Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of
efficiency being claimed for each by its originator. Sprockets typically do not have a flange.
Some sprockets used with timing belts have flanges to keep the timing belt centered.
Sprockets and chains are also used for power transmission from one shaft to another where
slippage is not admissible, sprocket chains being used instead of belts or ropes and sprocket-
wheels instead of pulleys.
Chapter -5
CHAIN DRIVE
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is
often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles.
It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.
5.0 Bicycle chain

Chain is with its two equal-sized wheels, from the direct-drive penny-farthing or
"high wheeler" type of bicycle. The popularity of the chain-driven safety bicycle brought
about the demise of the penny-farthing, and is still a basic feature of bicycle design today.

Figure 5.0: Bicycle chain

5.1 Roller chain
Roller chain or bush roller chain is the type of chain drive most commonly used for
transmission of mechanical power on many kinds of domestic, industrial and agricultural
machinery, including conveyors, wire- and tube-drawing machines, printing presses, cars,
motorcycles, and bicycles. It consists of a series of short cylindrical rollers held together by
side links. It is driven by a toothed wheel called a sprocket. It is a simple, reliable, and
efficient means of power transmission.
5.2 Motorcycles
Chain drive versus belt drive or use of a driveshaft is a fundamental design decision in
motorcycle design; nearly all motorcycles use one of these three designs.

Figure 5.1: Motor cycle chain

5.3 Lubricants
Many driving chains (for example, in factory equipment, or driving a camshaft inside
an internal combustion engine) operate in clean environments, and thus the wearing surfaces
(that is, the pins and bushings) are safe from precipitation and airborne grit, many even in a
sealed environment such as an oil bath.
But many other industrial-use chains run unprotected, and in those cases, internally
sealed roller chain manufacturers such as Tsubaki, Renold, Diamond, Morse, and Rexnord
produce low-maintenance versions wherein o-rings or x-rings seal in the lubricant for life.
There are also many chains that have to operate in dirty conditions, and for size or
operational reasons cannot be sealed. Examples include chains on farm equipment, bicycles,
and chain saws. These chains will necessarily have relatively high rates of wear, particularly
when the operators are prepared to accept more friction, less efficiency, more noise and more
frequent replacement as they neglect lubrication and adjustment.
5.4 Construction of chain

Figure 5.2: Construction of chain

There are actually two types of links alternating in the bush roller chain. The first type
is inner links, having two inner plates held together by two sleeves or bushings upon which
rotate two rollers. Inner links alternate with the second type, the outer links, consisting of two
outer plates held together by pins passing through the bushings of the inner links.
The "bushing less" roller chain is similar in operation though not in construction;
instead of separate bushings or sleeves holding the inner plates together, the plate has a tube
stamped into it protruding from the hole which serves the same purpose. This has the
advantage of removing one step in assembly of the chain. The roller chain design reduces
friction compared to simpler designs, resulting in higher efficiency and less wear.
The original power transmission chain varieties lacked rollers and bushings, with both
the inner and outer plates held by pins which directly contacted the sprocket teeth; however
this configuration exhibited extremely rapid wear of both the sprocket teeth, and the plates
where they pivoted on the pins. This problem was partially solved by the development of
bushed chains, with the pins holding the outer plates passing through bushings or sleeves
connecting the inner plates.

This distributed the wear over a greater area; however the teeth of the sprockets still
wore more rapidly than is desirable, from the sliding friction against the bushings. The
addition of rollers surrounding the bushing sleeves of the chain and provided rolling contact
with the teeth of the sprockets resulting in excellent resistance to wear of both sprockets and
chain as well as. There is even very low friction, as long as the chain is sufficiently
lubricated. Continuous, clean, lubrication of roller chains is of primary importance for
efficient operation as well as correct tensioning.
Chapter -6
DC MOTORS
6.0 Introduction
An electric motor is a machine, which converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy. This is done by way of two interacting magnetic fields one stationary, and another
attached to a part that can move. A number of types of electric motors exist, but most BEAM
bots use DC motors in some form or another. DC motors have the potential for very high
torque capabilities (although this is generally a function of the physical size of the motor), are
easy to miniaturize, and can be "throttled" via adjusting their supply voltage. DC motors are
also not only the simplest, but the oldest electric motors.
The basic principles of electromagnetic induction were discovered in the early 1800's
by oersted, Gauss, and Faraday. By 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre Marie Ampere
had discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The next 15 years saw a
flurry of cross-Atlantic experimentation and innovation, leading finally to a simple DC rotary
motor. A number of men were involved in the work, so proper credit for the first DC motor is
really a function of just how broadly you choose to define the word "motor."
Figure 6.0: DC Motor
DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brushless, servo, and
gear motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The
magnetic field is maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings.
DC motors are most commonly used in variable speed and torque applications.
Brushed DC motors have built-in commutation, meaning that as the motor rotates,
mechanical brushes automatically commutate coils on the rotor. Brushless DC motors use an

external power drive to allow commutation of the coils on the stator. Brush-type motors are
used when cost is a priority, while brushless motors are selected fulfill specific requirements,
such as maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and hazardous environments where
sparking could be dangerous.
DC gear motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brushless and
servo. A DC gear motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator and an
integral gearbox or gear head. The magnetic field is maintained using either permanent
magnets or electromagnetic windings. DC motors are most commonly used in variable speed
and torque applications.
Motion and controls covers a wide range of components that in some way are used to
generate and/or control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and bushings,
clutches and brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and resolvers,
Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion
components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors), orientation position
sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic components, positioning stages, slides and guides, power
transmission (mechanical), seals, slip rings, solenoids, springs.
Consider what happens when a voltage applied to a motors windings is rapidly

turned ON and OFF in such a way that the frequency of the pulses produced remains
constant, but the width of the ON pulse is varied. This is known as Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM). Current only flows through the motor during the ON portion of the PWM waveform.
If the frequency of the PWM input is high enough, the mechanical inertia of the motor cannot
react to the ripple wave; instead, the motor behaves as if the current were the DC average of
the ripple wave. Therefore, by changing the width of pulse, we can control the motor speed.
At the most basic level, electric motors exist to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. This is done by way of two interacting magnetic fields -- one stationary,
and another attached to a part that can move. A number of types of electric motors exist, but
most BEAM bots use DC motors in some form or another. DC motors have the potential for
very high torque capabilities (although this is generally a function of the physical size of the
motor), are easy to miniaturize, and can be "throttled" via adjusting their supply voltage. DC
motors are also not only the simplest, but the oldest electric motors.

6.1 Principles of operation
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current

carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external
magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to
the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North
and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to
harness the magnetic interaction between a current -carrying conductor and an external
magnetic field to generate rotational motion. Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC
electric motor (here dark black represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization,
while light colour represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).
Every DC motor has six basic parts axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator,
field magnets, and brushes. In most common DC motors, the external magnetic field is
produced by high-strength permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the motor
-- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The
rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotates with respect to the stator. The
rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to
the commutator.
Figure 6.1: DC Motor operation
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that
when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are
misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets.

As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and
energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the
direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field,
driving it to continue rotating.
D.C. Motors with field coils are classified as series. Shunt, compound and separately
excited according to how the field windings and armature windings are connected. With the
series wound motor the armature and fields coils are in series. Such a motor exerts the highest
starting torque and has the greatest no-load speed. With light loads there is a danger that a
series wound motor might run at too high a speed. Reversing the polarity of the supply to the
coils has no effect on the direction of rotation of the motor, it will continue rotating in the
same direction since both the field and armature currents have been reversed.
With the shunt wound motor the armature and field coils are in parallel. It provides
the lowest starting torque, a much lower no- load speed and has good speed regulation.
Because of this almost constant speed regardless of load, shunt wound motors are very
widely used to reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or field supplied must be
reversed. For this reason, the separately excited windings are preferable for such a situation.
The compound motor has two field windings, one in series with the armature and one
in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to got the best features of the series and shunt
wound motors, namely a high starting torque and good speed regulation. The separately
excited motor has separate control of the armature and field currents and can be considered to
be a special case of the shunt wound motor.
Figure 6.2: Brushed motor cross section

The torque-speed characteristics of the above motors and the speed of such D.C.
Motors can be changed by either changing the armature current or the field current. Generally
it is the armature current that is varied. The choice of motor will depend on its application.
For example, with a robot, manipulator, and the robot wrist might use a series wound motor
because the speed decreases as the load increases. a shunt wound motor would be used where
a constant speed was required, regardless of the load.
The speed of a permanent magnet motor depends on the current through the armature
coil. With a field coil motor either varying the armature current or the field current can
change the speed; generally it is the armature current that is varied. Thus speed control can be
obtained by controlling the voltage applied to the armature. However, because fixed voltage
supplies are often used, an electronic circuit obtains a variable voltage.
With an alternating current supply, the thruster circuit can be used to control the
average voltage applied to the armature. However, we are often concerned with the control
of D.C. Motors by means of control signals emanating from microprocessors. In such cases
the technique known as pulse width modulation (PWM) is generally used. This basically
involves taking a constant D.C. supply voltage and chopping it so that the average value is
varied.
It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a

magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings Left-
hand rule and whose magnitude is given by
Force, F = B i L Newton
Where
B is the magnetic field in Weber/m2.
i is the current in amperes and
L is the length of the coil in meter.
The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions. If an Electric
current flows through two copper wires that are between the poles of a magnet, an upward
force will move one wire up and a downward force will move the other wire down.

A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and a
magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the motor. At its most simple, a DC motor
requires two magnets of opposite polarity and an electric coil, which acts as an
electromagnet. The repellent and attractive electromagnetic forces of the magnets provide the
torque that causes the DC motor to turn. In a magnet attraction between opposite poles and
the repulsion of similar poles can easily be felt, even with relatively weak magnets. A DC
motor uses these properties to convert electricity into motion. As the magnets within the DC
motor attract and repel one another, the motor turns.
A DC motor requires at least one electromagnet. This electromagnet switches the

current flow as the motor turns, changing its polarity to keep the motor running. The other
magnet or magnets can either be permanent magnets or other electromagnets. Often, the
electromagnet is located in the center of the motor and turns within the permanent magnets,
but this arrangement is not necessary. To imagine a simple DC motor, think of a wheel
divided into two halves between two magnets. The wheel of the DC motor in this example is
the electromagnet. The two outer magnets are permanent, one positive and one negative. For
this example, let us assume that the left magnet is negatively charged and the right magnet is
positively charged.
Electrical current is supplied to the coils of wire on the wheel within the DC motor.
This electrical current causes a magnetic force. To make the DC motor turn, the wheel must
have be negatively charged on the side with the negative permanent magnet and positively
charged on the side with the permanent positive magnet. Because like charges repel and
opposite charges attract, the wheel will turn so that its negative side rolls around to the right,
where the positive permanent magnet is, and the wheel's positive side will roll to the left,
where the negative permanent magnet is. The magnetic force causes the wheel to turn, and
this motion can be used to do work.
DC motors are widely used, inexpensive, small and poweful for their size. They are
most easy to control. One DC motor requires only two singals for its operation. They are non-
polarized, means you can reverse the voltage without any damage to motor. DC motors have
+ve and ve leads. Connecting them to a DC voltage source moves motor in one direction
(clockwise) and by reversing the polarity, the DC motor will move in opposite direction

(counter clockwise). The maximum speed of DC motor is specified in rpm (rotation per
minute). It has two rpms: no load and loaded. The rpm is reduces when moving a load or
decreases when load increases. Other specifications of DC motors are voltage and current
ratings. Below table shows the specifications of the motor used in the project.
Table-6.0 DC Motor Specifications
Parameter Value
Operating Voltage 12 V DC
Operating Current 150 milli Amps
Speed 60 RPM
Speed of the motor can be changed by changing the applied voltage across motor. DC
motors dont have enough torque to drive the mechanism directly by connecting mechanism
with it. The motor driving circuit is designed with L293D chip; this is popularly known as
H bridge device generally used to drive the low power DC motors. To drive this catenary
system mechanism, the motor is controlled independently in both the directions and drive
sequence is programmed depending up on the information provided through the push buttons
pressed as inputs at the controller.
Chapter -7
MICROCONTROLLERS, H-BRIDGE, RELAYS, TIMER

CHIP AND SENSING CIRCUIT
7.0 Microcontrollers
7.0.1 Introduction
A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory, various
I/O interfaces such as serial port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller, data

acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital converter, Digital to Analog converter, integrated on

to a single silicon chip. If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go
for external memory such as RAM, ROM, EPROM and peripherals.
But controller is provided all these facilities on a single chip. Development of a Micro
controller reduces PCB size and cost of design. One of the major differences between a
Microprocessor and a Micro controller is that a controller often deals with bits not bytes as in
the real world application.
Intel has introduced a family of Micro controllers called the MCS-51.The

microcontroller plays the major role in any embedded project. In this my project we use two
microcontrollers they are made by the ATMEL Company. That is AT89S52. Depending on the
inputs given to the controller, it controls the operation of the two DC motors individually.
Once the start button is pressed, the controller operates the relay to control the vehicle
movement. And like wise for the catenary mechanism to dock and undock, the inputs should
be given by pressing the push buttons at the controller. So to perform all these tasks, the
microcontroller plays a key role. Micro-controller unit is constructed with ATMEL 89C51/52
Micro-controller chip. The ATMEL AT89C51 is a low power, higher performance CMOS 8-
bit microcomputer with 4K/8K bytes of flash programmable and erasable read only memory
(PEROM). Its high-density non-volatile memory compatible with standard MCS-51
instruction set makes it a powerful controller that provides highly flexible and cost effective
solution to control applications.
Micro-controller works according to the program written in it. Most micro-controllers

today are based on the Harvard architecture, which clearly defined the four basic components
required for an embedded system. These include a CPU core, memory for the program (ROM
or Flash memory), memory for data (RAM), one or more timers (customizable ones and
watchdog timers), as well as I/O lines to communicate with external peripherals and
complementary resources all this in a single integrated circuit. A micro-controller differs from
a general-purpose CPU chip in that the former generally is quite easy to make into a working
computer, with a minimum of external support chips. The idea is that the micro-controller
will be placed in the device to control, hooked up to power and any information it needs, and
that's that.

Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had

their beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development
has made it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a
prerequisite for production of microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding
external peripherals such as memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing
of the volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated
circuits contained both processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a
microcomputer, or what would later be known as a microcontroller came about.
7.0.2 Memory unit

Memory is part of the microcontroller whose function is to store data. The easiest
way to explain it is to describe it as one big closet with lots of drawers. If we suppose that we
marked the drawers in such a way that they cannot be confused, any of their contents will
then be easily accessible. It is enough to know the designation of the drawer and so its
contents will be known to us for sure. Memory components are exactly like that. For a
certain input we get the contents of a certain addressed memory location and thats all. Two
new concepts are brought to us: addressing and memory location. Memory consists of all
memory locations, and addressing is nothing but selecting one of them. This means that we
need to select the desired memory location on one hand, and on the other hand we need to
wait for the contents of that location. Besides reading from a memory location, memory must
also provide for writing onto it. This is done by supplying an additional line called control
line.
7.0.3 Central processing unit
Let add 3 more memory locations to a specific block that will have a built in
capability to multiply, divide, subtract, and move its contents from one memory location onto
another. The part we just added in is called central processing unit (CPU). Its memory
locations are called registers.
Registers are therefore memory locations whose role is to help with performing
various mathematical operations or any other operations with data wherever data can be
found. Look at the current situation. We have two independent entities (memory and CPU)
which are interconnected, and thus any exchange of data is hindered, as well as its
functionality. If, for example, we wish to add the contents of two memory locations and

return the result again back to memory, we would need a connection between memory and
CPU. Simply stated, we must have some way through data goes from one block to another.
7.0.4 Bus
That way is called bus. Physically, it represents a group of 8, 16, or more wires.
There are two types of buses: address and data bus. The first one consists of as many lines as
the amount of memory we wish to address and the other one is as wide as data, in our case 8
bits or the connection line. First one serves to transmit address from CPU memory, and the
second to connect all blocks inside the microcontroller.
7.0.5 Input - Output unit

Those locations weve just added are called ports. There are several types of ports:
input, output or bi-directional ports. When working with ports, first of all it is necessary to
choose which port we need to work with, and then to send data to, or take it from the port.
When working with it the port acts like a memory location. Something is simply being
written into or read from it, and it could be noticed on the pins of the micro-controller.
7.0.6 LCD Interfacing
The LCD is used to display the condition on which the vehicle is driven i.e., through
the conventional mechanism (fuel) or through the electric wire of the e highway. Depending
on the input, the controller displays the information through LCD interfaced with this
controller. LCD Displays are dominating LED displays, because these displays can display
alphabets, numbers and some kind of special symbols, where as LEDs (seven segment
display) can display only numbers. These LCD displays are very useful for displaying user
information and communication. LCD displays are available in various formats. Most
common are 2 x 16, is that two lines with 16 alphanumeric characters. Other formats are
3x16, 2x40, 3x40 etc;

In recent years LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs, because of the ability
to display numbers, characters, and graphics. Another advantage is, because of its
compactness and ease of programming for characters and graphics, more information in the
form of text message or graphics can be displayed. Generally, the LCD modules have an 8-bit
interface, besides the 8-bit data bus; the interface has a few other control lines. The 8-bit data
bus is connected to port 0 and the control lines are connected to port 2. The default data
transfer between the LCD module and an external device is 8-bits, however it is possible to
communicate with the LCD module using only four of the 8-data lines. The R/W line is
connected to ground and hence the processor cannot read any status information from the
LCD module, but can only write data to the LCD.
Figure 7.0: LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
7.0.7 Advantages of micro controllers
If system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go for external

memory such as RAM, ROM or EPROM and peripherals and hence the size of PCB
will be large enough to hold all the required peripherals.
The micro controller has got all this peripheral facility on a single chip o development
of a similar system with a micro controller reduces PCB size and cost of the design.
One of the major differences between a micro controller and a microprocessor is that
a controller often deals with bits, not bytes as in the real world
For example switch contacts can only be open or close, indicators should be lit or dark
and motors can be either turned on or off and so forth.

7.0.8 8051 Micro controller Architecture
The 8051 architecture consists of these specific features:
Eight bit CPU with registers A (the accumulator) and B

Sixteen-bit program counter (PC) and data pointer (DPTR)
Eight- bit stack pointer (PSW)
Eight-bit stack pointer (Sp)
Internal ROM or EPROM (8751) of 0(8031) to 4K (8051)
Internal RAM of 128 bytes:
Four register banks, each containing eight registers
Sixteen bytes, which may be addressed at the bit level
Eighty bytes of general- purpose data memory
Thirty two input/output pins arranged as four 8-bit ports:p0-p3
Two 16-bit timer/counters: T0 and T1
Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter: SBUF
Control registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP, and IE
Two external and three internal interrupts sources.
Oscillator and clock circuits

Figure 7.1: Pin diagram of 89c51 ic
7.0.9 Port Pin Alternate Function
P3.0 - RxD (serial input port)

P3.1 - TxD (serial output port)
P3.2 - INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3 - INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 - T0 (timer 0 external input)
P3.5 - T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6 - WR (external data memory write strobe)
P3.7 - RD (external data memory read strobe)
VCC - Supply voltage
VSS - Circuit ground potential
All four ports in the 89C51 are bidirectional. Each consists of a latch (Special
Function Registers P0 through P3), an output driver, and an input buffer. The output drivers
of Ports 0 and 2, and the input buffers of Port 0, are used in accesses to external memory. In
this application, Port 0 outputs the low byte of the external memory address, time-
multiplexed with the byte being written or read. Port 2 outputs the high byte of the external
memory address when the address is 16 bits wide. Otherwise, the Port 2 pins continue to emit
the P2 SFR content.
All the Port 3 pins are multifunctional. They are not only port pins, but also
serve the functions of various special features as listed below:
Port Pin Alternate Function
P3.0 RxD (serial input port)
P3.1 TxD (serial output port)
P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt)
P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt)
P3.4 T0 (Timer/Counter 0 external input)
P3.5 T1 (Timer/Counter 1 external input)

P3.6 WR (external Data Memory write strobe)
P3.7 RD (external Data Memory read strobe)
7.0.10 Types of memory
The 8051 have three general types of memory. They are on-chip memory, external
Code memory and external Ram. On-Chip memory refers to physically existing memory on
the micro controller itself. External code memory is the code memory that resides off chip.
This is often in the form of an external EPROM. External RAM is the Ram that resides off
chip. This often is in the form of standard static RAM or flash RAM.
Code memory
Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 8051 programs that is to be run.
This memory is limited to 64K. Code memory may be found on-chip or off-chip. It is
possible to have 4K of code memory on-chip and 60K off chip memory simultaneously. If
only off-chip memory is available then there can be 64K of off chip ROM. This is controlled
by pin provided as EA.
Internal RAM
The 8051 have a bank of 128 bytes of internal RAM. The internal RAM is found on-
chip. So it is the fastest Ram available. And also it is most flexible in terms of reading and
writing. Internal Ram is volatile, so when 8051 is reset, this memory is cleared. 128 bytes of
internal memory are subdivided. The first 32 bytes are divided into 4 register banks. Each
bank contains 8 registers. Internal RAM also contains 128 bits, which are addressed from 20h
to 2Fh. These bits are bit addressed i.e. each individual bit of a byte can be addressed by the
user. They are numbered 00h to 7Fh. The user may make use of these variables with
commands such as SETB and CLR.
7.0.11 Interrupts

Interrupts are hardware signals that are used to determine conditions that exist in
external and internal circuits. Any interrupt can cause the 8051 to perform a hardware call to
an interrupt handling subroutine that is located at a predetermined absolute address in the
program memory.
Five interrupts are provided in the 8051. Three of these are generated automatically by
the internal operations: Timer flag 0, Timer Flag 1, and the serial port interrupt (RI or TI)
Two interrupts are triggered by external signals provided by the circuitry that is connected to
the pins INTO 0 and INTO1. The interrupts maybe enable or disabled, given priority or
otherwise controlled by altering the bits in the Interrupt Enabled (IE) register, Interrupt
Priority (IP) register, and the Timer Control (TCON) register. . These interrupts are mask able
i.e. they can be disabled. Reset is a non maskable interrupt which has the highest priority. It is
generated when a high is applied to the reset pin. Upon reset, the registers are loaded with the
default values.
Each interrupt source causes the program to do store the address in PC onto the stack
and causes a hardware call to one of the dedicated addresses in the program memory. The
appropriate memory locations for each for each interrupt are as follows
7.1 H - Bridge
7.1.0 Introduction
H-Bridge is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied on either side

of the load and the H-bridge DC motors allow the car to run backwards or forwards. H-
Bridge is a configuration of 4 switches, which switch in a specific manner to control the
direction of the current through the motor. Below figure shows simplified H-bridge as
switches. The states of these four switches can be changed in order to change the voltage
across the motor, of the current flow and the rotation of motor.

Figure 7.2: Basic Structure of an H-Bridge
In above figure, all switches are open and the motor terminals are disconnected from
the circuit. This state allows the motor to spin freely. If we open switches S1 & S4 and close
S2 & S3 as in first part of below figure there will be current flow across the circuit and motor
will run. But if S1, S4 are close and S2, S3 are open, the voltage across the motor will switch
around and that will cause the motor to rotate in the opposite direction. Below table
summarizes the basic operation of the H-bridge depending upon the voltage applied across
the switches.
Table 7.0: Basic operation of the H-bridge
S1 S2 S3 S4 Result
1 0 0 1 Motor moves right
0 1 1 0 Motor moves left
0 0 0 0 Motor free runs
0 1 0 1 Motor brakes
1 0 1 0 Motor brakes

7.1.1 Basic theory
Figure 7.3: Circuit diagram of H-Bridge
Let's start with the name, H-bridge. Sometimes called a "full bridge" the H-bridge is
so named because it has four switching elements at the "corners" of the H and the motor
forms the cross bar. The basic bridge is shown in the figure above. The key fact to note is that
there are, in theory, four switching elements within the bridge. These four elements are often
called, high side left, high side right, low side right, and low side left (when traversing in
clockwise order).
The switches are turned on in pairs, either high left and lower right, or lower left and
high right, but never both switches on the same "side" of the bridge. If both switches on one
side of a bridge are turned on it creates a short circuit between the battery plus and battery
minus terminals. If the bridge is sufficiently powerful it will absorb that load and your
batteries will simply drain quickly. Usually however the switches in question melt.
To power the motor, turn on two switches that are diagonally opposed. The current
flows and the motor begin to turn in a "positive" direction. Switch off these two switches and
switch on other two switches diagonally in other direction then the motor starts rotating in
opposite direction. Actually it is quite simple, the tricky part comes in when we decide what

to use for switches. Anything that can carry a current will work, from four SPST switches,
one DPDT switch, relays, transistors, to enhancement mode power MOSFETs.
Table 7.1: Power supply for dc motor
High Side Left High Side Right Low Side Left Low Side Right Quadrant Description
On Off Off On Forward Running
Off On On Off Backward Running
On On Off Off Braking
Off Off On On Braking
In the above table the last two rows describes condition about short circuit the motor
that causes the motors generator effect to work against it. The turning motor generates a
voltage, which tries to force the motor to turn the opposite direction. This causes the motor to
rapidly stop spinning and is called "braking" on a lot of H-bridge designs. Of course there is
also the state where all the transistors are turned off. In this case the motor coasts freely if it
was spinning and does nothing if it was doing nothing.
7.2 Relays
7.2.0 Introduction
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another
electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or
close one or many sets of contacts. A relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power
than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical
amplifier.

Figure 7.4: Relay
Relays are usually SPDT (single pole double through switch) or DPDT (double pole
double through switch) but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example
relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
Figure 7.5: Relay inner view
A relay is an electromagnetic switch, which can be used to make or break the circuit.
In the present module, the relay is used for operating the vehicle driving motor. In this project
work to simulate the vehicle movement, a small DC motor is used and it is connected through
two relay contacts. To energize the electrical devices, normally open contacts are used, when
the relay is energized, normally open contact gets closed and supply is provided to that
particular electrical device.
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another
electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or
close one or many sets of contacts. These contacts can be either Normally Open (NO),
Normally Closed (NC), or change-over contacts. A relay is able to control an output circuit of
higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an
electrical amplifier. So a relay can be defined as an automatic electromagnetic/electronic
switch, which can be used to make or break the circuit. Normally-open contacts connect the
circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is
also called Form A contact or "make" contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that
require to switch a high-current power source from a remote device.
Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact or "break" contact.
Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed until the relay
is activated.
7.2.1 Basic operation of a relay
An electric current through a conductor will produce a magnetic field at right angles
to the direction of electron flow. If that conductor is wrapped into a coil shape, the magnetic
field produced will be oriented along the length of the coil. The greater the current, the
greater the strength of the magnetic field, all other factors being equal.
Figure 7.6: Relay operation
7.2.2 Relay circuit

Inductors react against changes in current because of the energy stored in this
magnetic field. When we construct a transformer from two inductor coils around a common
iron core, we use this field to transfer energy from one coil to the other. However, there are
simpler and more direct uses for electromagnetic fields than the applications we've seen with
inductors and transformers. The magnetic field produced by a coil of current-carrying wire
can be used to exert a mechanical force on any magnetic object, just as we can use a
permanent magnet to attract magnetic objects, except that this magnet (formed by the coil)
can be turned on or off by switching the current on or off through the coil.

If we place a magnetic object near such a coil for the purpose of making that object
move when we energize the coil with electric current, we have what is called a solenoid. The
movable magnetic object is called an armature, and most armatures can be moved with either
direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) energizing the coil. The polarity of the
magnetic field is irrelevant for the purpose of attracting an iron armature. Solenoids can be
used to electrically open door latches, open or shut valves, move robotic limbs, and even
actuate electric switch mechanisms and is used to actuate a set of switch contacts.
7.2.3 Applications
To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers,
To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of
an automobile,
To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at
different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a
low-voltage switch.
They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve

energy.
7.3 Timer chip
7.3.0 Introduction
The 555 Timer is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device that can
act as either a simple timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation
oscillator producing stabilized waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%. The 555
timer chip is extremely robust and stable 8-pin device that can be operated either as a very
accurate Monostable, Bistable or Astable Multivibrator to produce a variety of applications
such as one-shot or delay timers, pulse generation, LED and lamp flashers, alarms and tone

generation, logic clocks, frequency division, power supplies and converters etc, in fact any
circuit that requires some form of time control as the list is endless.
The required trigger pulses for switching the electrical highway light are generated
through 555 Timer IC, which is configured in monostable mode of operation. In this mode of
operation the required voltage levels are varied according to the natural light intensity. The
LDR used in this project work treated as light sensing device and it should be exposed to the
natural light. The resistance variation according to the light will be in wide range, varies from
ohms to mega ohms, when the LDR exposed to the bright light, the resistance decreases by
less than 100 ohms. Similarly the dark resistance of the LDR will be more than 1 mega ohm.
When the LDR is exposed to the minimum light that rises in the morning, triggers the timer
IC and final output of the circuit will be zero, this in turn de-energizes the relay. The timer IC
consists of two` comparators, which are enabled at 1/3 VCC & 2/3 VCC. Thus as long as the
light does not fall on the LDR; the output of the switching transistor that drives the relay will
be in zero. If the LDR is exposed to the minimum light, the resistance of the LDR will be less
than 1K-ohms; during the dark the resistance will be more than 100K ohms. This in turn
changes the threshold level of the timer and output is made high. This will enable the relay
driving transistor and in turn provides the supply to the obstacle sensing circuit and when the
IR sensor is interrupted the light will be switched ON that is designed with high-glow LEDs.
In this configuration the timer chip is playing active roll.
The 555 timer is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits ever
produced. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an
8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8). The 556 is a 14-pin DIP that combines two 555s on
a single chip. The 558 is a 16-pin DIP that combines four slightly modified 555s on a single
chip.
7.3.1 The important features of the 555 timer

It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts
supply voltage.
Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can
be made into several minutes Proper selection of only a few external components
allows timing intervals of several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several
hundred kilo hertz.
It has a high current output; the output can drive TTL.
It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change
in temperature, or equivalently 0.005 %/ C.
The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable with the maximum power dissipation per
package is 600 mW and its trigger and reset inputs are logic compatible.
7.3.2 The 555 operating modes:

There are three types of operating modes
The Mono-stable 555 Timer

The operation and output of the 555 Mono-stable is exactly the same as that for the
transistorized one we look at previously in the Mono-stable Multi-vibrators tutorial. The
difference this time is that the two transistors have been replaced by the 555 timer device.
Consider the 555 Mono-stable circuits below.
Figure 7.7: Mono-stable 555 Timer

When a negative (0V) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Mono-stable
configured 555 Timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator No1) detects this input
and "sets" the state of the flip-flop, changing the output from a "LOW" state to a "HIGH"
state. This action in turn turns "OFF" the discharge transistor connected to pin 7, thereby
removing the short circuit across the external timing capacitor, C1. This allows the timing
capacitor to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until the voltage across the capacitor
reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set up by the internal voltage divider network.
At this point the comparators output goes "HIGH" and "resets" the flip-flop back to its
original state which in turn turns "ON" the transistor and discharges the capacitor to ground
through pin 7. This action also causes the output to change its state back to the original stable
"LOW" value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing process over again. Then as
before, the Mono-stable Multi-vibrator has only ONE stable state.
Bi-stable 555 Timer

As well as the one shot 555 Mono-stable configuration above, we can also produce a
Bi-stable (two stable states) device with the operation and output of the 555 Bi-stable being
similar to the transistorized one we look at previously in the Bi-stable Multi-vibrators
tutorial. The 555 Bi-stable is one of the simplest circuits we can build using the 555 timer
oscillator chip. This bi-stable configuration does not use any RC timing network to produce
an output waveform so no equations are required to calculate the time period of the circuit.
Consider the Bi-stable 555 Timer circuit below.
Figure 7.8: Bi-stable 555 Timer (flip-flop)
The switching of the output waveform is achieved by controlling the trigger and reset
inputs of the 555 timer which are held "HIGH" by the two pull-up resistors, R1 and R2. By
taking the trigger input (pin 2) "LOW", switch in set position, changes the output state into
the "HIGH" state and by taking the reset input (pin 4) "LOW", switch in reset position,
changes the output into the "LOW" state. This 555 timer circuit will remain in either state
indefinitely and is therefore bi-stable. Then the Bi-stable 555 timer is stable in states,
"HIGH" and "LOW". The threshold input (pin 6) is connected to ground to ensure that it
cannot reset the bi-stable circuit as it would in a normal timing application.
Figure 7.9: Astable 555 Oscillator
In the 555 Oscillator above, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the
circuit to re-trigger itself on each and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running
oscillator. During each cycle capacitor, C charges up through both timing resistors, R1 and
R2 but discharges itself only through resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is connected to the
discharge terminal, pin 7. Then the capacitor charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator
limit) which is determined by the 0.693(R1+R2) C combination and discharges itself down to
1/3Vcc (the lower comparator limit) determined by the 0.693(R2.C) combination. This results
in an output waveform whose voltage level is approximately equal to Vcc - 1.5V and whose
output "ON" and "OFF" time periods are determined by the capacitor and resistors
combinations. The individual times required to completing one charge and discharge cycle of
the output is therefore given.

7.4 Sensing circuit

7.4.0 Light sensing circuit
In this project work a LDR (light dependent resistor) is used as light sensing device.
The is used to sense the natural light by which depending on the interruption of the optical
sensors, the electrical highway lights will be activated automatically during sundown. The
LDR which is used in this project work is aimed to sense the light intensity. This is very
sensitive device, which converts the light energy into variable resistance and the resistance of
this LDR will vary according to the light intensity. As the light intensity increases, resistance
decreases (inversely proportional). The amount of light falling on the surface of the light-
sensing device is to be converted in to a proportionate potential, which is used to trigger the
circuit. The trigger circuit is designed with timer chip and it is configured in mono-stable
mode of operation. The output of the trigger circuit is fed to the relay for providing supply to
the obstacle sensing circuit so as to control the high way lighting system.
Figure 7.10: Light Sensing Resister
In light sensitive trigger system Timer IC555 is used as comparator which compares
voltage at every node of circuit. To increase voltage at trigger pin of timer IC 555, LDR and
other resistance are connected. LDR is a photo-resistor which increases its resistance value in
dark light i.e., at night and decreases its value in sun light or any source of light. LDR is the
main component of the project to automatically control the electrical highway lights. The

resistance of light dependant resistor (LDR) varies according to the light falling on it.
According to the light falls on the LDR, the resistance value at trigger pin increases which
makes use of the output pin switching condition to activate the relay.
7.4.1 Obstacle sensing circuit
Infrared sensors are used in this for the detection of the vehicle movement on the
electrical highway. Whenever the IR sensor is interrupted, the trigger circuit designed with
LM 567 tone decoder chip will activate the light through relay contacts. The IR sensor
consists of units called transmitter and receiver circuit. The LM567 IC is a general-purpose
tone decoder designed to provide a saturated transistor switch to ground when an input signal
is present within the pass band. The circuit consists of two-phase detectors i.e., Q and I
detector that are driven by a voltage-controlled oscillator, which determines the center
frequency of the decoder. External components are used to independently set center
frequency, bandwidth and output delay.
As the IC is configured with a VCO internally, it will be generating the frequency

depending on the R and C values that are connected to the 5 and 6 pins of the 567-tone
decoder IC. 5th pin is called as the timing resistor (RT) and 6 th pin is called as the timing
capacitor (CT). As the frequency is inversely proportional to R and C values, by defining the
RC network at the IC; the VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) along with the Q-phase
detector will be generating a particular frequency which will be coming out from the 5 th pin
of the tone decoder IC. The I-phase detector is used to decode or compare the received
frequency with the generated frequency. The IR is having the characteristics of a laser i.e., it
almost travels in a straight line with minimum expansion and like laser light it is also a
monochromatic light. Another important feature of IR is that while the transmission is being
done the IR transmitter and the IR receiver (detector) both should be in line of sight.
The IR receiver is connected to the 3rd pin, which is the input pin of the IC. As the IR
signal is transmitted into the free space and the IR receiver detects the signal. In the free
space as lot of noise signals are present; the IR signal will be received with some noise
signals. So in order to eliminate the noise signals a capacitor is connected in between the IR
receiver and the 3rd pin of the 567-tone decoder IC. And thus the IR received signal is fed to
the IC, which will compare the received frequency signal with that of the generated
frequency. The I-phase detector does this comparison and the output will be enabled when

both the frequencies matches i.e., transmitted frequency is equal to the received frequency.
And if the frequencies do not match the output will not be enabled.
When both the transmitted and the received frequencies are matched, the I-phase
detector enables the output pin of the 567-tone decoder i.e., the 8 th pin. So when the output is
enabled the output from the IC is a logic low signal. And if the frequencies do not match, the
output will not be enabled and the 8th pin will logic high signal. This is due to the fact that at
the 8th pin internally a transistor is present whose emitter is grounded and the collector pin the
output 8th pin. And if the circuit of the 567-tone decoder is observed, we can see the supply
i.e., Vcc is connected to the output pin of the IC through a resistor.
When the frequencies match, the output will be enabled by which the transistor will
be conducting (ON) and the Vcc supply will grounded through the transistor internally in the
IC 567 Tone decoder itself. So a logic low signal will be received. And the same way if
frequencies do not match output will not enabled by which the transistor will not be
conducting (OFF) and the supply will be coming from the output pin, which is the logic high
signal.

Chapter -8
SOLAR PANEL AND BATTERY
8.0 Solar panel
Solar Panels are a form of active solar power, a term that describes how solar panels
make use of the sun's energy: solar panels harvest sunlight and actively convert it to
electricity. Solar Cells, or photovoltaic cells, are arranged in a grid-like pattern on the surface
of the solar panel. These solar voltaic cells collect sunlight during the daylight hours and
convert it into electricity.
A photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel is a packaged interconnected assembly

of photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells. The photovoltaic module, known more
commonly as the solar panel, is then used as a component in a larger photovoltaic system to
offer electricity for commercial and residential applications.
Because a single photovoltaic module can only produce a limited amount of power,
many installations contain several modules or panels and this is known as a photovoltaic
array. A photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules or
panels, an inverter, batteries and interconnection wiring. Photovoltaic systems are used for
either on- or off-grid applications, and for solar panels on spacecraft.
Solar panels are typically constructed with crystalline silicon, which is used in other
industries (such as the microprocessor industry), and the more expensive gallium arsenide,
which is produced exclusively for use in photovoltaic (solar) cells.
Other, more efficient solar panels are assembled by depositing amorphous silicon
alloy in a continuous roll-to-roll process. The solar cells created from this process are called
Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells, or A-si. Solar Panels constructed using amorphous silicon
technology is more durable, efficient, and thinner than their crystalline counterparts.
The practical applications of solar panels constructed from plastics are staggering -
they could be overlaid onto a laptop screen to provide continuous power, or provide
supplemental power to any number of outdoor appliances. The primary hurdle for this new

technology is efficiency, and these 'plastic' solar panels have an operational efficiency of
about .11% of their silicon-based counterparts. The only short-term solution to this energy
problem is for these plastic solar panels to generate electricity from light outside the visible
spectrum of light. Some highly experimental plastic solar panels have been made to absorb
infrared energy, and if a solar panel is made that can absorb both infrared energy and light
from the visible spectrum, the operational efficiency could increase up to thirty percent.
Coming to the electric power to the e highway, is powered by the solar panel. Solar
panels can be used to exploit solar energy that, when absorbed, can be an efficient source of
energy for electricity and heating. In addition, the power that is produced by solar panels can
be used for many other things. Here in our module we are using the solar panel to generate
electricity for the electric line of the electrical highway. The panel used here is a 10W panel.
For real applications this can be increased to generate more power depending on the
requirements.
8.0.1 The process of making a solar panel
Making solar panels is a delicate process, and it is for this reason that major solar
advances did not come into play until the lattermost quarter of the last century, when
advances in semiconductors and photovoltaic design allowed increasingly efficient and
affordable solar cells to be developed.
Crystalline silicon solar panels
The creation of solar panels typically involves cutting crystalline silicon into tiny
disks less than a centimeter thick. These thin, wafer-like disks are then carefully polished and
treated to repair and gloss any damage from the slicing process. After polishing, dopants
(materials added to alter an electrical charge in a semiconductor or photovoltaic solar cell)
and metal conductors are spread across each disk. The conductors are aligned in a thin, grid-
like matrix on the top of the solar panel, and are spread in a flat, thin sheet on the side facing
the earth.
To protect the solar panels after processing, a thin layer of cover glass is then bonded
to the top of the photovoltaic cell. After the bonding of protective glass, the nearly finished
panel is attached to a substrate by expensive, thermally conductive cement. The thermally

conductive property of the cement keep the solar panel from becoming overheated; any
leftover energy that the solar panel is unable to convert to electricity would otherwise
overheat the unit and reduce the efficiency of the solar cells.
Despite these protective measures against the tendency of solar panels to overheat, it
is vital that when installing a solar panel, additional steps should be taken to ensure the solar
panel is kept cool. Elevating the solar panel above ground to let the airflow underneath, cool
the device.
Figure 8.0: Crystalline silicon solar panels
Amorphous silicon solar panels
Amorphous silicon solar panels are a powerful, emerging line of photovoltaic that
differ in output, structure, and manufacture than traditional photovoltaic, which use
crystalline silicon. Amorphous silicon solar cells, or A-si cells, are developed in a continuous
roll-to-roll process by vapor-depositing silicon alloys in multiple layers, with each extremely
thin layer specializing in the absorption of different parts of the solar spectrum. The result is
record-breaking efficiency and reduced materials cost (A-si solar cells are typically thinner
than their crystalline counterparts).
Some Amorphous Solar Panels also come with shade-resistant technology or multiple
circuits within the cells, so that if an entire row of cells is subject to complete shading, the
circuit won't be completely broken and some output can still be gained. This is especially
useful when installing solar panels on a boat.

The development process of Amorphous Silicon solar panels also renders them much
less susceptible to breakage during transport or installation. This can help reduce the risk of
damaging your significant investment in a photovoltaic system.
Figure 8.1: Amorphous silicon solar panels
8.0.2 Power generation by solar panels
In direct sunlight at the surface of the equator, a maximally efficient photovoltaic cell
about 1/5m in diameter creates a current of approximately 2 amps at 2 volts, however, due to
the Earth's atmospheric interference, terrain solar panels will never perform as well as solar
panels exposed directly to the sun's rays. Years of overheating and physical wear can,
however, reduce the operation efficiency of the photovoltaic unit. Solar cells become less
efficient over time, and excess energy is released into its thermally conductive substrate as
infrared heat.
The amount of power solar panels produce is influenced by the quality of the solar
panel, the materials and technology used in making the solar panel, and the amount of time
the solar panel has been in use. When purchasing solar panels, it is therefore wise to look
beyond size and look at the dollars/watt ratio. Solar energy originates in the depths of our
sun. The sun endures a continuous stream of thermo-nuclear explosions as hydrogen atoms
are fused into helium atoms. We encounter the resultant energy as radiation that strikes the
surface of the earth. Solar panels convert this solar radiation into useful electrical energy and
store them in batteries for our use. Enough solar radiation strikes the earth every day to meet
earth's energy needs for an entire year. Solar panels help us harvest this energy and convert it
into usable energy to meet the everyday needs of modern life.

8.0.3 Working of solar panel
Solar panels collect solar radiation from the sun and actively convert that energy to
electricity. Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells. These solar cells
function similarly to large semiconductors and utilize a large-area p-n junction diode. When
the solar cells are exposed to sunlight, the p-n junction diodes convert the energy from
sunlight into usable electrical energy. The energy generated from photons striking the surface
of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their orbits and released, and electric
fields in the solar cells pull these free electrons in a directional current, from which metal
contacts in the solar cell can generate electricity. The more solar cells in a solar panel and the
higher the quality of the solar cells, the more total electrical output the solar panel can
produce. The conversion of sunlight to usable electrical energy has been dubbed the
Photovoltaic Effect. The photovoltaic effect arises from the properties of the p-n junction
diode; as such there are no moving parts in a solar panel.
Figure 8.2: Working of solar panel
8.0.4 Energy from the sun
Energy from the sun is caused from thermonuclear explosions deep within the sun.
These explosions fuse atoms of hydrogen into atoms of helium. A tremendous amount of
energy is released during the thermonuclear reaction and the sun releases that energy as
radiation. This radiation travels through space at the speed of light, and solar panels can make

practical use of it. Our sun generates an enormous amount of energy, and potentially, had we
the technology to harvest that sunlight with solar arrays across the solar system; we could
harvest huge amounts of energy. According to our friends at Astronomy Cafe, we calculate
the amount of energy given off the sun every hour as
8.0.5 Advantages and Limitations
Solar energy is power derived from the rays of the sun. It is considered to be one, if
not the most, environmentally friendly source of energy that can be used on earth.
Studies up to this point in time, indeed, show that generating power or heat using
solar energy does not produce the same environmental threats that come with the
utilization of traditional sources of energy particularly fossil fuel.
Power production on earth involves not only the laws of physics but of economics as
well.
Solar energy has been used in minute scale for heating houses, cooking some food
and generating a certain amount of electricity for household or personal use.
In industrial settings, solar energy has been successfully used in desalinating seawater
to produce fresh water for human consumption, and conversely, in producing sea salt
in desalination plants.
There are houses, boats and industrial or scientific facilities that either partly or
wholly rely on solar energy to power their electrical appliances or equipment.
It can be used to light up lamps, cook food, power refrigeration or air conditioning
equipment and desalinate or purify water.
Solar panels have become standard equipment in pleasure boats, passenger ships and
large ocean tankers. They are being relied upon to supply electricity that power
communication and navigation equipment.
Sun ray collectors and photosensitive solar panels, up to the present, are still very
expensive equipment. In locations where, night time is longer than daytime, the use of
solar energy may not necessarily cut the cost of energy, and any savings from the cost
of traditional source of power may not actually offset the cost of investment made on
the solar energy equipment.
There are places where daytime is longer than nighttime in most part of the year, but
the weather condition is such that clouds cover most part of the sky all day.

This is true in many tropical countries where the storm season takes almost half of the
year. Ironically, also, in many countries where the sun is uncovered most of the day
and year, like in the sub-Saharan parts of Africa, the economic condition of the people
is such that the cost of sun ray collectors and solar panels for household or industrial
use is just way beyond their reach.

8.1 Battery
8.1.0 Introduction
Battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, consisting of a
group of electric cells that are connected to act as a source of direct current. The term is also
now commonly used for a single cell, such as the alkaline dry cell used in flashlights and
portable tape players, but strictly speaking batteries are made up of connected cells encased
in a container and fitted with terminals to provide a source of direct electric current at a given
voltage. A cell consists of two dissimilar substances, a positive electrode and a negative
electrode, that conduct electricity, and a third substance, an electrolyte, that acts chemically
on the electrodes. The two electrodes are connected by an external circuit (e.g., a piece of
copper wire); the electrolyte functions as an ionic conductor for the transfer of the electrons
between the electrodes. The voltage, or electromotive force, depends on the chemical
properties of the substances used, but is not affected by the size of the electrodes or the
amount of electrolyte.
Batteries are classed as either dry cell or wet cell. In a dry cell the electrolyte is
absorbed in a porous medium, or is otherwise restrained from flowing. In a wet cell the
electrolyte is in liquid form and free to flow and move. Batteries also can be generally
divided into two main types-rechargeable and non-rechargeable, or disposable. Disposable
batteries, also called primary cells, can be used until the chemical changes that induce the
electrical current supply are complete, at which point the battery is discarded. Disposable
batteries are most commonly used in smaller, portable devices that are only used
intermittently or at a large distance from an alternative power source or have a low current
strain. Rechargeable batteries, also called secondary cells, can be reused after being drained.
Applying an external electrical current, which causes the chemical changes that occur in use
to be reversed, does this. The external devices that supply the appropriate current are called
chargers or recharges.

Figure 8.3: Battery (12 volts)
The electrical energy generated by the solar panel is stored in the battery, which is
used to operate the automatic lighting system of the electrical highway and the electric line as
well. Since the device is to be operated depending on our requirement, the energy produced
by the solar panel will be stored in the battery, which in turn will provide the supply to the
devices mentioned. Therefore stored energy is used, for this purpose fully condition a lead
acid rechargeable battery of 12v, 1.2 Ah is used that will operate the electric line and the
lights automatically by sensing the natural light and the vehicle movement.
8.1.1 Charging circuit
A device containing an electric cell or a series of electric cells, storing energy that can
be converted into electrical power (usually in the form of direct current) is defined as a
battery. Common household batteries, such as those used in a flashlight, are usually made of
dry cells (the chemicals producing the current are made into a paste). In other batteries, such
as car batteries, these chemicals are in liquid form.
Here for charging the battery from the voltage derived from the solar panel a charging
circuit has been designed. In the charging circuit a 15V positive voltage regulator 7815, a
silicon Epitaxial-Base Planar NPN transistor and a diode are used. The output voltage from
the solar panel is connected to the input pin of the positive voltage regulator as well as the
collector of the NPN transistor 2N5296 which is a medium power transistor. In the voltage
regulator first pin is the input second is the ground pin and the third is the output pin that is
connected to the base of the transistor 2N5296. The emitter of the transistor is connected to
the battery positive terminal with a diode. So when the transistor conducts, the solar panel
voltage at the collector passes through the transistor and charges the battery. The output of the
positive voltage regulator is used to drive the transistor by which the battery gets charged up.
The circuit diagram of the battery charging circuit is shown below.
Figure 8.4: Battery charging circuit
A battery stores chemical energy, which it converts to electrical energy. A typical

battery, such as a car battery, is composed of an arrangement of galvanic cells. Each cell
contains two metal electrodes, separate from each other, immersed within an electrolyte
containing both positive and negative ions. A chemical reaction between the electrodes and
the electrolyte, similar to that found in electroplating, takes place, and the metals dissolve in
the electrolyte, leaving electrons behind on the electrodes. This gives rise to an electric
potential between the electrodes, which are typically linked together in series and parallel to
one another in order to provide the desired voltage at the battery terminals (12 volts, for
example, for a car battery). The buildup of charge on the electrodes prevents the metals from
dissolving further, but if the battery is hooked up to an electric circuit through which current
may flow, electrons are drawn out of the negative electrodes and into the positive ones,
reducing their charge and allowing further chemical reactions.
Chapter -9
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
The project work is designed and developed successfully.

The demonstration purpose, a prototype module is constructed; and the results are
found to be satisfactory.
Since it is a prototype module, a simple moving vehicle is constructed.
In future this can be implemented not only on highways but also on the normal roads
with the electric line.
While designing and developing this proto type module, we have consulted few
experts those who are having knowledge in Mechatronics.
The professionals working at different organizations belongs to Hyderabad helped us
while fabricating this project work.
Since it is a prototype module, much amount is not invested.
The whole machine is constructed with locally available components, especially the
mechanical components.
The mechanical components are used in this project work are procured from
mechanical fabricators
Mechanical components are not exactly up to the requirement. Some of the
modifications must be carried out in design to make it as real working system.
Chapter -10
REFERENCES
1. The concept combines innovation with extensive experience because it is based on

proven railroad technologies from Siemens.
2. Intelligent pantograph on trial By: Roman, Ralf.
3. Synthesis study on the operational reliability of an urban transport system using
electrically driven trams - By: Gabriel Bendea.
4. Study on aerodynamic resistance to electric rail vehicles generated by the power
supply - By: Arsene Sorin, Sebesan Ioan.
5. Research on Electromagnetic interference Of Wiring Motor Vehicle In Coal Mine
Tunnel By: Zhang Hong-wei.
6. Unconventional current collection from a contact line for electric traction vehicles By:
Gaurav Kumar Mishra.
7. Simulation of vehicle-overhead power system interaction on electric roads - By:
Jerrelind, Jenny.
8. The concepts and features of micro-controllers - By: Raj kamal.
9. The 8051 Micro-controller Architecture, programming & Applications By: Kenneth J.
Ayala.
10. Programming and Customizing the 8051 Micro-controller By: Myke Predko.
11. Robotic Engineering an Integrated Approach By: Richard D.Klafter, Thomas,
A.Chmiclewski, Michael Negin.
12. Introduction to Robotics - By: Saeed B. Niku.
13. Mechatronics Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and electrical Engineering
By: W. Bolton.
14. Mechatronics By HMT Limited.
15. Mechanical and Industrial Measurements - By: R.K. Jain.
16. Mechanism and Machine Theory By: J.S. Rao, R.V. Dukkipati.
17. Industrial Robotics Technology, Programming, & Applications. By: Mikell P.
Groover, Mitchell weiss, Roger.
18. Electronic Circuit guide book Sensors By Joseph J.Carr
19. Linear Integrated Circuits B y: D. Roy choudhury, Shail Jain.
20. Effect of Controller Parameters on Pantograph-Catenary System By: Rachana garg,
Priya Mahajan, Parmod kumar.

21. Simulation of vehicle-overhead power system interaction on electric roads By:

Jenny jerrelind, Lars drugge.

Chapter-1: 1.0 The Concept

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Mechanism and Model of an Electric Driven Highway Vehicle by Solar Power

1.0 The concept

Figure 1.0: Electrical Highway vehicle

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 1

Figure 1.1: Energy supplied

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 2

Figure 1.2: Pantograph Connection

1.3 Hybrid drive

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 3

Reduces pollutant emissions

1.5 Electrified mining transport

Figure 1.3: Pantograph used mining transportation

1.6 Electrified networks as a whole

Figure 1.4: Electrified network vehicle

1.7 Electric mobility in commercial vehicles

The electrical highway concept is particularly effective from an environmental and

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 5

1.9 Mechanical actuation section

The mechanical system is considering as motion converter, this can be created by

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 6

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 7

1. Intelligent pantograph on trial

2. Synthesis study on the operational reliability of an urban transport

3. Study on aerodynamic resistance to electric rail vehicles generated by the

4. Pantographs pushed for higher speed

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 8

5. Research on electromagnetic interference of wiring motor vehicle in coal

6. Capacity configuration and energy control strategy of stationary super

7. Wide band and narrow band characterization of the propagation

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 9

8. Unconventional current collection from a contact line for electric

9. Simulation of vehicle-overhead power system interaction on electric

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 10

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 11

Figure 3.0: Pantograph

The familiar diamond-shaped roller pantograph was invented by John Q. Brown of

3.2 Modern use

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 12

Figure 3.1: Modern view of the pantograph use

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 13

Figure 3.2: Details about pantograph

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 14

Figure 3.3: Trolley with pantograph

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 15

Figure 3.4: Over head line with trolley

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 16

GEARS AND DRIVE MECHANISMS

Figure 4.0: Gear

4.1 Comparison with drive mechanisms

Figure 4.1: Different Types of velocity gear

4.2 Different types of gears

4.2.0 Spur gears

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 19

Figure 4.2: Spur gear

Advantages: Spur gears are easy to find, inexpensive, and efficient.

4.2.1 Helical gears

Figure 4.3: Helical gears

Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer,

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 20

4.2.2 Bevel gears

Figure 4.4: Bevel gears

Department of mechanical engineering, SCET Page 21

Advantages: Excellent choice for intersecting shaft systems.