White Paper
Selecting Feedback Devices
Content contributed by Motor Consultants, LLC
Worldwide applications use feedback for speed
and/or position control. Feedbacks important
role in the machine is to make sure that the
machine delivers performance, precision, and
accuracy. The following presents guidelines on
how to select feedback for an application.
A feedback sensor must be capably of measuring the
correct control variable ie speed, direction, position,
with sufficient resolution. In general, guidelines suggest
resolution 10 times higher than the specified accuracy
of the variable being monitored. Feedback is usually
mounted on the motor; however some applications
use feedback directly on the load. This introduces
mechanical play and dead times. A high quality control
should be used to allow for compensation of these
potential situations.
SPEED FEEDBACK
For applications needing only speed control, one of
the least expensive feedback devices is the tachometer.
And the most popular, universally accepted, tach is the
permanent magnet design, which provides an output
voltage directly proportional to speed with polarity
indicating direction of rotation. The DC tach provides
output voltage according to:
V=S x Ke
R = (1/5) x (60,000/4) = 3000
Where V = output voltage generated (volts)
S = speed at which tach is rotated (Krpm) And an encoder with resolution of 3000 counts per
Ke = tach voltage constant (volts/Krpm) revolution would be necessary
The DC tach has wide capability and if operated within
its rated speed range it provides linear behavior. Above
rated speed (usually above 6000 rpm), aerodynamic lift,
brush bounce or commutator run-out will cause a drop
in the linear characteristic. However for most speed
control applications this speed range is acceptable.
The tach voltage constant selected for the application
depends upon operating speed. For example if the
choices are 2.0 V/Krpm and 19.5 V/Krpm and the
applications speed will be 100 rpm, then the output
voltage read will be 0.2 volts (ie 0.100 x 2.5) and 1.95
volts respectively. Obviously the lower the speed, the
higher voltage constant would be preferable as it makes
it easier to regulate thus accurately controlling speed;
and for higher speed applications a low tach voltage
will be preferable so as not to saturate circuitry.
The analog signal provided by the DC tach is mostly
used with analog controls, and since most modern
controls are digital, DC tachs for speed feedback is
becoming less common.
For tight speed control, especially at low speed, a high
pulse count encoder with a digital control can be used.
To measure speed each millisecond to an accuracy of
rpm, the encoder resolution can be determined by:
R = (1/rpm) x (60,000/4)
Where R = resolution, encoder counts per revolution
(cpr)
rpm = accuracy of revolutions per minute
60,000 = milliseconds per minute
4 = quadcounts per square pulse
As an example, if desired accuracy would be 5 rpm, this
results in:
POSITION FEEDBACK
In selecting the proper feedback device for a positioning
application, the requirements that need to be identified
include: homing strategy and accuracy requirements.
HOMING STRATEGY
The first step is to determine if the application/machine
can move the motor/load to a switch closure/point to
determine a reference or starting or home position. If
this is not the case, then an absolute feedback device is
required. Either parallel absolute or serial synchronous
interface (SSI) feedback would be selected depending
on the applications positioner and its capability.
For applications that can move to a reference point
to identify the start position, then an incremental
feedback device can be used, such as:
Resolver
Encoder
ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS
The next step is to determine what accuracy is needed
at the load, and how this compares against the accuracy
and resolution that the feedback device can provide.
The variety of feedback devices that will be used for
this example are displayed in figure 1, along with their
resolution. For this example, the encoders have 1000
and 2500 pulses per revolution (ppr) with channels
A and B and since the control will read positive and
negative transitions, thus the resolution or counts per
revolution (cpr) is 4 times the number of pulses.
Feedback Pulse/Revolution Counts/Revolution
Device (PPR) (CPR) (Resolution)
Encoder 500 2000
Encoder 1000 4000
Resolver 4096 16,384
SSI 4096 16,384
Figure 1 Pulse and Counts per revolution for various feedback devices
As an example, if an application required +/- 0.0008
accuracy using a ball screw (pitch = 5 rev/in) the resolution
requirement would be determined as follows:
M = 2 P X
where M = displacement at the motor shaft (radians)
P = ball screw pitch (revolution/inch)
X = linear displacement accuracy (inches).
This leads to a rotary accuracy of:
M = 2 (5) (+/- 0.0008)
= +/- 0.02512 radians
Converting radians to degrees:
X = 0.02512 x 360 deg/2
= +/- 1.4 degrees
The minimum number of counts per revolution (cpr)
that the feedback device must be capable of providing
is:
cpr = 360 / 1.4 = 250 counts/revolution (cpr)
Using the rule-of-thumb that the resolution be 10 times
this figure, therefore the goal would be for a count of
2500 cpr or better for resolution.
Considering the feedback devices from figure 1 above,
the conclusions are: 1) the 500 ppr encoder will provide
a resolution of 2000 cpr this does not meet the need
as determined; 2) the 1000 ppr encoder will provide
resolution of 4000 cpr will meet the specified accuracy;
3) the resolver and SSI provide resolution of 16,384 cpr
both of which meet the specification.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
There is a parameter to consider especially when
encountering high speeds, or rather high number of
counts per time. Bandwidth is the maximum rate at
which an electric system can change state - - reacting
to pulses require a certain amount of time for the
circuits to switch from high to low. In other words,
at high input rate, or high frequencies, the encoder
no longer switches properly between the two states.
Every encoder has a maximum frequency at which it
can output a signal. This limit is termed the maximum
operating frequency of the encoder. Consider a 2000
ppr encoder with a maximum bandwidth of 100,000
Hertz (Hz). Divide bandwidth by ppr and the result is
maximum speed which the encoder can electrically run.
The answer for this example is 50 revolutions per second
or 3000 rpm.
The other consideration is the bandwidth of the control
receiving the encoder signals. As encoders have limits,
so do control systems (counters, motor controls, PLCs).
However many modern controls have dedicated circuitry
with high bandwidth for encoders.
Figure 2 summaries and compares the various feedback devices for output, pulse/revolution and accuracy. Note since
accuracy is +/- count, the higher the ppr, the higher the accuracy is for the applications. The tradeoff can be cost.

Halls (3 located 120 Incremental Absolute

Tachometer Resolver
apart) Encoder Encoder

Speed Electronic Relative Position, Absolute Position,

Use For Relative Position
Measurement Commutation Commutation Speed Commutation Speed

Digital, Serial /
Voltage Proportional
Output Digital Digital Parallel Sinusoidal
To Speed
Communication

Accuracy +1 / -1% Set Speed 60 Degrees + / - count + / - count + / - 10 count

500 x 4 = 2000
Output ppr None 6 SSI = 16,384 16,384
1000 x 4 = 4000

No Internal
Very Long Life, No Observe Shock, Observe Shock, Electronics, Can
Comments Long Life
Parts to Wear Vibration, Dust Vibration, Dust Handle Higher
Temperatures

Figure 2 Summary of feedback devices capability and accuracy

In general another requirement to review for applications and selection of feedback devices would be environmental
conditions. Verify that the feedback device can handle any shock, vibration and temperature that the application will be
subjected to. For example high or low ambient temperatures, extremes are usually found in automotive, space, cryogenic,
aeronautical and some other applications.