Ethan Arbiser

JS 375W: Southern Jewish Writers

Date: 4/25/2017
Professor Julien

Significance of Key Events in Black-Jewish Relations in the South

Being a minority within the 1900s setting was an interesting time for minorities,

especially Blacks and Jews. There are a variety of events recorded in history that display the

complicated times of these minorities endured. From lynching to bombings, the Jews shared less

severe experiences of segregation compared to the Black population. Because the Jews were

white and willing to assimilate, they were treated significantly better than the blacks who

experienced a dark past in the South. Both Jews and blacks did not participate fully in some of

the privileges of white southerners which included entry into institutions or occupations and

other examples. These two populations of minorities share a commonality during the formative

years following the Reconstruction Era in the South. Often, there were positive relationships that

were formed through economic and social bonds between Jews and Blacks. However, this

relationship was not always a positive relationship during the difficult times in the South. Such

relationships were defined by iconic moments that occur in throughout the 1900s. This essay

will discuss the events that occurred in Atlanta throughout this period.

Before analyzing the most iconic events regarding the relationship between Jews and

Blacks in the South, it is crucial to understand the realities that both populations experienced

during this time in United States history. David Goldfield accurate explains that although white

southerners distinguished blacks by color, status, gender, and adherence to racial

etiquette, African Americans occupied the lowest place in southern society regardless

of other variables. White Gentiles usually viewed Jews as white, but Jews

initially failed to meet most of the other criteria of placing. Once they established
themselves, however, and proved their fealty to local customs, Jews began to

move up on the place list, though seldom if ever to the topmost rung. Mobility for

Jews was possible, even probable; for blacks, rare, if ever (Goldfield, 59). There were many

privileges that Jews enjoyed in the South that Blacks were forbidden to participate in. Examples

of this occurred often in regards to education and occupation. An example that hits close to home

is Emory Dental School. This when there was a quota of Jews mandated by the dean of the

school, John E. Buhler. Blacks, however, did not have this educational opportunity. This quota

system was investigated by Perry Brickman, former dental student, who realized that there was

evident prejudice against Jewish students. According to an Anti-Defamation League (ADL)

report, 65% of the Jewish students at that time either flunked out or were forced to repeat

coursework - up to a year of it - in order to stay (Ravitz). The findings were documented in a

film called From Silence to Recognition: Confronting Discrimination in Emory's Dental School

History." The title, From Silence to Recognition, signifies the Jewish voice within Southern

society. One of the reasons that this was discovered several decades afterwards is because Jews

did not want to cause trouble or stir the pot, in this case, it was the flunking of Jewish students

from the dental school. This was the relationship between most southern Jews and the white

southern majority. Jews in the South tried to assimilate with the culture and by protesting

southern ideals like segregation, they would be sticking out in the society. Even such sentiments

were popular among Jews during the Civil Rights Movement and the desegregation period. This

was because for a Jew to publicly support desegregation was to risk identification with blacks

on the place ladder, and such identification could be dangerous (Goldfield 69). It is interesting

to note that the economic mobility of Atlantas Jews was strongly affected by the citys large

Black population. Jews, in turn, provided Negroes with useful services and what appeared to be a
viable model for group advancement. Relations between the two communities were highly

ambivalent and influenced by circumstances beyond their control (Hertzberg, 181). Jews

employed blacks and had stores near black neighborhoods. They also treated blacks with more

public respect calling blacks Mr. and Mrs., which was different from the white Southern norm.

The minority perspective in a Southern majority is crucial to understand the major historical

events that define Black-Jewish relations in a larger context.

One of the most famous events was the murder case of Mary Phagan, a white 14-year-old

working at a pencil factory in Atlanta, Georgia. The two main suspects in the case were a black

janitor named Jim Conely and the Jewish factory manager Leo Frank. This case has several

details regarding the murder and the evidence/testimonies given that are peculiar to the historical

context of the trial. One specific piece of evidence was a murder note with broken southern

language claiming to be the night witch (Melnick, 99). The jury determined that this was

referring to the night watch who was not Frank, but he was the previous watch. The black

suspect and witness, Conely, claimed to be illiterate just like the average black man at the time.

However during the trial, the court was given deep attention Conelys literacy level and asked

him to take a literacy test. To put into perspective the use of literacy tests in the South, it was

most familiar as a tool used by white southerners to disqualify African Americans from voting

in the post-Reconstruction era (Melnick, 94). It was evident that he was more literate that he

pretended, especially being employed by this factory it was very possible that Conely was

literate. Such an aspect of literacy levels can show the economic benefits of a Black-Jewish

relationship. A black employee could have the potential to become more literate, while the

Jewish employer can make monetary benefit. This was clearly observed in the Brief of Evidence
stating that the Jewish factor manager could use the increased literacy of the African American

janitor for his own benefit Melnick, 96).

One major caveat that occurred during this trial of Leo Frank was the use of a testimony

of an illiterate black man in the 1900s South. This was the first time in the South that a negros

testimony was used fairly in the court against Frank. Melnick notes that this testimony was used

because the primary suspect was Jewish, but also white skinned. The media took advantage of

this and because he was white it was necessary to emphasize Jewishness to justify the

functionality of Jim Conelys testimony (Melnick 38). This did not go unnoticed and Jews and

blacks nationwide participated in the defense of their respective party. Racist terminology was

used to describe both Conely and Frank during the trials.

For Jews, this case had dire significance to Jewish-Gentile relations in American

historical context. The major significance of this case in the larger historical. This was

accurately articulated by the Georgia prosecuting attorney Hugh Dorsey at the end of the trial

stating, never in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race never in the history of any other race did

an ignorant, filthy negro accuse a white man of a crime and that man decline to face him [in

questioning] (Melnick 39). Now, one may think that the two minority defenses engaged in civil

dialogue during the trial, however, racism was extremely evident during the trial on both sides.

This was particularly true in regards to the eligibility of Conely as a reliable witness and the

medias depiction of Frank in the courtroom and newspapers. The media focused on Franks

perversity in the case was dependent on related perceptions of his lack of manliness, his

wealth/power, and his Jewishness (Melnick, 44). This rhetoric failed to mention that Frank was

considered a very assimilated Jew. Melnick notes that Frank was the kind of Jew who did not

remember the Sabbath to keep it holy; he was working at the pencil factory on the Saturday
when Mary Phagan was killed (Melnick, 35). The average southern Jew was very different from

any other Jew in the United States at the time and did not want to rock the boat of southern

society.

In regards Jim Conely, he was frequently referred to as a New Negro. This referred to

blacks as fearsome, unruly, out for white women and was indistinguishable from the Old

Negro from the days of slavery (Melnick, 33). Sentiments from Franks Jewish defense and

support emphasized the fact that it is backward that a black man could taint the life and

reputation of a white southern Jew. One of Franks lawyers stated in regards to the murder note

that there was no chance, then, that Franks could have manipulated the dark vernacular of the

negro for his own use (Melnick, 99). Frank and his supporters never hesitated to activate just

the sort of racist reasoning that would poison public opinion against him; nor did they always

bother to recall just how tenuous was his status as white (Melnick, 91). Even Frank affirmed

that no white man killed Mary Phagan. Its a Negro crime through and through (Hertzberg,

207). This serves to show that Jews adopted tongue of the white Southern, however were often

disassociated with full white status. Conservative Jewish leaders were shocked that an

established Jewish merchant could be more vulnerable than a black janitor (Melnick, 40). This

was extremely disturbing for Jews not only in the South, but nationwide. In late April of 1913,

Governor of Georgia Slaton commuted the sentence to life in prison. His decisions enraged

Atlantans and large crowds marched on the governors mansion, forcing Slaton to declare martial

law and call the National Guard for assistance. In 1915, this mob marched to the prison and took

Frank from Atlanta to Marietta, the hometown of Phagan, and hung him on an oak tree. This was

considered the most anti-Semitic event in United States history (Temple). This was extremely
troubling because Frank may have been the only white man in Georgia ever convicted of a

capital offense largely upon the testimony of a Negro (Hertzberg, 207).

It is important to note that though more muted than Negrophobia, anti-Semitism reached a peak

in the United States during the first decade and a half of the twentieth century; to an increasing

pattern of social discrimination were added restrictive policies in employment, housing, and

college admission, and a belief there is existed a subversive international Jewish conspiracy

(Hertzberg, 199). Though this event dampened the Black-Jewish relationship, another tragic

event in Atlanta, GA several decades later show the maturity of the Southern setting and the two

minority communities.

In October of 1958, a bomb exploded at Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple, a

Reform Temple on Peachtree Street in Atlanta. This was an attack on the Jewish population in

the South from a white supremacist group called "Confederate Underground." The desegregation

crisis of the 1950s and 1960s resulted in renewed outbursts of anti-Semitism and bombings

Jewish religious institutions became frequent. There were over 8 bombing attempts in several

states in the South and Midwest. Such white supremacist terror groups also targeted black

institutions with similar incidents (Webb). The Temple was targeted because of the senior rabbi

Jacob Rothschild, who criticized segregation and advocated for racial equality. His efforts in

support of justice for every citizen, regardless of their skin color, drew the attention of those who

feared change (Temple). This bombing, however, received an interesting response and is often

dubbed as The Bomb That Healed.

Blacks reacted to this bombing with uncertainty. Black leaders expressed sincere

sympathies, seeing the terrorist attack as evidence that southern resistance to desegregation bred

violent hostility toward all minorities (Webb). Through this event, Rothschild was instrumental
for creating unity between ethnic and religious groups. Rothschild, along with Catholic

Archbishop Paul Hallinan and Atlanta Constitution editor Ralph McGill, was also responsible for

arranging a dinner to honor Martin Luther King for his award of the 1964 Nobel Prize for Peace

since the City of Atlanta could not sponsor it because of racial implications. Rabbi Rothschild

allowed for a relationship with Martin Luther King and wrote to Rothschild "Your words were

both eloquent and moving and I shall treasure them amongst the storehouse of memories as a

light of encouragement for the many dark and desolate days of struggle which are before us"

(Webb). This bombing allowed for unity within minority groups against racially motivated

violence and also showed the overwhelming support that the Temple received nationally. Such a

wave of support was unfamiliar, but surprising and created a new era for blacks and Jews.

The Jewish and African American community share a variety of experiences in the South that

contribute to their relationship. However, these two events in Southern history have a variety of

impacts on the relationship and displays wide perspectives for both minority groups. Leo Franks

lynching dampened the relationship with the targeting and manipulating o between these two

minorities during the early 1900s. The Temple Bombing allowed for racial unity between target

ethnic and religious groups in the South, even though this was a violent attack on a Jewish

religious institution. These two events are defining and unique moments in the Black-Jewish

relationship in the south, particularly in Atlanta, GA.

I was motivated to write about this topic because it is often an event that is overlooked in

United States history of minority communities. This was the most violent anti-Semitic behavior

committed during the Jewish inhabitance in America. Personally, this hit close to home and it is

hard to think that this incident was 112 years ago. But this was the reality of Jews and blacks in

the South. Leo Frank was subjected to anti-Semitism unprecedented in the history of America
and created great turmoil within influential minority communities. The Temple bombing also

was an instrumental event where Jews and blacks received unprecedented national attention.

Though the motive of the racist culprits was clear, this actually backfired and strengthened bonds

between Jews, Blacks, and Gentiles in the South. I wanted to highlight these events that show the

realities of this relationship.

Works Cited

Goldfield, David. "A Sense of Place: Jews, Blacks, and White Gentiles in the American South."

Southern Cultures. The University of North Carolina Press, 04 Jan. 2012. Web. 25 Apr.

2017.

Hertzberg, Steven. ""Jews and Blacks"." Strangers within the Gate City: The Jews of Atlanta,

1845-1915. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1978. N. pag. Print.

Melnick, Jeffrey Paul. "Chapter 2/ Chapter 4." Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and

Jim Conley in the New South. Jackson: U of Mississippi, 2000. N. pag. Print.
Ravitz, Jessica. "Emory Owns up to Dental School's Anti-Semitic History." CNN. Cable News

Network, 10 Oct. 2012. Web. 25 Apr. 2017.

Temple, The. "The Lynching of Leo Frank." The Lynching of Leo Frank. The Temple, n.d. Web.

26 Apr. 2017.

Temple, The. "The Temple Bombing." The Temple Bombing. The Temple, n.d. Web. 26 Apr.

2017.

Webb, Clive. "Counterblast: How the Atlanta Temple Bombing Strengthened the Civil Rights

Cause." Sevaa. University of Sussex, 01 Jan. 1970. Web. 26 Apr. 2017.