CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Reinforced Concrete
Hardened plain concrete is characterized by its high
compressive strength and its relatively low tensile strength. The
addition of steel reinforcement, which is characterized by its
high tensile strength in the tension regions, helps improve the
resistance in these regions. The final product is known as
reinforced concrete.
Steel is used as a reinforcement element due to some factors,
which are,
Steel improves the resistance of concrete in the tension
regions due to its high tensile and compressive strengths.
Steel and concrete have similar thermal expansion
coefficients; 0.000010 to 0.000013 for concrete and
0.000012 for steel per degree Celsius, thus causing
negligible internal stresses resulting from temperature
changes, which in turn, means a good bond between the two
materials.
Steel adds ductility which is required in the design process.
The construction of reinforced concrete structures requires the
use of a form to take the shape of the built member. The
reinforcement is held in place in the form during the casting

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operation. Once the concrete has hardened to the required
strength, only then the forms are removed.

1.2 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete is used as a prime construction material
universally. It is used in constructing bridges, buildings,
underground structures, hydraulic structures, and so many other
uses. The remarkable success of reinforced concrete may be
attributed to its numerous advantages. These include the
following:
Durability, especially fire resistance.
Ability to be formed in different shapes.
Rigidity, which means comfort for the occupants.
Low-maintenance cost.
Economy due to availability of inexpensive local materials.

1.3 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

Concrete has a low tensile strength, thus requiring the use of
steel reinforcement.
Low strength per unit weight compared to other structural
materials such as structural steel.
Requirements of forms and shoring, which involves labor,

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 cost and time.
The properties of concrete are variant due to proportioning
and mixing.
Quality control needs much more attention, compared to
other materials such as structural steel.
Time-dependent volume changes that may cause deflections
or cracking, if restrained.

1.4 Historical Development

In 1824, Portland cement was patented by the English Joseph
Aspdin. The name Portland was used due to the resemblance of
cement to the building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland of
the English coast.
The advantages of using steel reinforced concrete in building
construction was first discovered in 1850 by a Frenchman
called Joseph Lambot. He found that by adding thin steel bars
or steel fibers to concrete, he could greatly increase the strength
of the concrete, making it better for use in a variety of
applications. In the early years, reinforced concrete was used
for making a number of items, such as reinforced garden tubs,
road guardrails, and reinforced concrete beams. Buildings that
used reinforced concrete in their construction were constructed
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all over the world, especially in the United States, Canada and
Europe. In 1878, the first reinforced concrete system was
patented in the United States by an American by the name of
Thaddeus Hyatt. Mathias Koenen, in Berlin, Germany, was the
first experimenter to deduce methods of computation for load
tests, publishing his analysis of tests conducted in Germany in
1886. Koenen based his theory of flexure on the following
premises: (1) plane sections perpendicular to the neutral axis
prior to bending remain so following bending; (2) stress is
proportional to strain; (3) there is perfect bond between
concrete and steel; and (4) tension stresses in the concrete are
not considered. Koenens basic procedure is still generally
accepted and used today.
In the United States, the American Concrete Institute became an
influential organization in the development of reinforced
concrete standards. Chartered in 1906 as the National
Association of Cement Users, it changed its name to ACI in
1913.

1.5 Vertical Load Structural Systems

Building Frame: it is a complete frame system that provides
support for gravity loads, shown in Figure 1.1.

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 Moment-Resisting frame: it is a frame in which members
and joints are capable of resisting forces, including lateral
loads, primarily by flexure, shown in Figure 1.2.
Bearing Wall: it is a complete vertical load-carrying space
frame.

1.6 Structural Elements

A concrete building may contain some or all of the following
main structural elements, which are to be dealt with in detail in
the following chapters of this book. Figures 1.1 show the main
structural elements in a building frame system. These are
discussed, in short, below.
Slab is a horizontal plate element which is usually designed
to resist gravity loads. The depth of the slab is usually very
small compared to its length or width. It is usually designed
to resist shear forces and bending moments.
Beam is long, horizontal or inclined member with limited
width and depth. Its main function is to support slab loads. It
is designed to resist shearing forces, bending moments and
torques, if any.
Column is a member that supports beam or slab loads. It is
designed to support axial loads and moments.
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 Wall is a vertical plate element that resists gravity as well as
lateral loads as in the case of retaining wall. It is usually
designed to resist shear forces and bending moments.
Stair is a structural member that provides means of
movement from one floor to another in a structure. It is
designed to resist shear forces and bending moments.
Footing, or foundation, is a member that supports column or
wall loads and transmit them directly to the soil. The footing
is designed to resist shearing forces and bending moments.

Figure 1.1: Building Frame System

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Figures 1.2 show the main structural elements in a moment-
resisting frame system. The frame consists of main beams
(girders) and columns. The load on the slab is transferred to the
girders then to the columns and footings.

Figure 1.2: Moment-Resisting Frame System