ME5102

ResearchMethodology&
DesignofExperiments
Lect.#1
IntroductiontoResearch
Methodology&DOE

Dr.NazeerAhmadAnjum
MechanicalEngineeringProgram
UniversityofEngineeringTaxila
 Books 3
TextBook:
1. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTS by
Douglas C. Montgomery.
2. Design and Analysis of Experiments By: M. N. DAS
3. Experimental Design and Analysis By Howard J.
Seltman
4. Research Methodology (Methods & Techniques) By C.
R. Kothari

ReferenceBooks:
1. Research Methodology By: Dr. Y. K. Singh
2. Research Methodology By: Rajit Kumar

20-Feb-17

Course Objectives 4
Understanding some basic concepts of research and its
methodologies
Identify appropriate research topics
Standard Deviation & Variance
Introduction to Probability
Select and define appropriate research problem and
parameters
Sampling & Sampling Distributions
Regression Analysis
Prepare a project proposal (to undertake a project)
Organize and conduct research (advanced project) in a
more appropriate manner
Write a research report and thesis
Write a research proposal (grants)
Testing of Hypothesis
Factorial Analsis 20-Feb-17
 Learning Objectives 5
Aftercompletingthiscourse,youwillbeableto:

DecidewhethertorunaDOEtosolveaproblemor
optimizeasystem.
SetUp a Full Factorial DOE Test Matrix, in both
RandomizedandBlockedforms.
Analyze and Interpret Full Factorial DOE Results
using ANOVA, (when relevant) Regression, and
Graphicalmethods.
SetUpaFractional(Partial)FactorialDOE,usingthe
ConfoundingPrinciple.
Analyze and Interpret the results of a Fractional
FactorialDOE.
20-Feb-17

Pre-requisite 6
Participants should have an excellent working
knowledge of the following topics:
1. Calculation & interpretation of centrality and
dispersion indicators: mean, median,
standard deviation, standard error,
coefficient of variation, quartiles,
interquartile range
2. Use of Box-plots
3. The hypothesis testing approach
4. Confidence interval and p-values
5. and risks and their impact on the scope
and the precision of the results
6. Power and sample size
20-Feb-17
 Design of Experiments 7

Design of Experiments (DOE) is a methodology

that can be effective for general problem-solving,
as well as for improving or optimizing product
design and manufacturing processes. Specific
applications of DOE include:
Identifying proper design dimensions and
Tolerances,
achieving robust designs,
generating predictive math models that describe
physical system behavior, and
determining ideal manufacturing settings.

20-Feb-17

Design of Experiments 8
This subject utilizes handson activities to help you
learn the criteria for running a DOE, the
requirementsandpre-worknecessarypriortoDOE
execution, and how to select the appropriate
designed experiment type to run. You will experience
setting up,running,andanalyzingtheresultsof
simple-to-intermediatecomplexity,Full Factorial,
Partial Factorial, and Response Surface
experiments utilizing manual methods as well as a
handson computer tool that facilitates experimental
design and data analysis. You will also receive an
overview of Robust DOE, including the Taguchi
DOE Method.
20-Feb-17
 Concept of Research 9
Which of these can be classified as research?
1. Mr. Sarmad prepared a paper on computer usage in
secondary schools after reviewing literature on the
subject available in his university library and called it a
piece of research.
2. Mr. Mukhtar says that he has researched and
completed a document which gives information about the
age of his students, their results, their parents income
and distance of their schools from the District Office.
3. Peter participated in a workshop on curriculum
development and prepared what he calls, a research
report on the curriculum for building technicians. He did
this through a literature survey on the subject and by
discussing with the participants of the workshop.
20-Feb-17

Concept of Research 10

NONE of the previous examples can be

classified under the name research.

WHY ?
You will know it when you have understood
the concept of the term research.

20-Feb-17
 Concept of Research 11
Now consider the following case:
A general manager of a car producing company was
concerned with the complaints received from the car users
that the car they produce have some problems with rating
sound at the dash board and the rear passenger seat after
few thousand kilometers of driving.
He obtained information from the company workers to identify
the various factors influencing the problem.
He then formulated the problem and generated guesses
(hypotheses).
He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite
information from a representative sample of cars.
He analyzed the data thus collected, interpreted the results
in the light of his hypotheses and reached conclusions.
20-Feb-17

Concept of Research 12
Explaining of research:
1. You will notice in the previous example that the
researcher went through a sequence of steps
which were in order and thus systematic.
2. Secondly, the researcher did not just jump at
the conclusions, but used a scientific method
of inquiry in reaching at conclusions.
3. The two important characteristics of research
are :
I. Systematic
II. Scientific Method of Enquiry

20-Feb-17
 Concept of Research 13
What is Research?
Research is systematic, because it follows certain
steps that are logical in order. These steps are:
Research follows a scientific method.
This means that it makes an integrated use of
inductive (generate new theories from observed
data)and deductive (to test an existing theory)
reasoning.
This makes it very useful for explaining and/or
predicting phenomena.
The basic assumption of the scientific method is
that every effect has a cause.
20-Feb-17

Concept of Research 14
What is Research?
Understanding the nature of problem to be
studied and identifying the related area of
knowledge.
Reviewing literature to understand how others
have approached or dealt with the problem.
Collecting data in an organized and controlled
manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
Drawing conclusions and making
generalizations.
20-Feb-17
 Concept of Research 15
What is Research?
It starts with the construction of hypotheses from
casual observations and background
knowledge (inductive reasoning) to reasoning out
consequences or implications of hypotheses
(deductive reasoning) followed by testing of the
implications and confirmation or rejection of the
hypotheses.
Integrated use of inductive and deductive
reasoning is, therefore, the essence of scientific
method.

20-Feb-17

Concept of Research 16
Deductive Reasoning
Deductivereasoningworksfromthemoregeneraltothe
morespecific.Sometimesthisisinformallycalleda"top
down"approach.
We might begin with thinking up a theory about our
topic of interest. We then narrow down into more
specifichypothesesthatwecantest.
We narrow down even further when we collect
observationstoaddressthehypotheses.This ultimately
leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific
dataaconfirmation(ornot)ofouroriginaltheories

20-Feb-17
 Concept of Research 17
Deductive Reasoning

Theory Topdown"approach

Hypothesis

Observation

Conformation

20-Feb-17

Concept of Research 18
Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from
specific observations to broader generalizations and
theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom
up"approach.
In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific
observationsandmeasures,begintodetectpatternsand
regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that
we can explore, and finally end up developing some
generalconclusionsortheories

20-Feb-17
 Concept of Research 19
Inductive Reasoning
Theory Bottomupapproach

Hypothesis

Pattern

Observation

20-Feb-17

High Quality Research 20

It is based on the work of others.
It can be replicated (duplicated).
It is generalizable to other settings.
It is based on some logical rationale and tied to
theory.
It is doable.
It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
It is incremental.
It is a political activity that should be undertaken
for the betterment of society.

20-Feb-17
 Bad Research 21
The opposites of what have been discussed.
Looking for something when it simply is not to be
found.
Plagiarizing other peoples work.
Fabricating data to prove a point.
Misrepresenting information and misleading
participants.

20-Feb-17

DefinitionofResearch 22
Hunting for facts or truth about a subject.
Search for knowledge.
Organized scientific investigation to solve problems,
test hypotheses, develop or invent new products.
A scientific and systematic search for related
information on a specific topic.
An art of scientific investigation.
A careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Research is an academic activity
According to Redman and Mory Systematized effort to
gain new knowledge. 20-Feb-17
 DefinitionofResearchCont.. 23
According to Clifford Woody research comprises
Defining or Redefining problems;
Formulating hypothesis;
Suggested solutions;
Collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
Making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
at last
Carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

20-Feb-17

DefinitionofResearchCont.. 24

D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia

of Social Sciences define research as The
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.

20-Feb-17
 MOTIVATIONINRESEARCH 25
What makes people to undertake research? This is a
question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more
of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative
work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
20-Feb-17

ResearchGeneralSystematicCharacteristic26
Problem Identification

Reviewing Information

Data Collection

Analysis

Drawing Conclusions

Lect-1:-13-03-2017
20-Feb-17
 CharacteristicofResearchCycle 27
Generation of
Hypotheses

Casual
Observation Scientific Method
of Acquiring
Implications
Knowledge of
Existing of
Problem Solving
Structure of Hypotheses
Knowledge
Operationally
Specific Testing
Situations 20-Feb-17

WhereDoResearchStart? 28
Asking the
Question
Asking new Identifying the
Questions important factors

Reconsidering Formulating
the theory a hypotheses

Working with Collecting Relevant

the hypotheses information

Testing the
hypotheses
20-Feb-17
 WhyResearch? 29
To get PhDs, Masters and Bachelors?
To provide solutions to complex problems
To investigate laws of nature
To make new discoveries
To develop new products
To save costs
To improve our life
Human desires

20-Feb-17

WhatisR&D? 30

Research is a process that acquires new

knowledge.

Development is a process that applies

knowledge to create new devices or effects

20-Feb-17
 R&DProblems 31
Research seeks truth.

Development seeks utility.

Industry cant afford luxury of research.

Academics uninterested with development.

Myopic (narrow-minded) views

R&D is interdependent
20-Feb-17

R&DProblems 32
Research results cannot be reproduced

Data collection is haphazard

Experiment methods are confused

Trial and error

Lack of records

Reports are disorganized

20-Feb-17
 ClassifyingResearch 33
Reviewing related past research studies is an
important step in the process of carrying out
research as it helps in problem formulation,
hypothesis construction and selection of
appropriate research designs.
It is beneficial if you can classify a research
study under a specific category because each
category or type of research uses a specific set
of procedures.

20-Feb-17

TypesofResearch 34
i. Descriptive Research ii. Analytical Research

iii. Applied Research iv. Fundamental Research

v. Quantitative Research vi. Qualitative Research

vii. Conceptual Research viii. Empirical Research

20-Feb-17
 i.Descriptivevs.Analytical 35
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.

In social science and business research we quite often

use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies (how an independent variable affects a
dependentvariablei.e.possibleeffectsofanenvironmental
factorthathasoccurredpriortothestudyitself).

The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
20-Feb-17

i.Descriptivevs.Analytical 36

Example, frequency of shopping, preferences of

people, or similar data.
Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods.

20-Feb-17
 i.Descriptivevs.Analytical 37
Analytical research the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
It involves critical thinking skills and the evaluation of
facts and information relative to the research being
conducted.
A variety of people including students, doctors and
psychologists use analytical research during studies to find
the most relevant information.

From analytical research, a person finds out critical details

to add new ideas to the material being produced.

20-Feb-17

ii.Appliedvs.Fundamental 38
Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry
involving the practical application of science.

It accesses and uses some part of the research

communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories,
knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often
state, business, or client-driven purpose. To find a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.

20-Feb-17
 ii.Appliedvs.Fundamental 39
Examples:
1. Researching which strategies work best to motivate
workers .
2. Studying different keyboard designs to determine which
is the most efficient and ergonomic.
3. Analyzing what type of prompts will inspire people to
volunteer their time to charities.
4. Investigating which treatment approach is the most
effective for reducing anxiety.

20-Feb-17

ii.Appliedvs.Fundamental 40
Fundamental research or pure research is scientific
research aimed to improve scientific theories for improved
understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena.
Examples: 1. A study into the role of Federal Reserve into
the emergence of global economic crisis.
2. An investigation into the main elements of brands and
branding.
3. A critical analysis of factors impacting each stage of
product life cycle.
4. An assessment of factors leadership style in Coca Cola
Company.

20-Feb-17
 ii.Appliedvs.Fundamental 41
Fundamental research
The central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas
Fundamental research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus,
adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

20-Feb-17

42
Differenceb/wApplied&Fundamental
Fundamental research Applied research
Expand knowledge of Improve understanding of
processes of business and particular business or
management managemt problem
Results in universal Results in solution to problem
principles relating to the New knowledge limited to
process and its relationship problem
to outcomes Findings of practical relevance
Findings of significance and value to manager(s) in
and value to society in organization(s)
general Undertaken by people based
Undertaken by people in a variety of settings
based in universities including organizations and
Choice of topic and universities
objectives determined by Objectives negotiated with
the researcher originator
Flexible time scales Tight time scales 20-Feb-17
 iii.Quantitativevs.Qualitative 43
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can
be expressed in terms of quantity. OR
Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements
and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of
data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys,
or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using
computational techniques.
Examples: 1. Research that consists of the percentage
amounts of all the elements present in a particular material.
2. Survey that concludes that the average patient has to
wait two hours in the waiting room of a certain doctor
before being selected.

20-Feb-17

Quantitative Approach 44
It can be sub-divided into inferential, experimental and
simulation approaches to research

Inferential approach to research is to form a data base

from which to conclude characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research where a
sample of population is studied (questioned or observed)
to determine its characteristics, and it is then concluded that
the population has the same characteristics.

20-Feb-17
 Quantitative Approach 45

Experimental approach is characterized by much

greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated
to observe their effect on other variables.
For example setting strain rate while performing
monotonic testing.

20-Feb-17

Quantitative Approach 46
Simulation approach involves the construction of an
artificial environment within which relevant information and
data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behaviour of a system under controlled
conditions.
The term simulation refers to the operation of a numerical
model that represents the structure of a dynamic process.
Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and
exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behaviour of the process over time.
Simulation approach can also be useful in building models
for understanding future conditions.

20-Feb-17
 Qualitative ofResearch 47
Qualitative research is primarily exploratory research.
It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons,
opinions, and motivations.
It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas
or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
It concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind.
Example: when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain
things), we termed it Motivation Research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and
similar other projective techniques. 20-Feb-17

Qualitative ofResearch 48
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find
out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyze the various factors
which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research
in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while
doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.

20-Feb-17
QuantitativeResearchMethods 49
1. Natural phenomenon
2. Mathematical modeling
3. Experiments
4. Optimization
5. Game theory
6. Surveys

20-Feb-17

QualitativeResearchMethods 50
1. Social & cultural phenomenon
2. Case studies
3. Focus groups
4. Observations
5. Usability testing
6. Interviews
7. Questionnaires

20-Feb-17
 iv.Conceptualvs.Empirical 51
Conceptual research it focuses on the concept or theory
that explains or describes the phenomenon being studied.
It is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
What causes disease?
How can we describe the motions of the planets?
What are the building blocks of matter?
The conceptual researcher sits at his desk with pen in hand
and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. It
required using the brain, not the hands.

20-Feb-17

iv.Conceptualvs.Empirical 52
Empirical research It is a way of gaining knowledge
by means of direct and indirect observation or
experience.
It relies on experience or observation alone, often without
due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research.
In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand,
at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way.
20-Feb-17
 Research Validity 53
Internal Validity the validity of findings with the
research study; the technical soundness of a study,
particularly concerned with the control of extraneous
influences that might effect the outcome
External Validity the degree to which the
findings can be inferred to the population of interest
or to other populations or settings; the generalizability
of the results
Both are important in a study but they are frequently
at odds with one another in planning and designing
a study
Internal validity is considered the basic minimum for
experimental research

20-Feb-17

Internal Validity 54
. . . this is the basic minimum without which any study
is not interpretable
Particularly important in experimental studies
Did, in fact, the experimental treatment (X) produce a
change in the dependent variable (Y)
To answer yes, one must be able to rule out the possibility of
other factors producing the change
To gain internal validity, the researcher attempts to
control everything and eliminate possible extraneous
influences
Lends itself to highly controlled, laboratory settings

20-Feb-17
 Threats to Internal Validity 55

History events occurring during the experiment

that are not part of the treatment
Maturation biological or psychological processes
within participants that may change due to the passing of
time, e.g., aging, fatigue, hunger
Testing the effects of one test upon subsequent
administrations of the same test
Instrumentation changes in testing instruments,
raters, or interviewers including lack of
agreement within and between observers

20-Feb-17

Threats to Internal Validity 56

Statistical regression the fact that groups selected on

the basis of extreme scores are not as extreme on
subsequent testing
Selection bias identification of comparison groups in
other than a random manner
Experimental mortality loss of participants from
comparison groups due to nonrandom reasons
Interaction among factors factors can operate
together to influence experimental results.(Influence of
any two variable on third)

20-Feb-17
 External Validity 57
Generalizability of results . . . to what populations,
settings, or treatment variables can the results be
generalized?
Concerned with real-world applications
What relevance do the findings have beyond the
confines of the experiment?
External validity is generally controlled by selecting
subjects, treatments, experimental situations, and
tests to be representative of some larger population
Random selection is the key to controlling most
threats to external validity

20-Feb-17

Types of External Validity 58

Population Validity
refers to the extent to which the results can
be generalized from the experimental sample
to a defined population
Ecological Validity
refers to the extent to which the results of an
experiment can be generalized from the set of
environmental conditions in the experiment
to other environmental conditions

20-Feb-17
 Threats to External Validity 59
Interaction effects of testing the fact that the
pretest may make the participants more aware of or
sensitive to the upcoming treatment
Selection bias when participants are selected in a
manner so they are not representative of any particular
population
Reactive effects of experimental setting the
fact that treatments in constrained laboratory settings
may not be effective in less constrained, real-world
settings
Multiple-treatment interference when
participants receive more than one treatment, the effects
of previous treatments may influence subsequent ones

20-Feb-17

DFM,DFA,
&A
 DFM 61
Definition: DFM is the method of design for ease
of manufacturing of the collection of parts that will
form the product after assembly.
Simplify and reduce the number of manufacturing
operations.
Standardizematerialsandusecommonparts.
Designforefficientjoining.
Opentoleranceasmuchaspossible.
Avoidspecialtoolingandfrequenttoolchanges.
Selectmaterialsforbestmanufacturability.
Specifyacceptablesurfacefinishforfunctionality.
20-Feb-17

DesignforAssembly 62
Definition: DFA is the
method of design of the 8Parts
product for ease of 4differentparts
assembly. multiplemfg.&assembly
processesnecessary

24Parts
4Parts
8differentparts 2Parts
3differentparts
multiplemfg.&assembly 2Mfg.processes
3mfg.&assemblyprocesses
processesnecessary oneassemblystep
necessary 20Feb17
 No
Data
63
DesignforAnalysis(FailureofEngineeringMaterials)
consistence
with Getting Failure Parts
Hypothesis
Correlation of Micro &
Revision of Yes Macro Evidence Collecting Information
Hypothesis Service History
Manufacturing Standards
Final Root Cause Testing & verification of Material Specifications
identification Hypothesis Incident Report
Clint Requirements
Generation of corrective & Hypothesis development
preventative measures for final Root Cause(s)
Possible Causes of Failure

Final comprehensive
report generation Primary Identification of
Root Cause(s) Testing Sample:
Microscopic Analysis
Clint feedback Mechanical Testing
Yes
Compositional Analysis etc
Refinement of procedure Results
No Conforming
Gathering more Compilation & Evaluation of
to
information about part, Test Results
Predicted
clarification & revision Causes
of predicted causes 20-Feb-17

DesignforAnalysis(FailureExamples) 64
Welding Analysis Fabrication Analysis

Corrosion Analysis Forging Analysis

Casting Analysis Fatigue Analysis

Hydroforming Machining/
Analysis Manufacturing Analysis

Friction Stire Fracture Toughness

Welding Analysis Analysis

Different SPD Creep/ Bending Analysis

Techniques Analysis Material Aalysis 20-Feb-17