140 Int. J. Happiness and Development, Vol. 3, No.

2, 2016

Happy parents in Latin America? Exploring the

impact of gender, work-family satisfaction, and
parenthood on general life happiness

Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo*
Department of Psychology and Communication,
Texas A&M International University,
5201 University Blvd., Laredo,
Texas 78045,USA
Email: elizabeth.terrazas@tamiu.edu
*Corresponding author

Paula T. McWhirter and

Hannah K. Muetzelfeld
Professional Counseling Program,
Department of Educational Psychology,
University of Oklahoma,
820 Van Vleet Oval, Norman,
OK 73019-2041, USA
Email: paulamcwhirter@ou.edu
Email: hannahmuetz@gmail.com

Abstract: This study explores the impact of gender, employment, parenthood,

and work-family satisfaction on happiness in three Latin American countries
using data from the 2002 International Social Survey. Results indicated the
existence of significant differences in happiness, family life satisfaction, and
division of household labour between Latin American men and women who
report being married and working full-time. Overall, men were happier than
women but women experienced higher levels of family life satisfaction. Results
from a regression analysis indicate being male, having high levels of job and
family satisfaction, and presence of children in the household are positive
predictors of happiness. However, being female and experiencing time binds
have a negative impact on general life happiness. Contrary to research in
Western countries, children were found to be a source of increased happiness
for employed and married Latin American men and women. Results are
discussed in the context of cultural differences in gender and marriage values.

Keywords: parenting; parenthood; happiness; Latin America; job satisfaction;

family life satisfaction.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Terrazas-Carrillo, E.,

McWhirter, P.T. and Muetzelfeld, H.K. (2016) Happy parents in Latin
America? Exploring the impact of gender, work-family satisfaction, and
parenthood on general life happiness, Int. J. Happiness and Development,
Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.140161.

Copyright 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 Happy parents in Latin America? 141

Biographical notes: Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo holds a PhD in Counseling

Psychology and is an Assistant Professor of Counseling Psychology at Texas
A&M International University. Her research interests include exploring the
intersection of identities within vulnerable populations, including international
students, Mexican and Mexican American women, and Spanish-speaking
immigrants in the USA on a variety of issues affecting mental health,
psychological adjustment, and well-being. She has a special interest in
mentoring and supervising graduate students, as well as fostering cultural
competence among her counselling trainees.

Paula T. McWhirter has a PhD in Counseling Psychology and Professor in the

Professional Counseling Program at the University of Oklahoma, Norrman. She
teaches and investigates positive psychology approaches, interpersonal violence
interventions, international issues in counselling psychology and therapeutic
factors within group and family/child counselling. She publishes extensively
with her students and continues to be inspired by their creativity and broad
array of counselling psychology research interests and contributions.

Hannah K. Muetzelfeld holds a Master of Education in Community from the

University of Oklahoma and is currently pursuing a Doctoral degree in
Counseling Psychology at the University at Albany, State University of
New York. Her research interests lie in that of romantic relationship
functioning, discord, and satisfaction. More specifically, she is interested in
attachment theory and the role it may play in romantic partners perceptions of
relationship functioning. Her clinical interests include working with diverse
couples and families in socially-just and community-based practice.

This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled Predictors of

happiness among dual earning couples in Latin America poster presented at
the 123rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association,
Toronto, Canada, August 2015.

1 Introduction

Starting a family is one of the most stressful times for men and women (Jacobs and
Gerson, 2004). Having children impacts the way men and women carry on their lives and
while many view parenthood as a source of happiness and fulfilment, research in USA
and Europe has shown having children puts significant strain on men and womens time
and economic resources. Traditionally, women were responsible for child rearing and the
increased load of household work that comes with having children (Craig, 2007).
However, women across the globe have developed a growing career focus. In fact,
around the world about 50% of women participate in the workforce, making up one third
of all the worlds workers (Tzannatos, 1999). The increase in womens labour
participation has not necessarily changed the way time is allocated to paid and unpaid
work (Craig and Mullan, 2010). As a result, employed men and women who choose to
have children have additional strains on time and resources than those without children
(McDonald, 2006). Multiple demands for men and womens time can cause time strain
and role overload, which has been linked to adverse effects on health and well-being
(Strazdins and Loughrey, 2007). Even though many expect to find happiness through
parenthood, studies in highly developed countries (e.g. USA and European countries)
142 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

have found that men and women who are employed full-time and have children tend to
report lower levels of happiness and work-family life satisfaction compared to their
childless counterparts (Hansen, 2012). However, most of the research to date has been
conducted primarily in highly developed countries. In fact, Casper et al. (2007) found that
75% of the research exploring work-family interactions is conducted in USA and Europe.
Yet as Tzannatos (1999) observed, social and cultural factors play an important role in
defining labour participation and shaping expectations regarding men and womens
family and parenting responsibilities. Thus, the purpose of this study is to close this gap
in the literature and explore the impact of gender, parenthood, work-family satisfaction,
and personal happiness in three Latin American countries.

2 Background

The term happiness generally serves to denote good, pleasant feelings. Veenhoven (1984,
p.22) describes happiness as the degree to which an individual judges the overall quality
of his/her own life-as-a-whole favorably. Veenhoven (2010) distinguishes two aspects
of assessing life appreciation: the cognitive and subjective. The cognitive aspect of
happiness focuses on appraisals of expectations versus actual life circumstances, whereas
the emotional aspects focuses on the affective states associated with the aforementioned
appraisals (Diener, 2000; Veenhoven, 2010). According to Diener (2006), several
variables contribute to a persons happiness, including life satisfaction, satisfaction with
work and family life, positive affect, and minimal negative affect (Diener, 2000;
Mencarini and Sironi, 2012; Tov and Diener, 2009; Veenhoven, 2012). While job
satisfaction is an important component of general happiness and life satisfaction, it
specifically taps into the question of how much utility individuals derive from their
employment (Kosteas, 2011). In other words, employees who are satisfied with their job
are signalling their preference for this work through both cognitive and affective
evaluations (Brief, 1998). In fact, Kosteas (2011, p.174) refers to job satisfaction as a
key facet of an individuals overall well-being and studies have shown that happiness is
correlated with job satisfaction and job performance (Wright and Cropanzano, 2000).
Clearly, job satisfaction is an important aspect of men and womens psychological
well-being. On the other hand, family life satisfaction is a major indicator of well-being
and it refers to the extent to which family members jointly realise their family-related
values in behavior [Bowen, (1988), p.459]. Congruence between family members
values and their family behaviour enhance family life satisfaction; incongruence due to
constraints between family values and family behaviour decrease family life satisfaction.
A large body of empirical evidence has documented the detrimental impact of work-
family conflicts and subsequent role overload on family life satisfaction and overall well-
being (Byron, 2005; Mullen et al., 2008). However, research has found that participation
in multiple roles can enhance the social, psychological, and financial resources of
individuals, and thereby enhance family life satisfaction (De Simone et al., 2014; Frone,
2003; Grzywacz and Butler, 2005; Hill, 2005; Ruderman et al., 2002; Rothbard, 2001).
Indeed, family life satisfaction directly impacts levels of overall well-being among men
and women.
 Happy parents in Latin America? 143

3 Happiness: the influence of gender, parenthood, and employment

The expectation of happiness and fulfilment is often cited as a reason why men and
women choose to have children (Schoen et al., 1997). However, family research scholars
have consistently found that non-parents report higher levels of well-being and life
satisfaction compared to parents (Bird, 1997; McLanahan and Adams, 1987; Hansen,
2012). Researchers indicate the reason for parenthoods effects on well-being and life
satisfaction stems from the positive and negative effects of having children, as there are
costs and benefits associated with parenthood (Twenge et al., 2003; Vanassche et al.,
2013). For example, research has found that having children is related to increased
marital conflict and risk of depression, as well as decreased marital and financial
satisfaction (Evenson and Simon, 2005; Keizer et al., 2010; Nomaguchi and Milkie,
2003; Stanca, 2012). While having children satisfies a variety of emotional needs of
parents, they also represent increased burdens on time and finances, often leading parents
to experience higher levels of psychosocial stress compared to their childless counterparts
(Fawcett, 1988; Pollman-Schult, 2014).
Traditionally, women were responsible for childcare and the increased household
work demands associated with parenthood, as their sphere of influence was limited to the
home (Sigle-Rishton and Waldfogel, 2007). However, women have increased their labour
force participation throughout the last three decades; between 6070% of women with
children continue to work in most highly developed countries (European Union, 2015;
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). In spite of womens increased labour force
participation, gender continues to be the largest predictor of allocation of time for paid
and unpaid work (Coltrane and Adams, 2008). Craig and Mullan (2010, p.1345) stated
having children moves couples to a conventional distribution of paid and unpaid work;
the gendered division of labor becomes more pronounced after children are born.
Research has found that when men become parents their allocation of time to paid work
and household work remains relatively the same; however, for women becoming a parent
significantly changes allocation of time resources (Crompton, 2006; Knudsen and
Waerness, 2008). As a result, gender vulnerabilities become potentiated with the advent
of parenthood (Craig and Mullan, 2010). Even though household division of labour in
Western countries has become more equalised, child care continues to be unequally
distributed with women taking up a larger share of child rearing responsibilities (Baxter,
2002; Bianchi et al., 2000; Craig et al., 2010; Kahneman et al., 2004; Sayer et al., 2004).
For instance, research by Yeung et al. (2001) found that men spend more time caring for
children on the weekends, while mothers engage in most of the child rearing activities
during the work week. Thus, the unequal distribution of household and childcare
responsibilities across genders significantly impact time availability for women.
Becoming a parent also impacts effective reconciliation of work and family life,
especially among women (Gallie and Russel, 2009; Mattingly and Sayer, 2006;
Stevenson and Wolfers, 2009; Winslow, 2005). For women, combining the roles of
mother, wife, and employee may result in conflicting demands and constrain a significant
portion of their available time. Hochschild (1997) referred to these time constraints
between a womans family, children, and work responsibilities as a time bind. Time binds
force women to choose between competing demands, often at the cost of their leisure
time (Hochschild, 1997). For instance, research in USA and Europe showed that even
when men and women work equal hours, women do as much as three times more
household work than men (Bianchi et al., 2000; Blossfeld and Drobnic, 2001;
144 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

Hochschild, 1989, 1997; Shelton and John, 1996). As a result, two of the most important
predictors of employed womens happiness and well-being are equitable household
division of labour and satisfactory child care arrangements (Goldberg and Perry-Jenkins,
2004; Rosenfield, 1989). In fact, a cross-national study of womens happiness found that
housewives tend to be happier than their employed counterparts due in part to the
significant time strains faced by employed women (Mencarini and Sironi, 2012).
Parenthood is associated with significant stress on a familys financial situation,
particularly for men (Pollmann-Schult, 2014). As a result, mens overall life satisfaction
and well-being may decrease as financial costs of child rearing increase and constrain a
familys monetary resources. Compared to women, men tend to have fewer support
networks outside their marriage, as research has documented men tend to rely mostly on
their partners for support (Cronenwett and Kunst-Wilson, 1981; Zelkowitz and Milet,
1997). As a result, parenthood decreases overall marital satisfaction for men because
there is less time for leisure and spousal activities (Claxton and Perry-Jenkins, 2008; Dew
and Wilcox, 2011). Condon et al. (2004) found that mens marital, family, job, and sexual
satisfaction deteriorated significantly after the birth of their first child and remained at the
same level at a one-year follow up. In addition, Morse et al. (2001) found that first-time
fathers reported high levels of stress due to perceived lack of mastery and control over
their new role. Overall the literature suggests parenthood presents significant challenges
resulting in decreased general life happiness, family, and job satisfaction for both men
and women.
However, other research points to labour participation as a source of self-esteem and
access to resources, particularly for women, as they may earn increased income and
develop larger networks of social support (Elstad, 1996; Weatherall et al., 1994).
Evidence from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies has consistently shown that
employment is beneficial for physical and mental health, and overall well-being (Barnett
and Hyde, 2001; Bartley et al., 1992; Elliot and Huppert, 1991; Goldberg and
Perry-Jenkins, 2004; Klumb and Lampert, 2003; Sorensen and Verbrugge, 1987;
Weatherall et al., 1994). Additionally, high rewards from one role may spill over and
positively affect the individuals experience in another role (Stephens and Franks, 1995).
The literature suggests that assuming roles outside of the home may expose individuals to
greater emotional resources, allowing them to more readily adapt to the responsibilities of
the multiple roles associated with parenthood (Reid and Hardy, 1999). Therefore, positive
benefits reported by those who inhabit multiple roles included a sense of fulfilment from
handling the demands of each role, the ability to utilise the opportunities afforded by each
role on behalf of the other role, and enhanced interpersonal relationships [Scharlach,
(1994), p.382].

4 Latin America

The grouping of countries into the geographic expression of Latin America goes beyond
simply defining a geographic area. The countries that make up Latin America share
distinctive values, histories, and worldviews (Inglehart and Carballo, 1997). Although
each individual country has developed its own uniquely complex cultural dynamics,
cross-cultural research on values and value orientations show that people from certain
geographic areas and countries fall into specific clusters (Inglehart and Carballo, 1997).
For example, all Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Chile)
 Happy parents in Latin America? 145

included in the 1990 World Values Survey fell into one cluster, indicating that from a
broad perspective these countries share similar value systems. Although many social
scientists argue the countries included in the geography of Latin America have more
differences than similarities (e.g. fertility rates, economic growth, etc.), research has
clearly shown there are coherent and stable differences across different cultural zones or
clusters (p.46). Therefore, we attempt to understand parenthood, gender, and work-family
issues from a broad worldview perspective rather than a micro-level, individual-country
perspective.
A discussion of parenthood in Latin America necessitates understanding of gender
within a cultural context; gender roles are conceptualised as a product of the culture and
the ideology that reinforces and upholds them (Hite and Viterna, 2005; Koenig and
Eagly, 2014; Diekman et al., 2005). Thus, when exploring the impact of gender,
parenthood, employment, and work-family satisfaction patterns on happiness in Latin
America, it is important to consider the cultural values of machismo and marianismo.
Machismo emphasises masculine strength, aggression, self-sufficiency, and ability to be
the sole providers for the family, as well as extreme maleness and hypersexuality (Baca
Zinn and Wells, 2000; Flake and Forste, 2006). The cultural script of marianismo alludes
to the expectation of Latina women to be submissive, self-sacrificing, self-silencing,
humble, and focus on nurturing the family (Baldwin and DeSouza, 2001; Castillo et al.,
2010). Patriarchal family arrangements in Latin America prescribe womens roles should
be caring for children and the home (Hardin, 2002). In essence, both machismo and
marianismo reinforce existing gender roles and are likely to influence men and womens
participation in the labour force, as well as their expectations of happiness, family, and
job satisfaction. Although Latin American societies have undergone huge social changes
resulting from economic and political issues, research has documented that the majority
of men and women still endorse traditional gender roles (Brumley, 2013; Rocha-Sanchez
and Diaz-Loving, 2005; Ruiz Castro, 2012; Zabludovsky, 2001).
Motherhood represents a revered and symbolic role for Latin American women.
Being a mother is usually seen as a source of pride and fulfilment, but also carries the
expectation of self-sacrifice and suffering (Sanders, 2009). The ideal of motherhood is
symbolised by the Virgin Mary who is a source of unlimited love and who cares for
others before herself (Tiano and Ladino, 1999). For many Latin American women living
in poverty, children represent their highest accomplishment and source of pride (Garcia
and de Oliveira, 1990; Glenn, 1994). However, womens roles are slowly changing in
Latin America as fertility rates drop and more women are engaging in paid employment
(Guendelman et al., 2001). On the other hand, fatherhood carries much responsibility for
Latin American men as it represents their transcendence to a state of completeness and
serves as a proof of their virility (Fuller, 1997). Becoming a father has high cultural value
and it is a central aspect of the Latin American male identity (Gutmann, 1996; Vigoya,
2001). While the traditional patriarchal model of fatherhood is prevalent across Latin
America, younger men are beginning to question traditional traits associated with
fatherhood, especially those that restrict the expression of intimacy towards their children
and wives (Vigoya, 2001).
The political and economic changes observed in Latin American countries during the
last 30 years had a long-lasting impact on the roles ascribed to men and women
(Diekman et al., 2005). For example, women became more politically active, migrated to
urban areas, and entered the labour market in order to provide for their families as a result
of increases in poverty and unemployment in Latin American countries (Chuchryk, 1994;
146 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

Elson, 1992). Research indicates that by 1992 Latin American countries rates of
womens participation in the work force had nearly doubled from the previous 25 years
(Abramo and Valenzuela, 2005; Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos, 1993). Latin American
countries have experienced a rapid increase of women entering the workforce within
recent years, which has actually corresponded with a change in perceived gender role
attributions for women (Diekman et al., 2005; Lavrin, 1987; Lobel, 2009). For example,
available research from Latin American countries found that employed women in
Mexico, Brazil, and Chile reported high self-esteem and high self-efficacy (Duffy et al.,
2006). Although most of the research has focused on the negative impacts of work on
family life satisfaction, limited available data from Latin America shows employment can
be a source of enhancement for women.
Increased labour force participation in Latin America, however, did not impact
womens share of family work and child care (Brydon and Chant, 1989). For example,
women in Mexico spent significantly more time doing household work and caring for
children, elderly, and sick family members than men (INEGI, 2009). Studies of Brazilian
women in the workforce have found that employed women spend twice as many hours on
household labour compared to their husbands, leading to increased family-work conflict
(Casper et al., 2011; Hill et al., 2004; Lobel, 2009). Edlund (2007, p.458) reported that
employed women in Chile, Mexico, and Brazil experience a work-overload problem of
truly gargantuan proportions. As a result, employed women in Latin America face
significant strains on their time as they continue to espouse the belief that their main
responsibility is to raise their children even when reporting increasingly egalitarian
gender role ideology (Bruschini and Lombardi, 2003; Sorj et al., 2004; Spector et al.,
2004).
Changes in Latin American womens labour force participation have not impacted
gender role attributions for men. While some research has found that mens gender roles
in Latin America have become more rigidly masculine, other researchers have found that
newer generations of men have begun to challenge current cultural constructs of male
identity (Diekman et al., 2005; Vigoya, 2001). For example, Nolasco (1993) found that
middle class Brazilian men search for alternatives to the traditional authoritarian role but
encounter significant obstacles due to rigid, absolute expectations for men in their
culture. Thus, although some studies have found that male attitudes towards their wives
engagement in paid labour are changing, negotiations of gender roles are not egalitarian
(Escobar Latapi, 1998). In fact, research shows that Latin American men have not
increased their participation in household work, or in caring for children and other
members of the family (INEGI, 2009; Diekman et al., 2005). Therefore, as gender roles
and labour force participation have changed in Latin America, questions are raised
regarding the impact of gender, employment, parenthood, and work-life balance on men
and womens happiness. To date, the literature exploring these issues in Latin America is
sparse and this study seeks to close this gap in the literature.

5 Hypotheses

Based on the literature reviewed, the first hypothesis predicts there is a significant
difference between men and women who are married and working full-time on the
following variables: Happiness, family satisfaction, and job satisfaction. It is expected
that men will report significantly higher levels of general happiness, family satisfaction,
 Happy parents in Latin America? 147

and job satisfaction than women. The second hypothesis states the criterion variable
general life happiness is predicted by sex, the number of hours spent on household work,
age, education, household division of labour, time binds, and whether the respondent has
children.

6 Method

6.1 Sample
Data for this study were collected for the International Social Survey (ISS) between 2002
and 2003 for the Family and Changing Gender Roles III Module (ISSP, 2013). Only three
Latin American countries participated in the ISS 2002: Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. The
surveys for the Latin American countries were carried out by independent research
organisations located in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico1. The sampling strategy used by the
national agencies involved with the project used both simple and multi-stage stratified
random samples2. Oral interviews were conducted with all participants in the three Latin
American countries included in the sample: 2,000 oral interviews were conducted in
Brazil, 1,505 oral interviews were conducted in Chile, and 1,495 oral interviews were
conducted in Mexico. Analysis in this study is limited to men and women over 18 years
of age, who indicated their marital status as married and endorsed working full-time at
the time of completing the survey. The effective total sample used in this study included
982 participants who were married and employed full-time at the time of the interview
(see Table 1). The total percent of women in the sample who met the study selection
criteria of being married and working full time was close to the overall estimates for their
respective countrys rate of womens participation in the labour force in that time period
(ILO, 1995). Specifically, women from Chile and Brazil had an estimated 33% labour
force participation, and women from Mexico had a 32% labour force participation (ILO,
1995).
Table 1 Sample characteristics by country and gender

Sex Total
Country
Male Female N
Chile 244 (74%) 85 (26%) 329 (34%)
Brazil 235 (70%) 103 (30%) 338 (34%)
Mexico 224 (71%) 91 (29%) 315 (32%)
Total 703 (72%) 279 (28%) 982

6.2 Measurement
The ISS module for Family and Gender Roles III consisted of a survey of questions
covering a wide range of contexts related to happiness, job satisfaction, family
satisfaction, marriage, and children, as well as allocation of duties in the context of
household-related work for both male and female partners (ISSP, 2013). All participants
were over 18 years of age, and answered questions on topics including:
socio-demographic questions, household division of labour, perceived time-binds,
happiness, family life satisfaction, and job satisfaction.
148 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

6.2.1 Criterion variable

The key criterion variable general life happiness is based on the question If you were to
consider your life in general, how happy or unhappy would you say you are, on the
whole? The wording of this survey item is consistent with a cognitive assessment of
well-being, which suggests less dependence on the variability of transient emotion states
at the time of measurement (Lucas et al., 1996; Treas et al., 2011). This survey item was
answered using a seven-point Likert-type scale response ranging from completely
unhappy to completely happy.

6.2.2 Socio-demographic predictors

The categorical variable sex was coded with a 1 for women and 0 for men. The
variable children was coded based on whether the respondent reported having children. It
was coded with a 1 to indicate having children and 0 to indicate childlessness.
Participants reported their age at the time they answered the survey. Education was
measured by participants answering to the question How many years of schooling do
you have? which allowed for comparison across different educational systems across
different countries.

6.2.3 Family life satisfaction

The variable family satisfaction is based on the question All things considered, how
satisfied are you with your family life? The survey item was answered using a
seven-point Likert-type scale response ranging from completely satisfied, to
completely dissatisfied.

6.2.4 Job satisfaction

The variable job satisfaction is based on the question All things considered, how
satisfied are you with your job? The survey item was answered using a seven-point
Likert-type scale response ranging from completely satisfied, to completely
dissatisfied.

6.2.5 Household division of labour

This covariate variable was created by adding points based on the respondents answers
(five points for always me, four points for usually me, three points for about equal or
both together, two points for usually my spouse, one point for always my spouse, and
zero point if is done by a third person) to the question In your household, who does the
following things? and a series of sub-questions including: Does the laundry?
Makes small repairs around the house? Cares for sick family members? Shops for
groceries? Does the household cleaning? Prepares the meals? Therefore, higher
scores on this variable would indicate the respondent takes on a large share of household
labour, while lower scores would reflect the respondent engages in a smaller share of
household labour. The Cronbachs alpha coefficient for this variable is .949.
 Happy parents in Latin America? 149

6.2.6 Hours spent on household work

The questionnaire contains items assessing the number of hours per week the respondent
spends on household work. The questions ask: On average, how many hours a week do
you personally spend on household work, not including childcare and leisure time
activities?

6.2.7 Time bind

This variable was created by adding points based on the respondents answers (four
points for strongly agree, three points for agree, two points for neither agree nor
disagree, one point for disagree, and zero point for strongly disagree) to the following
statements: There are so many things to do at home, I often run out of time before I get
them all done, There are so many things to do at work, I often run out of time before I
get them all done. A second set of questions included on this variable added points
(three points for several times a week, two points for several times a month, one point
for once or twice, and zero point for never) depending on the answers to the following
questions: I have come home from work too tired to do the chores which need to be
done, It has been difficult for me to fulfil my family responsibilities because of the
amount of time I spent on my job, I have arrived at work too tired to function well
because of the household work I had done, and I have found it difficult to concentrate
at work because of my family responsibilities. Thus, higher scores on this variable
represent a more intense time bind in terms of fulfilling both home and work
responsibilities, and lower scores would indicate the opposite. The Cronbachs alpha
coefficient for this variable is .802.

7 Results

Womens mean age was 37.03 years and mens mean age is 41.85 years of age. The
mean education for men was 12.38 years, which represents the equivalent of a high
school diploma, while womens mean education was 14.62, indicating completion of at
least two years of schooling beyond high school (e.g. college, technical school). More
men (62%) than women (59%) reported being parents of at least one child. On average,
men reported spending 26.62 hours on household work every week, while women
reported spending an average of 27.83 hours per week performing household work. Men
also reported working more hours per week (53.29 hrs.) compared to women (47.27 hrs.).
The mean job satisfaction for men was 4.44 and it was 4.46 for women (minimum = 0,
maximum = 6), and the mean family life satisfaction for men was 4.98 and 4.77 for
women (minimum = 0, maximum = 6). In terms of household division of labour, the
mean for women was 13.28, while the mean for men was 11.12 (minimum = 0, maximum
= 30). The mean time bind for women was 6.87 and it was 4.98 for men (minimum = 0,
maximum = 20).
In order to test the first hypothesis, an independent-samples t-test assuming unequal
variances was conducted to compare the variables scores for males and females in the
sample (see Table 3). There was a statistically significant difference between males and
females on the following variables: general life happiness [t(479.8) = 4.17, p < .001],
family life satisfaction [t(506.42) = 4.22, p <. 001], age [t(593.25) = 6.46, p < .001],
150 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

household division of labour [t(368.67) = 2.838, p = .005], weekly hours spent on

paid employment work [t(466.66) = 4.59, p < .001], and time binds [t(453.23) = 3.74,
p < .001]. Therefore, the first hypothesis predicting significant differences between men
and women was supported for all variables except job satisfaction [t(527.86) = .319,
p = .749], and hours spent on household work [t(527.86) = .651, p = .515].
Table 2 Descriptive statistics of study variables for men and women

Mean
Variables
Men Women
General life happiness 4.82 (.74) 4.59 (.80)
Job satisfaction 4.44 (1.03) 4.46 (.99)
Family life satisfaction 4.98 (.70) 4.77 (.71)
Age 41.85 (11.75) 37.03 (10.04)
Education (years of schooling) 12.38 (15.71) 14.62 (19.52)
Children .62 (.48) .59 (.49)
Weekly hours spent on household work 26.62 (33.76) 27.83 (21.28)
Weekly hours spent on paid employment 53.29 (17.73) 47.27 (17.98)
Household division of labour 11.12 (7.45) 13.28 (11.84)
Time bind 4.98 (6.44) 6.87 (7.41)

Table 3 Differences between males and females on relevant variables

Variable t df Std. error difference

General life happiness 4.17* 479.84 .056
Job satisfaction .319 527.86 .071
Family life satisfaction 4.22* 506.42 .050
Weekly hours spent on household work 4.59 466.66 1.31
Weekly hours spent on paid employment .651* 742.83 1.89
Age 6.46* 593.25 .74
Education 1.70 424.30 1.31
Household division of labour 2.83* 368.67 .76
Time bind 3.74* 453.23 .50
Note: * indicates p < .01
To test the second hypothesis, a regression model was conducted setting happiness as the
criterion variable. All assumptions for conducting a multiple regression analysis were
met. Correlations between the variables were small to moderate (see Table 4). The model
specifically predicts happiness for individuals who are both married and employed
full-time and has an R2 of .273, which means 27.3% of the variance in reported general
life happiness is explained by the predictors family life satisfaction, job satisfaction,
weekly hours spent on household work, weekly hours spent in paid employment, sex,
age, years of education, household division of labour, time binds, and whether the
individual has children.
 Table 4

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 General life happiness
2 Job satisfaction .266*
3 Family life satisfaction .481* .346*
4 Weekly hours spent on household work .022 .017 .130*
Happy parents in Latin America?

5 Weekly hours spent on paid employment .003 .018 .066* .008

6 Age .02 .025 .049 .039 .033
7 Education .041 .056 .014 .042 .028 .080*
8 Household division of labour .043 .006 .069* .070* .052 .015 .028
Correlations between all variables in the model

9 Time bind .121* .061 .060 .113* .045 .049 .023 .151*
10 Presence of children in household .036 .257* .188* .008 .009 .098* .091* .107* .115*
11 Sex .136* .01 134* .018 .150* .190* .06 .109* .126* 0.03
Note: * indicates p < .01
151
152 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

The adjusted R2 is .265, which indicates good cross-validity of the model. The model is
statistically significant, F(10,856) = 32.15, p < .00. The following were statistically
significant predictors: weekly hours spent on household work, job satisfaction, family life
satisfaction, sex, time binds, and whether there are children in the household (see
Table 5). The following predictors were not statistically significant: age, years of
education, and hours worked weekly.
Table 5 Multiple regression model

Predictor B SE
Job satisfaction .101* .134 .024
Family life satisfaction .478* .444 .035
Weekly hours spent on household work .002 .076 .001
Weekly hours spent on paid employment .001 .034 .001
Age .002 .029 .002
Education .002 .040 .001
Household division of labour .004 .052 .003
Time bind .010* .084 .003
Presence of children in household .159* .100 .049
Sex .144* .084 .053
Note: * indicates p < .01; R2 = .273
Therefore, there is partial support for the second hypothesis, as general life happiness is
predicted by sex, job satisfaction, family life satisfaction, time binds, and whether
children are present in the household. Based on the model, general life happiness is
positively impacted by high job and family life satisfaction, and by having children
present in the household. However, general life happiness is negatively impacted by time
binds and being female.
Although presence of children in the household was not significantly correlated to
general life happiness (see Table 3), it was a significant predictor of happiness
(see Table 4). However, presence of children in the household had moderate, significant
correlations with job satisfaction (r = .257, p < .001) and family life satisfaction
(r = .188, p < .001), which suggests the relationship between general life happiness and
presence of children in the household may be influenced by job satisfaction and family
life satisfaction. A partial correlation analysis was used to explore the relationship
between general life happiness and presence of children in the household while
controlling for job satisfaction and family life satisfaction. Preliminary analyses were
performed to ensure no violation of statistical assumptions. There was a weak, positive,
significant partial correlation between general life happiness and presence of children in
the household when controlling for job and family life satisfaction (r = .091, p = .005).
An inspection on the zero-order correlation between general life happiness and presence
of children in the household (r = .036) suggested that controlling for job satisfaction and
family life satisfaction had slightly positive effect on the strength of the relationship
between these two variables. In addition, although presence of children in the household
is a significant predictor of general life happiness, it only explains 1.2% of the total
variance in general life happiness scores (partial r2 = .012).
 Happy parents in Latin America? 153

8 Discussion

A growing career focus for both men and women around the world has brought about
changes to the home and family structure. Specifically, starting a family has been
associated with overall lower levels of happiness compared to non-parents. While much
research has been conducted in highly developed countries regarding the effect of
parenthood, gender, and employment on happiness and life satisfaction, only limited
research has been conducted with less developed countries, including those located in
Latin America (Casper et al., 2007). Latin American women have gained employment
outside the home at unprecedented rates, changing the face of the labour force in the
continent, while men have continued to embrace traditional ideals of masculinity
(Diekman et al., 2005; ILO, 1995; Tzannatos, 1999; Vigoya, 2001). Yet no study has
specifically studied the impacts of gender, parenthood, employment and work-family
satisfaction on happiness among Latin Americans. While there are differences across
Latin American countries, research has found that they share a consistent cultural
similarity in values, which means at a broad level, Latin Americans share a similar
worldview (Inglehart and Carballo, 1997).
The present study served to expand on the research regarding the impact of
parenthood, gender, and work-family satisfaction on happiness among men and women
in Latin America. Indeed, results from our study of married and full-time employed
individuals in Latin America found significant differences between men and womens
general life happiness, family life satisfaction, household division of labour, and time
binds. Overall, men reported higher levels of general life happiness but women reported
higher levels of family life satisfaction. Women, on the other hand, reported experiencing
significantly more time binds and took on a larger share of the household labour.
However, there was no statistically significant difference between men and womens
overall job satisfaction and weekly hours spent on household work. It is possible that
gender roles are changing within this educated sample of older Latin American men and
women, as men tended to spend as many hours on household work as women. In
addition, women reported experiencing more time binds than men, which alludes to the
sense of pressure to meet expected demands in a short amount of time. This finding is
congruent with studies conducted in the United States, which found that women generally
feel more stressed out if there is insufficient time available to fulfil household demands
(Treas et al., 2011). Other studies have found that women might experience stress
overload and more health problems when constantly experiencing time binds as a result
of demands from their job and household duties (Hochschild, 1997; Perlow, 1997).
Overall, it is consistently found that being unable to balance time at work and home
efficiently can lead to deficits and strains in both those areas (Spector et al., 2004;
Greenhaus and Butrell, 1985). These differences between married men and women in the
labour force highlight the challenges women in Brazil, Mexico, and Chile face as a result
of juggling multiple roles.
Results from regression models revealed that general life happiness is positively
impacted by high levels of job satisfaction, family life satisfaction, being male, and the
presence of at least one child in the household. On the other hand, being female and
experiencing time binds negatively affect an individuals overall general life happiness.
This finding is congruent with research conducted in highly developed countries
regarding the contribution of gender, job satisfaction and family life satisfaction to
general life happiness. However, in stark contrast with research on happiness in wealthier
154 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

nations is the positive impact of parenthood in this Latin American sample. In the model,
happiness was increased by the presence of children in the household. While presence of
children in the household contributed to a very small percentage of the variance on
general life happiness, partial correlation analyses suggest presence of children in the
household influences two variables strongly correlated to the criterion variable general
life happiness: job satisfaction and family life satisfaction.
We speculate this difference on the effect of parenthood between research from
highly developed countries and our results is perhaps linked cultural differences
regarding the importance of parenthood in Latin American culture. In the Latin American
culture, becoming a parent is one of the most important sources of pride and measure of
personal achievement, which is consistent with research documenting the importance of
motherhood and fatherhood among Latin American men and women (Guendelman et al.,
2001; Gutmann, 1996; Vigoya, 2001). Specifically, having children in Latin America is
seen as a realisation of lifes purpose for most men and women, as this is the basis of
forming strong families, which are considered the foundation of the collectivistic values
associated with the Latin American countries in this study (Guendelman et al., 2001;
Gutmann, 1996; Inglehart and Carballo, 1997). In economically developed countries,
parenthood and in particular motherhood, is not seen as mutually exclusive with
professional success through paid employment (McQuillan et al., 2008). In fact, research
among women in the USA has shown that valuing motherhood is positively associated
with valuing work success (McQuillan et al., 2008). In addition, many young adults in
highly developed countries delay parenthood in part because they value leisure and
increased economic achievement (McQuillan et al., 2008). Thus, these values stand in
stark contrast with the importance of parenthood above leisure and work success
documented in Latin American countries (Guendelman et al., 2001; Gutmann, 1996;
Vigoya, 2001).
It is important to take note of the lack of a significant difference between men and
womens time spent on housework reported in this sample of Latin American countries,
which may be indicative of a shift towards more egalitarian gender roles (Sorj et al.,
2004). On the other hand, it is also possible that men and women in dual earning
marriages rely on third parties to engage in a large portion of the household labour. For
instance, it is well known Latin American families tend to live in close proximity and it is
plausible other family members may help carry out household chores, or they may rely
on domestic help (Sorj et al., 2004; Spector et al., 2004). Moreover, the majority of the
men and women included in the sample reported higher education levels than their
countrys average. This might indicate that the sample consisted of men and women from
less traditional households consciously choosing to have a career focus for themselves
and their partners, which may have influenced the relatively similar distribution of
household work. Additionally, the types of household work carried out by men and
women may differ, with men performing the more masculine chores such as fixing
things around the house, and women performing chores such as laundry and
housekeeping. Therefore, although housework may appear similar by hours, the type and
distribution of work may not be equivalent.
In sum, our results indicate some findings are similar to those from Western samples.
Consistent with previous research, men tend to be happier than women, and even when
women are employed they continue to be responsible for most of the traditionally
feminine household duties and child care (Craig and Mullan, 2010). Also congruent with
previous research, job and family life satisfaction contribute significantly to the overall
 Happy parents in Latin America? 155

level of happiness experienced by men and women (De Simone et al., 2014; Wright and
Cropanzano, 2000). However, we found a significant difference from results of Western
societies regarding the impact of parenthood on general life happiness among this sample
of married and full-time employed men and women. Contrary to previous research, the
presence of children in a household positively impacts general life happiness levels for
Latin American men and women.

8.1 Implications
Our findings speak to the social change that must continue to occur in Latin American
countries in order help men and women reconcile work and family and achieve
happiness. As women in Latin America continue to join the workforce at increasing rates,
it will be important to continue research on work and family trends and dynamics. On the
one hand, female labour force participation rates, educational attainment, and political
achievements all have a strong influence on womens individual well-being (Mencarini
and Sironi, 2012). On the other hand, men have not yet embraced a more egalitarian
division of paid and unpaid work; women continue to perform most of the household
work and child care. As a result, women may be more likely to experience time binds,
which in turn negatively impact their happiness. Therefore, policies aimed towards more
egalitarian gender roles may be the most beneficial in order to promote men and womens
happiness even in the face of competing demands for their time and resources. These
findings contribute valuable knowledge to existing research on womens issues, and we
hope it will encourage further investigation on the ways social change can affect men and
womens happiness.

8.2 Limitations
The present study offers insight into a number of factors that predict working men and
womens happiness; however, additional research is required in order to further
understand and explore other variables that might have played a part in these results as
well. The present study had limitations, including a limited sample both within the
countries selected and related to Latin American country representation, and a
cross-sectional and co relational design. Including a broader and more representative
sample of Latin American countries would be beneficial and improve generalisability of
results to men and women in the continent. Additionally, many more men than women
were sampled, and a more even split of the genders within the sample might have
produced more clear-cut results. Furthermore, this research used data collected as part of
a cross-sectional design and reflects participants attitudes at a particular point in time but
does not reflect patterns of attitudes over a period of time. In addition, as data were
collected in 20022003, there is possibility of further changes in attitudes among
participants. Moreover, as a co relational design, causal inferences may not be drawn
between the variables. In spite of these limitations, this study contributes to existing
research pertaining to working womens happiness in Latin America, further elucidating
the complex relationship between happiness and parenthood, gender, employment, and
work-family satisfaction.
156 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

References
Abramo, L. and Valenzuela, M.E. (2005) Womens labour force participation rates in Latin
America, International Labour Review, Vol. 144, No. 4, pp.369400.
Baca Zinn, M. and Wells, B. (2000) Diversity within Latino families: new lessons for family
social science, in Demo, D.H., Allen, K.R. and Fine, M.A. (Eds.): Handbook of Family
Diversity, pp.252273, Oxford University Press, New York.
Baldwin, J. and DeSouza, E. (2001) Modelo de Mara and machismo: the social construction of
gender in Brazil, Revista Interamericana de Psicologa, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp.929.
Barnett, R.C. and Hyde, J.S. (2001) Women, men, work, and family: an expansionist theory,
American Psychologist, Vol. 56, No. 10, pp.781796.
Bartley, M., Popay, J. and Plewis, I. (1992) Domestic conditions, paid employment and womens
experience of ill-health, Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp.313343.
Baxter, J. (2002) Patterns of change and stability in the gender division of household labour in
Australia, 1996-1997, Journal of Sociology, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp.399424.
Bianchi, S.M., Milkie, M.A., Sayer, L.C. and Robinson, J.P. (2000) Is anyone doing the
housework? Trends in the gender division of household labor, Social Forces, Vol. 79, No. 1,
pp.191228.
Bird, C.E. (1997) Gender differences in the social and economic burden of parenting and
psychological distress, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 59, No. 4, pp.809823.
Blossfeld, H.P. and Drobnic, S. (2001) A cross-national comparative approach to couples career,
in Blossfeld, H.P. and Drobnic, S. (Eds.): Careers of Couples in Contemporary Society,
pp.315, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Bowen, G.L. (1989) Family life satisfaction: a value-based approach, Family Relations, Vol. 37,
No. 4, pp.458462.
Brief, A.P. (1998) Attitudes In and Around Organizations, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Brumley, K.M. (2013) Now we have the same rights as men to keep our jobs: gendered
perceptions of opportunity and obstacles in a Mexican workplace, Gender, Work &
Organization, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp.217230.
Bruschini, C. and Lombardi, M.R. (2003) Capitulo suplementar mulheres e homens no mercado
de trabalho: um retrato dos anos 1990, in Murani, M. and Hirata, H. (Eds.): As Novas
Fronteiras da Desigualdade: Homens e Mulheres no Mercado de Trabalho, Senac, Sao Paulo,
Brazil.
Brydon, L. and Chant, S. (1989) Women in the Third World: Gender Issues in Rural and Urban
Areas, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Byron, D. (2005) A meta-analytic review of work-family conflict and its antecedents, Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 67, No. 2, pp.169198.
Casper, W.J., Eby, L.T., Bordeaux, C., Lockwood, A. and Lambert, D. (2007) A review of
research methods in IO/OB work-family research, The Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 92, No. 1, pp.2843.
Casper, W.J., Harris, C., Taylor-Bianco, A. and Wayne, J.H. (2011) Work-family conflict,
perceived supervisor support and organizational commitment among Brazilian professionals,
Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 79, No. 3, pp.640652.
Castillo, L.G., Perez, F.V., Castillo, R. and Ghosheh, M.R. (2010) Construction and initial
validation of the Marianismo beliefs scale, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2,
pp.163175.
Chuchryk, P.M. (1994) From dictatorship to democracy: the womens movement in Chile, in
Jaquette, J.S. (Ed.): The Womens Movement in Latin America: Participation and Democracy,
pp.65107, Westview, Boulder, CO.
Claxton, A. and Perry-Jenkins, M. (2008) No fun anymore: leisure and marital quality across the
transition to parenthood, Journal of Marriage and Family Issues, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp.388407.
 Happy parents in Latin America? 157

Coltrane, S. and Adams, M. (2008) Gender and Families, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD.
Condon, J.T., Boyce, P. and Corkindale, C.J. (2004) The first-time fathers study: a prospective
study of the mental health and wellbeing of men during the transition to parenthood,
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 38, Nos. 12, pp.5664.
Craig, L. (2007) Contemporary Motherhood: The Impact of Children on Adult Time, Ashgate,
Aldershot, UK.
Craig, L. and Mullan, K. (2010) Parenthood, gender, and work-family time in the United States,
Australia, Italy, France, and Denmark, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 72, No. 5,
pp.13441361.
Craig, L., Mullan, K. and Blaxland, M. (2010) Parenthood, policy and work-family time in
Australia 19922006, Work, Employment and Society, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp.119.
Crompton, R. (2006) Employment and the Family: The Reconfiguration of Work and Family Life in
Contemporary Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Cronenwett, L.R. and Kunst-Wilson, W. (1981) Stress, social support and the transition to
fatherhood, Nursing Research, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp.196201.
De Simone, S., Lampis, J., Lasio, D., Serri, F., Cicotto, G. and Putzu, D. (2014) Influences of
work-family interface on job and life satisfaction, Applied Research on Quality of Life,
Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.831861.
Dew, J. and Wilcox, W.B. (2011) If momma aint happy: explaining declines in marital
satisfaction among new mothers, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 73, No. 1, pp.112.
Diekman, A.B., Eagly, A.H., Mladinic, A. and Ferreira, M.C. (2005) Dynamic stereotypes about
women and men in Latin America and the United States, Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp.209226.
Diener, E. (2000) Subjective well-being: the science of happiness and a proposal for a national
index, American Psychologist, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp.3443.
Diener, E. (2006) Guidelines for national indicators of subjective well-being and ill-being,
Applied Research in Quality of Life, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.151157.
Duffy, J.A., Fox, S., Punnett, B.J., Gregory, A., Lituchy, T., Monserrat, S.I., Olivas-Lujn, M.R.,
Santos, N.M.B.F. and Miller, J. (2006) Successful women of the Americas: the same or
different?, Management Research News, Vol. 29, No. 9, pp.552572.
Edlund, J. (2007) The work-family time squeeze: conflicting demands of paid and unpaid work
among working couples in 20 countries, International Journal of Comparative Sociology,
Vol. 48, No. 6, pp.451480.
Elliot, B.J. and Huppert, F.A. (1991) In sickness and in health: association between physical and
mental well-being, employment and parental status in a British nationwide sample of married
women, Psychological Medicine, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp.515524.
Elson, D. (1992) From survival strategies to transformation strategies: womens needs and
structural adjustment, in Beneria, L. and Feldman, S. (Eds.): Unequal Burden: Economic
Crises, Persistent Poverty, and Womens Work, pp.2648, Westview, Boulder, CO.
Elstad, J.I. (1996) Inequalities in health related to womens marital, parental, and employment
status: a comparison between the early 70s and the late 80s, Norway, Social Science and
Medicine, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp.7589.
Escobar Latapi, A. (1998) Los hombres y sus historias: reestructuracion y masculinidad en
Mexico, La Ventana, Vol. 8, pp.122173.
European Union (2015) Sweden: Successful Reconciliation of Work and Family Life [online]
http://europa.eu/epic/countries/sweden/index_en.htm (accessed 26 May 2015).
Evenson, R.J. and Simon, R.W. (2005) Clarifying the relationship between parenthood and
depression, Journal of Family Issues, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp.12751310.
Fawcett, J.T. (1988) The value of children and the transition to parenthood, Marriage and Family
Review, Vol. 12, Nos. 34, pp.1134.
158 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

Flake, D.F. and Forste, R. (2006) Fighting families: family characteristics associated with
domestic violence in five Latin American countries, Journal of Family Violence, Vol. 21,
No. 1, pp.1929.
Frone, M.R. (2003) Work-family balance, in Campbell, J. and Tetrick, L.E. (Eds.): Handbook of
Occupational Health Psychology, pp.143162, American Psychological Association,
Washington, DC.
Fuller, N. (1997) Identidades Masculinas: Varones de Clase Media en el Per, PUCP, Lima, Peru.
Gallie, D. and Russel, H. (2009) Work family conflict and working conditions in Western Europe,
Social Indicators Research, Vol. 93, No. 3, pp.445467.
Garcia, B. and de Oliveira, O. (1990) Maternidad y Trabajo en Mxico: Una Aproximacin
Microsocial, El Colegio de Mxico, unpublished manuscript.
Glenn, E.N. (1994) Social constructs of mothering: a thematic overview, in Glenn, E.N., Carg, G.
and Forcey, L.R. (Eds.): Mothering: Ideology, Experience and Agency, Rutledge, New York,
NY.
Goldberg, A.E. and Perry-Jenkins, M. (2004) Division of labor and working-class womens
well-being across the transition to parenthood, Journal of Family Psychology, Vol. 18, No. 1,
pp.225236.
Greenhaus, J.H. and Beutell, N.J. (1985) Sources of conflict between work and family roles,
Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10, pp.7688.
Grzywacz, J.G. and Butler, A.B. (2005) The impact of job characteristics on work-to-family
facilitation: testing a theory and distinguishing a construct, Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, Vol. 10, pp.97109.
Guendelman, S., Malin, C., Herr-Harthorn, B. and Vargas, P.N. (2001) Orientations to
motherhood and male partner support among women in Mexico and Mexican-origin women in
the United States, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 52, No. 12, pp.18051813.
Gutmann, M.C. (1996) The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City, University of
California Press, Berkeley.
Hansen, T. (2012) Parenthood and happiness: a review of folk theories versus empirical evidence,
Social Indicators Research, Vol. 108, No. 1, pp.2964.
Hardin, M. (2002) Altering masculinities: the Spanish conquest and the evolution of the Latin
American machismo, International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1,
pp.122.
Hill, E.J. (2005) Work-family facilitation and conflict: working fathers and mothers, work-family
stressors, and support, Journal of Family Issues, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp.793819.
Hill, E.J., Yang, C., Hawkins, A.J. and Ferris, M. (2004) A cross-cultural test of the work-family
interface in 48 countries, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 66, No. 5, pp.13001316.
Hite, A. and Viterna, J.S. (2005) Gendering class in Latin America: how women effect and
experience change in the class structure, Latin American Research Review, Vol. 40, No. 2,
pp.5082.
Hochschild, A. (1989) The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home, Viking,
New York, NY.
Hochschild, A. (1997) The time bind, WorkingUSA, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.2129.
Inglehart, R. and Carballo, M. (1997) Does Latin America exist? (And is there a Confucian
culture?): a global analysis of cross-cultural differences, Political Science and Politics,
Vol. 30, No. 1, pp.3447.
Instituto Nacional de Estadstica Geografa e Informtica (2009) Encuesta Nacional Sobre el Uso
del Tiempo 2009: Metodologa y Tabulados Bsicos, INEGI, Mxico.
International Labour Organization (1995) Women Work More, but are Still Paid Less [online]
http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/media-centre/press-releases/WCMS_008091/lang--
en/index.htm (accessed 21 February 2016).
 Happy parents in Latin America? 159

ISSP Research Group (2013) International Social Survey Programme: Family and Changing
Gender Roles III - ISSP 2002. GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA3880 Data file Version 1.1.0
[online] https://dbk.gesis.org/dbksearch/sdesc2.asp?no=3880 (accessed 21 February 2016).
Jacobs, J. and Gerson, K. (2004) The Time Divide: Work, Family, and Gender Inequality, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Kahneman, D., Krueger, A.B., Schkade, D., Schwarz, N. and Stone, A. (2004) Toward national
well-being accounts, American Economic Reviews, Vol. 94, No. 2, pp.429434.
Keizer, R., Dykstra, P.A. and Poortman, A.R. (2010) Life outcomes of childless men and fathers,
European Sociological Review, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp.115.
Klumb, P.L. and Lampert, T. (2003) Women, work, and well-being 19502000: a review and
methodological critique, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 58, No. 6, pp.10071024.
Knudsen, K. and Waerness, K. (2008) National context and spouses housework in 34 countries,
European Sociological Review, Vol. 24, pp.97113.
Koenig, A.M. and Eagly, A.H. (2014) Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content:
observations of groups roles shape stereotypes, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, Vol. 107, No. 3, pp.371392.
Kosteas, V.D. (2011) Job satisfaction and promotions, Industrial Relations, Vol. 50, No. 1,
pp.174194.
Lavrin, A. (1987) Women, the family, and social change in Latin America, World Affairs,
Vol. 150, No. 2, pp.109128.
Lobel, S. (2009) Work-life in Brazil, Center for Work and Family at Boston College, Boston, MA.
Lucas, R.E., Diener, E. and Suh, E. (1996) Discriminant validity of well-being measures, Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 71, pp.616628.
Mattingly, M.J. and Sayer, L.C. (2006) Under pressure: gender differences in the relationship
between free time and feeling rushed, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 68, No. 1,
pp.205221.
McDonald, P. (2006) Low fertility and the state: the efficacy of policy, Population and
Development Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp.485510.
McLanahan, S. and Adams, J. (1987) Parenthood and psychological well-being, Annual Review of
Sociology, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp.237257.
McQuillan, J., Greil, A.L., Shreffler, K.M. and Tichenor, V. (2008) The importance of
motherhood among women in the contemporary United States, Gender and Society, Vol. 22,
No. 4, pp.477496.
Mencarini, L. and Sironi, M. (2012) Happiness, housework and gender inequality in Europe,
European Sociological Review, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp.203219.
Morse, C.A., Buist, A. and Durkin, S. (2001) First-time parenthood: Influences on pre and
postnatal adjustment in fathers and mothers, Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and
Gynecology, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp.109120.
Mullen, J., Kelley, E. and Kelloway, E.K. (2008) Health and well-being outcomes of the
work-family interface, in Korabik, K., Lero, D.S. and Whitehead, D.L. (Eds.): Handbook of
Work-Family Integration: Research, Theory, and Best Practices, pp.191214, Academic,
Canada.
Nolasco, S. (1993) O Mito da Masculinidade, Editorial Rocco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Nomaguchi, K.M. and Milkie, M.A. (2003) Costs and rewards of children: the effects of becoming
a parent on adults lives, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp.356374.
Perlow, L. (1997) Finding Time: How Corporations, Individuals, and Families Can Benefit From
New Work Practices, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
Pollmann-Schult, M. (2014) Parenthood and life satisfaction: why dont children make people
happy?, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 76, No. 2, pp.319336.
Psacharopoulos, G. and Tzannatos, Z. (1993) Economic and demographic effects on working
women in Latin America, Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp.293315.
160 E. Terrazas-Carrillo et al.

Reid, J. and Hardy, M. (1999) Multiple roles and well-being among midlife women: testing role
strain and role enhancement theories, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological
Sciences and Social Sciences, Vol. 54B, No. 6, pp.S329S338.
Rocha-Sanchez, T. and Diaz-Loving, R. (2005) Cultura de gnero: la brecha ideologa entre
hombres y mujeres, Anales de Psicologa, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp.4249.
Rosenfield, S. (1989) The effects of womens employment: personal control and sex differences in
mental health, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp.7791.
Rothbard, N.P. (2001) Enriching or depleting? The dynamics of engagement in work and family
roles, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp.655684.
Ruderman, M.N., Ohlott, P.J., Panzer, K. and King, S. (2002) Benefits of multiple roles for
managerial women, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp.369386.
Ruiz Castro (2012) Time demands and gender roles: the case of a Big Four firm in Mexico,
Gender, Work & Organization, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp.532554.
Sanders, N. (2009) Mothering Mexico: the histography of mothers and motherhood in 20th
century Mexico, History Compass, Vol. 7, No. 6, pp.15421553.
Sayer, L., Bianchi, S. and Robinson, J. (2004) Are parents investing less in children? Trends in
mothers and fathers time with children, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 110, No. 1,
pp.143.
Scharlach, A.E. (1994) Caregiving and employment: competing or complementary roles?, The
Gerontologist, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp.378385.
Schoen, R., Kim, Y.J., Nathanson, C.A., Fields, J. and Astone, N.M. (1997) Why do Americans
want children?, Population and Development Review, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp.333358.
Shelton, B.A. and John, D. (1996) The division of household labor, Annual Review of Sociology,
Vol. 22, No. 2, pp.299322.
Sigle-Rushton, W. and Waldfogel, J. (2007) Motherhood and womens earning in Anglo-
American, Continental European, and Nordic countries, Feminist Economics, Vol. 13,
pp.5591.
Sorensen, G. and Verbrugge, L.M. (1987) Women, work, and health, American Review of Public
Health, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.235251.
Sorj, B., Fontes, A., Carusi, D. and Qintaes, G. (2004) Reconciling work and family: issues and
policies in Brazil, Conditions of Work and Employment Series, No. 8, International Labour
Office, Geneva, Switzerland.
Spector, P.E., Cooper, C.L., Poelmans, S., Allen, T.D., ODriscoll, M., Sanchez, J.I. and Lu, L.
(2004) A cross-national comparative study of work-family stressors, working hours, and
well-being: China and Latin America versus the Anglo world, Personnel Psychology,
Vol. 57, No. 1, pp.119142.
Stanca, L. (2012) Suffer the little children: measuring the effects of parenthood on well-being
world-wide, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Vol. 81, pp.742750.
Stephens, M.A.P. and Franks, M.M. (1995) Spillover between daughters roles as caregiver and
wife: interference or enhancement?, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological
Sciences and Social Sciences, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp.917.
Stevenson, B. and Wolfers, J. (2009) The paradox of declining female happiness, American
Economic Journal: Economic Policy, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.190225.
Strazdins, L. and Loughrey, B. (2007) Too busy: why time is a health and environment problem,
NSW Public Health Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp.219221.
Tiano, S. and Ladino, C. (1999) Dating, mating and motherhood: identity construction among
Mexican maquila workers, Environment and Planning, Vol. 31, Nos. 1112, pp.305325.
Tov, W. and Diener, E. (2009) Culture and subjective well-being, in Diener, E. (Ed.): Culture and
Well-being: The Collected Work of Ed Diener. Social Indicators Research Series 38, pp.941,
Springer, New York.
 Happy parents in Latin America? 161

Treas, J., van der Lippe, T. and Tai, T.O.C. (2011) The happy homemaker? Married womens
well-being in cross-national perspective, Social Forces, Vol. 90, No. 1, pp.111132.
Twenge, J.M., Campbell, W.K. and Foster, C.A. (2003) Parenthood and marital satisfaction: a
meta-analytic review, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp.574583.
Tzannatos, Z. (1999) Women and labor market changes in the global economy, World
Development, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp.551569.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015) Employment Characteristics of Families Summary,
Washington, D.C. [online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ famee.nr0.htm (accessed
26 May 2015)
Vanassche, S., Swicegood, G. and Matthijs, K. (2013) Marriage and children as a key to happiness?
Cross-national differences in the effects of marital status and children on well-being, Journal
of Happiness Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.501524.
Veenhoven, R. (1984) Conditions of Happiness, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht,
Netherlands.
Veenhoven, R. (2010) How universal is happiness?, in Diener, E., Helliwell, J.F. and
Kahneman, D. (Eds.): International Differences in Well-Being, pp.328350, Oxford
University Press, New York.
Veenhoven, R. (2012) Cross-national differences in happiness: cultural measurement bias or effect
of culture?, International Journal of Wellbeing, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp.333353.
Vigoya, M.V. (2001) Contemporary Latin American perspectives on masculinity, Men and
Masculinities, Vol. 3, pp.237260.
Weatherall, R., Joshi, H. and Macran, S. (1994) Double burden or double blessing? Employment,
motherhood, and mortality in the longitudinal study of England and Wales, Social Science
and Medicine, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp.285297.
Winslow, S. (2005) Work-family conflict, gender, and parenthood, 19771997, Journal of Family
Issues, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp.727755.
Wright, T.A. and Cropanzano, R. (2000) Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as
predictors of job performance, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 5, pp.8494.
Yeung, J., Sandberg, J.F., Davis-Kean, P. and Hoffert, S. (2001) Childrens time with fathers in
intact families, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 63, No. 3, pp.136154.
Zabludovsky, G. (2001) Women managers and diversity programs in Mexico, The Journal of
Management Development, Vol. 20, Nos. 1112, pp.354370.
Zelkowitz, P. and Milet, T.H. (1997) Stress and support as related to postpartum paternal mental
health and perceptions of the infant, Infant Mental Health Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp.424435.

Notes
1 The main features of the sample design and specification of the method of selection of
respondents can be found at https://dbk.gesis.org/dbksearch/sdesc2.asp?no=3880. Data
collection in Brazil was carried out by SENSUS Data World Pesquisa & Consultoria, ICCOM
Market Research in Chile, and the Institute of Marketing and Opinion in Mexico.
2 The samples of Brazil, Chile, and Mexico were designed to be representative of adults of any
nationality living in private housing. Chile and Mexico used three-stage stratified sampling.
Brazil and Chile used households as a sampling frame while Mexico used geographic areas as
a sampling frame.