Notebook # 3

Single and Double Emulsion Radiographic Films

A. Base- the base is composed of a thin sheet of polyester and includes blue dye to tint the film and
reduce eyestrain for the radiologist and increases diagnostic availability from the image. The cellulose
nitrate replaced the glass base and is flammable. It must be flexible for easily handling in the
darkroom and good contact with cassette pressure pads but tough. Also, stable so it doesnt change
its dimensions during the heating and immersion in chemicals for processing. The base must be rigid
so it can be conveniently placed on a viewbox and it should be uniformly lucent so it permits
transmission of light without adding artifacts to the image. The film base is coated with a substance
that prevents light from one screen crossing over to the next causing a blurring of the image which
the reflection of light is called a crossover effect and is mainly found in a double emulsion film.
Halation is caused by a reflection of light being reflected from air interface on the back of base
material. The antihalation coating is applied to the back of a single emulsion film and absorbs light,
prevents back scatter, visible light, or reflected light from degrading the image. A single emulsion film
must be loaded with the emulsion toward intensifying screen.

B. Adhesive- is a thin coating that is applied to the base material before it is coated with emulsion and
is designed to glue the emulsion to the base and prevent bubbles or other distortion when the film is
bent during processing, handling, or when its wet, and heated during development.

C. Emulsion- is composed of gelatin where photosensitive silver halide crystals are suspended. The
gelatin acts like a neutral lucent suspension medium for the silver halide crystals that must be separated
from one another to permit processing chemicals to reach them. It also distributes the crystals evenly
over the surface of the film, and prevents clumping of silver halides that would make a film more
photosensitive than another. Gelatin used for film is very high quality. The silver halide crystals used in
film are silver bromide, silver iodide, and silver chloride. Photographic film has emulsion on a single side
as well as mammography, and fine-detail extremity films. Duplitized (double emulsion, double coated)
film is what is normally used in diagnostic radiography.

D. Supercoat- is a layer of hard, protective gelatin that is made to prevent soft emulsion underneath
from being physically or chemically abused by scratches, indentions from stacking, and skin oils from
holding. It is strong and when combined with a tough base material it is impossible to tear a radiograph.

Manufacturing of the Radiologic Film

There are 4 stages in manufacturing of a radiographic film; crystal production, ripening, mixing,
and coating. Silver bromide crystal production is seen in total darkness by combining silver
nitrate and potassium bromide in the presence of gelatin. The gelatin must be present as a
medium to allow the crystals to form by limiting oxidation and reduce crystal surface energy
tension and to process other chemical reactions. Each crystal is cubic lattice of silver (+ interiors)
that forms the center, bromine (-), and iodine(- surfaces) atoms that cluster near the surface of
the crystal. Impurity must be added such as gold-silver sulfide to form sensitivity specks. There
can be little or many specks in different shapes that trap electrons and have to be present in
order to provide film sensitivity. These specks act as electrodes to attract free silver ions during
a latent image formation. Ripening is when silver halides are allowed to grow. The size of the
crystals will determine the total photosensitivity so the longer the ripening period the larger the
crystals (grains) and the more the sensitive emulsion. The emulsion is cooled, shredded, and
washed to remove potassium nitrate. Mixing comes after ripening and emulsion is melted at a
certain temperature to sensitize the crystals. There are certain additives that mix into the
emulsion such as; colored dyes that improve sensitivity of silver halides to match wavelengths of
photons that will be striking the emulsion during exposure, hardeners to prevent physical
trauma, bactericides and fungicides to inhibit the growth of these organisms, and antifogging
agents to decrease sensitivity to environmental factors like heat. Films can be panchromatic or
orthochromatic. Panchromatic films are sensitive to all colors and orthochromatic films are not
sensitive to red spectrum. The sensitivity in these are controlled by dyes that are added during
the mixing stage. Coating requires precise and very expensive equipment. The adhesive layer is
applied to the base then emulsion is added, then supercoat. The film manufacturing, packaging,
exposure, and processing has to be done in the darkness (dark room).

Intensifying Screen Film

This is a plastic flexible sheet that is coated with fluorescent material called phosphors which
convert photon energy to light. The purpose of the screen is to amplify the remnant beam and
decrease patient dose. Luminescence is the emission of light from a substance full of radiation.
Its color depends upon material and the amount of energy thats imparted to an electron. There
are 2 types, phosphorescence and fluorescence. Phosphorescence is similar to an afterglow; the
irradiated material will continue to emit light for a period of time after an exposure is taken and
will continue to produce an unwanted image. Fluorescence is when (visible light emitted) the
phosphor is stimulated and the outer shell electrons are excited only during irradiation and will
release energy and return to excited state and completely terminates after an exposure is made.
The phosphors in intensifying screens produce fluorescence.
E. Reflective layer has reflective material such as magnesium oxide or titanium dioxide phosphor
crystals that emits light in all directions and redirects light back onto the film. Divergence of light
rays can cause unsharpness of an image. When screen efficiency is increased, the patient dose
decreases. The light that strikes the film is nearly doubled. Some screens use dyes in the reflected
layer to absorb a longer wavelength light which assists in reducing scatter of light.
F. Phosphor layer is the active layer. Phosphors are materials that can absorb the energy of an
incident photon and emit light photons. If an intensifying screen is scratched the phosphor
crystals might be removed which can create an unexposed white line artifact on the image.
Phosphors must have a high atomic number, high conversion efficiency (ability to emit as much
light per x-ray photon), efficient spectral emission, and minimal phosphorescence.
G. Protective Coat is made of plastic about 25 micrometers thick and sits on top of the phosphor
layer and acts to protect the layer from abrasions and stains during loading and unloading of
films.