172 10. nL R Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes Part Ii! ior are called unstable. Therefore, a system will be stable (i.e., with bounded behavior) if all the poles of its transfer function are located to the left of the imaginary axis (Figure 9.7). In subse- quent chapters we will define more precisely the stability of a system. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT |. Define the transfer function. Why is it useful? . For a process with four inputs (disturbances and manipulated variables) and three measured outputs, how many transfer functions should you formulate, and why? What is the corresponding transfer function matrix? In Section 5.1 we developed a different type of input-output model. Would ‘you prefer that over the input-output model based on the transfer function concept? Flaborate on your answer. |. What is the block diagram of a process? What type of information does it convey? 5. Equations (4.4a) and (4.5b) constitute the complete mathematical model of a stirred tank heater. Develop the input-output model for the process by formulating the necessary transfer functions. Draw the corresponding block diagram. Analyze the interactions among inputs and outputs. What do you observe? (Hint: Start by linearizing the modeling equations and expressing the variables in deviation form.) . Draw the block diagram of the distillation column shown in Figure 4.10. Can you develop analytically the transfer functions among the various inputs and outputs? If yes, explain how, but do not do it. Consider the stirred tank heater of Example 9.1. Is ita stable system or not, and why? For what values of the parameters a, t, and K is it stable? Can it become unstable? Does the location of the zeros of a system affect its response to external inputs? Elaborate on your answer. 1. Repeat question 8, but take the location of the poles of a system into ‘Show that the poles of a 2 x 2 system are also the eigenvalues of the matrix Of constant coefficients in the dynamic model of the system. Under what conditions can the CSTR of Example 9.2 become unstable? ‘A multiple pole ps which is repeated m times gives rise to terms such as those given in (9.18). The terms within the brackets grow toward infinity with time, independently of where the pole p3 is located. Explain then, why the overall term of (9.18) decays to zero when ps is located on the negative real axis? i ob tonne — Dynamic Behavior 1Q of First-Order Systems The previous chapters of Part III have provided us with all the tools, we need to analyze the dynamic behavior of typical processing systems when their inputs change in some fashion (e.g., step, ramp, impulse, sinusoid, etc.). In this section we examine the so-called first-order sys- tems. In particular, we will study: 1. What a first-order system is and what physical phenomena give rise to first-order systems. 2. What its characteristic parameters are. 3. How it responds to the various changes in the input variables (disturbances and/or manipulated variables). 10.1 Whatis a First-Order System? A first-order system is one whose output »(1) is modeled by a first- order differential equation. Thus in the case of linear (or linearized) system, we have a, + ay = oft) a (ou) where f(r) is the input (forcing function). If aq + 0, then eq. (10.1) yields a, dy b Beye aod 7 ah? 173M4 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemucal Processes = Fart Define and take Dey = Kft) (10.2) dt +t is known as the time constant of the process and K, is called the steady-state gain or static gain or simply the gain of the process. Their physical meaning will become clear in the next three sections. If y(t) and f(0) are in terms of deviation variables around a steady state, the initial conditions are yO)=0 and f(0)=0 From eq, (10.2) it is easily found that the transfer function of a first- order process is given by HS) _Ko_ (10.3) Fo) as +1 [A first-order process with a transfer function given by eq (10.3) is also known as first-order lag, linear lag, or exponential transfer lag. If, on the other hand, ao = 0, then from eq, (10.1) we take fb Ry KO at as as) which gives a transfer function aot & (10.4) 5 In such case the process is called purely capacitive or pure integrator 10.2 Processes Modeled as First-Order Systems The first-order processes are characterized by: 1, Their capacity to store material, energy, or momentum 2. The resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy, or momentum in reaching the capacity. Thus the dynamic response of tanks that have the capacity to store liquids or gases can be modeled as first-order. The resistance is associ- (Chap. 10 Dynamic Behavior of First-Order Systems: 175 ‘ted with the pumps, valves, weirs, and pipes which are attached to the inflowing or outflowing liquids or gases. Similarly, the temperature response of solid, liquid, or gaseous systems which can store thermal energy (thermal capacity, c,) is modeled as first-order. For such systems the resistance is associated with the transfer of heat through walls, liquids, or gases. In other words, a process that possesses a capacity to store mass or energy and thus act as a buffer between inflowing and outflowing streams will be modeled as a first-order system. The stirred tank heater of Example 4.4 and the mixing processes of Example 4.11 are typical examples of first-order processes, Itis clear from the above that the first-order lags should be the most common class of dynamic components in a chemical plant, with the capacity to store primarily mass and energy. Let us examine now some typical capacity processes modeled as first-order systems, Example 10.1: First-Order System with a Capacity for Mass Storage Consider the tank shown in Figure 10.la. The volumetric (vol- ‘ume/time) flow in is F, and the outlet volumetric flow rate is F,. In the ‘outlet stream there isa resistance to flow, such as a pipe, valve, or weir. ‘Assume that the effluent flow rate Fis related linearly to the hydrostatic Pressure of the liquid level A, through the resistance R: F, =A, Sitiving force for flow Resistance to flow Atany time point, the tank has the capacity to store mass, The total mass balance gives (10.5) ah ade dt BaF o © Figure 10.1 Systems with capacity for mass storage: (a) first-order lag; (b) pure capacitive,V6 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes = Part ill or dh ARO + h = RF, (10.6) at where 4 is the cross-sectional area of the tank. At steady state hee RF, (10.6a) ‘and from eqs. (10.6) and (10.6a), we take the following equation in terms of deviation variables: AR p= RE: (10.7) ai where h! =f hy and F 1) AR = Fy Let {ime constant of the process K,=R_ = steady-state gain of the process ‘Then the transfer function is, (10.8) Certain notes are in order. 1. The cross-sectional area of the tank, 4, is a measure of its capaci tance to store mass. Thus the larger the value of A, the larger the | storage capacity of the tank. 2. Since t» = AR, we can say that for the tank we have (time constant) = (storage capacitance) x (resistance to flow) (10.9) Example 10.2: First-Order System with a Capacity for Energy ‘Storage The liquid of a tank is heated with saturated steam, which flows through a coil immersed in the liquid (Figure 10.2). The energy balance for the system yields vena Q=UA(Ts-T) (20.10) igure 10.2 System with capacity for energy storage + 1 NN NEON LEIDEN IST SYSTOMS- ae where V = volume of liquid in the tank P, cp liquid’s density and heat capacity U = overall heat transfer coefficient between steam and liquid Av = total heat transfer area T= temperature of the saturated steam ‘The steady state is given by O= UAT, ~ T.) cio. Subtract (10.1) from (10.10) and take the following equation in terms of deviation variables ar Ve%y ar UA(Ts~T') (10.12) where T’ « T - 7, and Ti,= Ty ~ Ta. The Laplace transform of (10.12) will yield the following transfer function: To) 1K 40.3) WO) Vee sg, ST UA, Gs) = where r, = time constant of the process = Vp¢y/ UA, K, = steady-state gain = I Remarks. 1. Eq, (10.13) demonstrates clearly that this isa first-order lag system. 2. The system possesses capacity to store thermal energy and a resist- ance to the flow of heat characterized by U. 3. The capacity to store thermal energy is measured by the value of the term Vpc,. The resistance to the flow of heat from the steam to the liquid is expressed by the term 1/(U/4,). Therefore, we notice that the time constant of this system is given by the same equation 4s that of the tank system in Example 10.1: Vo¢e UA, time constant = (storage capacitance) x (resistance to flow) Example 10.3: Pure Capacitive System Consider the tank discussed in Example 10.1 with the following difference: The effluent flow rate F, is determined by a constant-displacement Pump and not by the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid level A (Figure 10.1b)on Sa itil neta In such case the total mass balance around the tank yields (10.14) At steady state Om Fiur~ Fe (10.15) ‘Subtract eq. (10.15) from (10.14) and take the following equation in terms of deviation variables: which yields the following transfer function: Ws) WA Fis)" s Gs) (10.16) 10.3 Dynamic Response of a Pure Capacitive Process The transfer function for such process is given by eq. (10.4): 7)_K; Gs) =22- (10.4) OTe) s Let us examine how p(t) changes with time, when f(t) undergoes a unit sep change: fort >0 fiy=1 We know that for a unit step change, Jisy=4 3 Therefore, eq. (10.4) yields sie) Ke Ws) =F 5 and after inversion we find (see Table 7.1) that y(t)= Kot We notice that the output grows linearly with time in an unbounded fashion (Figure 10.3). Thus YO 2 as tw Chap. 10 Dynamic Behavior of First-Order Systems 179 no Ki igure 10.3 Unbounded response of pure capacitive process. Such response, characteristic of a pure capacitive process, lends the name pure integrator because it behaves as if there were an integrator between its input and output. ‘A pure capacitive process will cause serious control problems, because it cannot balance itself. In the tank of Example 10.3, we can adjust manually the speed of the constant-displacement pump, so as to balance the flow coming in and thus keep the level constant. But any small change in the flow rate of the inlet stream will make the tank flood or run dry (empty). This attribute is known as nton-self-regulation. Processes with integrating action most commonly encountered in a chemical process are tanks with liquids, vessels with gases, inventory systems for raw materials or products, and so on. 10.4 Dynamic Response of a First-Order Lag System The transfer function for such systems is given by eq. (10.3): G(s) -3)-_& cs) Sis) ts+1 Let us examine how it responds to a unit step change in f(s). Since {s) = I/s, from eq, (10.3) we take (10.3) ——Ke__ Ke Kote s@ys4D 5 s+] Inverting eq. (10.17), we take v(t) = K,(l — e""") (10.18) If the step change in f(t) were of magnitude A, the response would be (0) = ARAL =e") (10.19) HS) = 10.17)180 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chercal Processes Part Ill mo aky 3 Figure 10.4 Dimensionless response of firstorder lag to step input change. Figure 10.4 shows how y(r) changes with time. The plot is in terms of the dimensionless coordinates 29 versus £ AK, ” and as such can be used to determine the response of any typical first- order system, independently of the particular values of 4, Ky, and ty. Several features of the plot of Figure 10.4 are characteristic of the response of first-order systems and thus worth remembering. These features are: 1. A first-order lag process is self-regulating. Unlike a purely capaci- tive process, it reaches a new steady state. In terms of the tank system in the Example 10.1, when the inlet flow rate increases by unit step, the liquid level goes up. As the liquid level goes up, the hydrostatic pressure increases, which in turn increases the flow rate F, of the effluent stream [see eq. (10.5)]. This action works toward the restoration of an equilibrium state (steady state). 2. The slope of the response at f = 0 is equal to 1. ay (O/AKy] (t/t) This implies that if the initial rate of change of y(t) were to be intained, the response would reach its final value in one time = (Ce 4 (Chap. 10 Dynamic Behamor of First-Order Systems: 181 constant (see the dashed line of Figure 10.4). The corollary conclu- sions are: The smaller the value of the time constant t» the steeper the initial response of the system. Equivalently, The time constant t, of a process is a measure of the time neces- sary for the process to adjust to a change in its input. 3. The value of the response y(t) reaches 63.2% of its final value when the time elapsed is equal to one time constant, t,. Subse- quently, we have: Time elapsed 2, 3A _y(t) as percentage ofits ultimate value 85 95 ow Thus, after four time constants, the response has essentially reached its ultimate value, 4. The ultimate value of the response (i.., its value at the new steady state) is equal to K, for a unit step change in the input, or AK, for a step of size A. This is easily seen from eq. (10.19), which yields Y —= AK, as ¢ —+ co. This characteristic explains the name steady state or static gain given to the parameter K,, since for any step change A(input), in the input, the resulting change in the ‘output steady state is given by A(output) = K, A(input) (10.20) Equation (10.20) also tells us by how much we should change the value of the input in order to achieve a desired change in the ‘output, for a process with given gain, K,. Thus, to effect the same change in the output, we need: A small change in the input if K, is large (very sensitive sys- tems) A large change in the input if K, is small Example 10.4: Effect of Parameters on the Response of a First- Order System Consider the tank system of Example 10.1. It possesses two parame- ters:182 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes Part Ill The cross-sectional area of the tank, A The resistance 0 the flow of the liquid, R or from another but equivalent point of view: The time constant of the process. ty The static gain, K, Consider two tanks with different cross-sectional areas 4, and A, where A> As,and the same resistance, R. From eq, (10.9) we find that tp, > ty, (Ge., the tank with the larger capacity has a larger time constant) while the static gains remain the same, When we subject the two tanks to the same unit step changes in the inlet flow rates, the liquid level in each tank responds according to eq. (10.19) and its behavior is shown in Fig- ture 10.5a. We notice that the level of the tank with the smaller cross- sectional area responds faster at the beginning, but ultimately, both levels reach the same steady-state values. This is in agreement with our physical experience, Suppose now that both tanks have different cross-sectional areas A, and 4; and different flow resistances Ry and R:, such that AR 0.21) A Ry Tea Win AA, cy) Figure 10.5 Effect of (a) time constant and (b) static gain, in the response of first-order lag systems. Chap. 10 Dynamic Behewior of Fir 183 Equation (10.21) yields = AiRi= aR: But since A; > A2, then from eq. (10.21) Rz> Ri, which implies that K,,> Ky. Figure 10.5b shows the responses of the two tanks to a unit step change in the input. Since both tanks have the same time constant, they have the same initial speed of response. But as time goes on, the tank with the larger resistance R; allows less liquid out of the tank, Thus the liquid level grows more in this tank and its ultimate value is larger than the value of the level in the tank with resistance Ry. This again agrees with our physical experience and also demonstrates the fact that the larger the static gain of a process, the larger the steady-state value of its ‘output for the same input change. 10.5 First-Order Systems with Variable Time Constant and Gain In previous sections we assumed that the coefficients of the first-order differential equation [see eq. (10.1)] were constant. This led to the con- clusion that the time constant t, and steady-state gain K, of the process were constant. But this is not true for a large number of components in a chemical process. As a matter of fact, in a chemical plant, we will more often encounter processes with variable time constants and gains than not. Let us examine two characteristic examples. Example 10.5: Tank System with Variable Time Constant and Gain For the tank system discussed in Example 10.1, assume that the efflu- ent flow rate, F., is not a linear function of the liquid level, but is given by the following relationship (which holds for turbulent flow); Fe ‘Then the material balance yields the following nonlinear equation: Vh B= constant ah ADs Bh ates Linearize this equation around a steady state and put it in terms of deviation variables (this problem was solved in Examples 6.1 and 6. ro a 6.15) at 3K, dit t+ = KF; dt184 peeeeeueeee ee eeeeee eee eee eeeee seer eeeeese ee eeeeeeeeeseeeeeens where £5 = 24 Vhy/Band K, = 2B. We notice that both the time con- stant t, and the steady-state gain K, depend on the steady-state value of the liquid level, h,. Since we can vary the value of fy by varying the steady-state value of the inlet flow rate F.,, we conclude that the system has variable time constant and static gain. Example 10.6: Heater with Variable Time Constant Let us return to the heater system discussed in Example 102. The time constant and the stati gain for the heater were found to be p= YP and Kyat UA, “The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, does not remain the same fora Tong period of operation. Corrosion, dit, or various other solids depos- ited on the internal or external surfaces ofthe heating coil result in tradual decrease ofthe heat transfer coefficient. Tis, n turn, will cause fhe time constant of the system to vary. This example is characteristic of what can happen to even simple first-order systems. The question then arises as to how one handles first-order systems with variable time constants and static gains in order to find the dynamic response of such systems. There are two possible solutions: 1. We can use the analytical solutions that are available for first- order differential equations with variable coefficients. Such solu- tions are quite complicated and of very little value to us for process control purposes. 2. We can assume that such systems possess constant time constants and static gains for a certain limited period of time only. At the end of such a period we will change the values of t» and K, and consider that we have a new first-order system with new but constant t, and K,, which will be changed again at the end of the next period. Such an adaptive procedure can be used successfully if the time constant and the static gain of a process change slowly, in which case the time period of relatively constant values is rather long. THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. What isa first-order system, and how do you derive the transfer functions of a first-order lag or of a purely capacitive process? 2. What is the principal characteristic of the first-order processes, and what ccauses the appearance of a purely capacitive process? prone at oo ——s eee SES eo In Examples 10.1 and 10.2 it was found that for a first-order process (time constant storage capacity) x (resistance to flow) Is this appropriate for an isothermal, constant-volume CSTR, where a sim- ple, irreversible reaction, A — B, takes place? Show that a tank with variable cross-sectional area along its height also has variable time constant and static gain. Discuss a system that stores momentum and exhibits first-order dynamics. 5. How would you regulate the purely capacitive process of the tank in Exam- ple 10.3 so that it does not flood or run dry? . Consider a closed vessel with air lowing in it, Is this a pure capacitive or a first-order lag system? Answer the same question if the vessel is also supplied with an exit for the air. Study the response ofa first-order lag to @ unit impulse input. (Recall that fora unit impulse, f(s) = 1.) . Study the response of a first-order lag to a sinusoidal input, What do you observe in its behavior after a long time (i.e., as! — oo)?