Models and Strategies of Teaching

HMEF5123
MODELS AND
STRATEGIES OF
TEACHING
Dr Sharmini Ghanaguru
Dr Premalatha Bhaskaran Nair
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Dr Sharmini Ghanaguru

Dr Premalatha Bhaskaran Nair
Institut Perguruan Bahasa-bahasa Antarabangsa
Moderator: Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek

Reviewed by: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kwan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, April 2015August 2013

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2015, HMEF5123
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi - xv
Topic 1 Teaching and Learning 1

1.1 Defining Teaching and Learning 2
1.1.1 Styles of Teaching 2
1.1.2 Types of Learners 4
1.1.3 What is Teaching and Learning? 5
1.2 Teacher-centred and Student-centered Instruction 6
1.2.1 Teacher-centred Instruction 6
1.2.2 Student-centred Instruction 7
1.2.3 Teacher versus Student-centred Instruction 9
1.3 Inductive and Deductive Approaches to Learning 11
1.3.1 Inductive Approach to Learning 11
1.3.2 Deductive Approach to Learning 12
1.4 Overview of Models of Teaching and Learning 13
1.4.1 Social Learning Models 14
1.4.2 Information-processing Models 15
1.4.3 Behaviourist Models 16
1.4.4 Personal Family Models 17
Summary 18
Key Terms 19
References 19
Topic 2 Social Learning I: Partners in Learning 20

2.1 Cooperative Learning 21
2.2 Benefits in Cooperative Learning 22
2.2.1 Competency of Partnership in Learning 23
2.2.2 Partnerships in Action 25
2.3 Cooperative Learning in Action 25
2.3.1 Laboratories and Projects 25
2.4 Group Investigation 26
2.4.1 The Model of Teaching 27
2.4.2 Key Concepts in Group Investigation 30
2.4.3 Learner Benefits in Group Investigation Model 31
2.4.4 Criteria in Selecting Puzzling Situation 32
2.4.5 Sample Activities Using Group Investigation 33

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 36
Key Terms 36
References 36
Topic 3 Social Learning II: The Role-playing Model and Jurisprudential 37

Inquiry Model
3.1 Overview of Role-playing as an Instructional Tool 38
3.1.1 What is Role-playing? 39
3.2 Benefits of Role-playing 39
3.3 Using Role-playing in the Classroom 40
3.3.1 The Key Concepts in Role-playing 41
3.3.3 Criteria in Selecting Problem Stories 44
3.3.4 Sample Activities Using Role-playing 46
3.3.5 Instructional and Nurturant Effects in the 49
Role-playing Model
3.4 Overview of the Jurisprudential Inquiry Model 50
3.4.1 Using Jurisprudential Inquiry with Learners 51
3.4.3 Points to Consider When Applying Jurisprudential 55
Inquiry
3.4.4 Instructional and Nurturant Effects 56
Summary 58
Key Terms 59
References 59
Topic 4 Information Processing I: Concept Attainment Model and 61

Picture-word Inductive Model (PWIM)
4.1 What is Concept Attainment Model? 61
4.1.1 What is a Concept? 61
4.1.2 Concept Formation 61
4.1.3 Concept Attainment 62
4.1.4 Advantages of Using the Concept Attainment 65
Model
4.1.5 Instructional and Nurturant Effects of the 66
Concept Attainment Model
4.2 What is Picture-word Inductive Model (PWIM)? 67
4.2.1 How is PWIM Carried Out? 69
4.2.2 Advantages of Using PWIM in the Classroom 72
4.2.3 How Can Teachers Use PWIM in the Classroom? 73
4.2.4 Instructional and Nurturant Effects of PWIM 77

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
Summary 78
Key Terms 78
References 79
Topic 5 Information Processing II: Advance Organisers and Memorisation 80

5.1 What is the Advance Organiser Model? 81
5.1.1 Principles Governing Advance Organisers 83
5.1.2 Categories of Advance Organisers 84
5.1.3 Advance Organisers 86
5.1.4 Advance Organisers in the Classroom 86
5.1.5 Advantages of Advance Organisers 89
5.2 What is the Memorisation Model? 89
5.2.1 The Link-word Method 90
5.2.2 Mnemonics 92
5.2.3 Concepts in Enhancing Memory 95
5.2.4 Advantages of Using Memorisation 98
Memorisation Model
Summary 100
Key Terms 100
References 100
Topic 6 Information Processing III: The Scientific Inquiry Model and the 102
Synectics Model
6.1 What is the Scientific Inquiry Model? 103
6.1.1 The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) 103
6.1.2 Inquiry Training Model 106
Inquiry Training Model
6.1.4 Procedure in Using the Inquiry Training Model 110
in the Classroom
6.2 What is the Synectics Model? 111
6.2.1 Types of Synectics 113
6.2.2 The Synectics Procedure 115
Synectic Model
Summary 120
Key Terms 120
References 120

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Behavioural Learning: The Direct Instruction Model and the 122
Simulation Model
7.1 Origins of Behavioural Models of Learning 123
7.2 Principles of Behavioural Theory 126
7.3 Overview of Direct Instruction 127
7.3.1 Key Concepts in Direct Instruction 127
7.4 Principles for Practice in Direct Instruction 128
7.5 The Model of Teaching 130
7.6 Instructional and Nurturant Effects in Direct Instruction 133
7.7 Overview of Simulation 138
7.7.1 Model of Teaching 138
7.8 Instructional and Nurturant Effects 140
Summary 142
Key Terms 142
References 143
Topic 8 Mastery Learning 144

8.1 Philosophy and Rationale of Mastery Learning 144
8.2 Development of Mastery Learning 145
8.3 Concepts in Mastery Learning 149
8.4 Guidelines for Effective and Productive Learning 151
8.5 Individually Prescribed Instruction 152
8.6 Objectives in the IPI 154
Summary 154
Key Terms 155
References 155
Topic 9 The Personal Family of Models 156

9.1 Overview of the Non-directive Teaching Model 157
9.1.1 The Non-directive Teaching Model 157
9.1.2 Characteristics of Non-directive Teaching Model 159
9.1.3 What are the Roles of the Teacher in this Model? 159
9.1.4 Phases in the Non-directive Teaching Model 160
9.1.5 Characteristics of an Open Classroom 163
9.1.6 Advantages of Non-directive Teaching Model 164
9.2 Overview of the Developing Positive Self Concepts 164
9.2.1 Developing Positive Self-concepts 164
9.2.2 States of Growth 165
9.2.3 Self-concept and States of Growth 169
9.3 Conclusion 169
Summary 169
Key Terms 170
References 170

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
Topic 10 Assessing Learning Outcomes 171

10.1 The Information Processing Family of Models 172
10.2 Social Family Models: Role-Play 181
10.3 The Behavioural Systems Family of Models: Mastery 186
Learning
10.4 The Personal Family of Models: Non-directive Teaching 189
10.5 Points to Consider When Designing and Implementing 191
Assessment Tasks
10.6 Conclusion 192
Summary 192
Key Terms 193
References 193

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you may miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HMEF5123 Models and Strategies of Teaching is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Master of Education (MEd)
programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours can be
accumulated.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 seminar sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1." Compare and contrast a variety of models and strategies of teaching as
described in recent research;
2." Design lesson plans using appropriate models and strategies for teaching a
particular subject area;
3." Develop a personal understanding of best practices in teaching by
exploring and evaluating the effects of a number of models of teaching; and
4." Engage in reflective practice and inquiry before, during and after an
instructional event.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis of each topic is as follows:
Topic 1 gives you an overview of elements and concepts related to teaching and
learning.
Topic 2 deals with the social family of models where it elaborates on the key
components and application of this family models in the classroom.
Topic 3 elaborates on role play and jurisprudential inquiry models which are part
of the social family of model.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
Topic 4 discusses concepts and aspects pertaining to the concept attainment and
picture word method which are models in the information processing family.
Topic 5 further elaborates on the information processing family of models by

focusing on advance organisers and memorisation.
Topic 6 explores other models in the information processing family which are the
scientific model and the synectics model.
Topic 7 discusses the behavioural models in which the direct instruction model
and the simulation model are explored and analysed.
Topic 8 elaborates on mastery learning and concepts of learning in the

behavioural model.
Topic 9 analyses the personal family of models while highlighting pertinent

components related to the model.
Topic 10 discusses the assessment of learning outcomes based on the family of

teaching and learning models.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you

xiv COURSE GUIDE
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or

research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Before embarking in this course, you should possess some basic knowledge on
teaching and learning concepts such as factors related to creating positive
learning environments. A general idea on teacher and students roles would help
in understanding the mechanism of the various teaching learning models
explored in this course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.

COURSE GUIDE xv
REFERENCES
Joyce, B. R., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2004). Models of teaching (7th ed.). Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Lang, H. R., & Evans, D. N. (2006). Models, strategies, and methods for effective
teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Nugent, S. A. (2005). Social & emotional teaching strategies. Waco, TX: Prufrock
Press.
Tileston, D. W. (2004). What every teacher should know about effective teaching
strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCO host, Pro Quest, Springer Link, Books24x7, Info Sci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi COURSE GUIDE

Topic Teaching and
1 Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1." Identify four factors that affect the effectiveness of teaching and
learning;
2." Define the meaning of teaching and learning;
3." Differentiate between teacher-centred and student-centred
instruction;
4." Differentiate between inductive and deductive approaches to
learning; and
5." Summarise four models of teaching and learning.
" INTRODUCTION
In general, teaching and learning are two important aspects related to an
educator. As a teacher, he or she needs to know how each learner learns as
studies have shown that each student attempts learning in a particular way. In
other words, each learner has his or her own learning styles. Knowing these
learning styles would be beneficial for a teacher to seek the best possible ways of
identifying and executing the best teaching practices in the classroom. By
identifying the differences in learning styles among learners, we can plan and
apply teaching strategies which best meet the needs of learners. Similarly, the
differences in styles of teaching among teachers have some effects on the success
of the lesson too. Do you have any idea what they are? Let us look at these
aspects in detail to learn more.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Describe your teaching style in brief. Why do you prefer this style?

2 TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING
1.1 DEFINING TEACHING AND LEARNING

As mentioned earlier, teaching and learning are two important aspects which
teachers should look into when planning to teach. In the following subtopics, you
are going to look into some factors that affect teaching and learning process and
what one should be aware of as an educator.
1.1.1 Styles of Teaching

Joyce, Weil and Calhoun (2009) posit that teachers teaching styles are very much
influenced by their own personalities. They have identified four variances of
personalities associated to learning styles. These four variances are explained in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Four Variances of Personalities
Variance of
Description
Personality
Warmth Refers to the positive effect one gives to the classroom. For
example, expressing positive comments such as "well done"
regularly. The teacher is able to exude positive vibes by motivating
the students and giving them frequent assurances during the
learning process.
Gregariousness/ It is the degree for a teacher to involve students in decision making.
Sociability For example teacher can take the stand of allowing the students to
make decisions together as a class unit. The teacher and the
students become partners in the classroom whereby the students
are empowered and have a voice in the classroom.
Academic Teachers' past learning experiences may influence the way they
Learning teach in the classroom. For example, those who have struggled as a
learner are more likely to see learning as a struggle and are less
likely to provide higher-order and open-ended tasks in their
teaching.
Conceptual Refers to the way teachers process information. Teachers who
Level develop simpler, linear structures tend to ask lower-order
questions and practise rote learning compared to those who
develop complex networks of concepts.
Source: Joyce et al. (2009)
On the other hand, Grasha (1996) has identified four approaches to teaching
styles. They are formal authority, demonstrator, facilitator and delegator. These
four approaches are explained further in Table 1.2.
TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING 3
Table 1.2: Four Approaches to Teaching Styles
Style Description
Formal This focuses on content and can be very instructor-centred. The
Authority instructor defines the theories, principles, concepts or terms that the
student needs to learn and organises them into a sequenced set of
goals or objectives. Evaluations are a necessary part of course
planning as they allow the instructor to ascertain the amount of
learning that has taken place.
Demonstrator This approach concentrates on the performance of an academic
procedure. The instructor defines the steps as how an expert in the
field would use to accomplish necessary tasks as well as defines the
standards which would indicate mastery in applying these
procedures. The instructor then develops situations in which these
steps can be performed and results observed. The instructor may be
the one who demonstrates the procedures; students may be the ones
practising the procedures, or some combination of both.
Facilitator Teachers who have a facilitator teaching style tend to focus on
activities. This teaching style emphasises student-centred learning
and there is much more responsibility placed on the students to take
the initiative for meeting the demands of various learning tasks.
Teachers typically design group activities which necessitate active
learning, student-to-student collaboration and problem solving.
Delegator Teachers who practise a delegator teaching style tend to place control
and responsibility for learning on individuals or groups of students.
This teacher will often give students a choice in designing and
implementing their own complex learning projects and will act in a
consultative role.
Source: Grasha (1996)
ACTIVITY 1.2
Explain how the various teaching styles can affect the choice of
strategies employed in the classroom.

1.1.2 Types of Learners

Types of learners also play an important role in the selection of suitable strategies
in the classroom. McCarthy (1997) has identified four types of learners. These
learners are elaborated further in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Four Types of Learners
Type Characteristics
Innovative They are primarily interested in personal meaning. They need
Learners to have reasons for learning ideally, the reasons that connect
new information with personal experience and establish that
information's usefulness in daily life. Some of the many
instructional modes that are effective with this learner type are
cooperative learning, brainstorming and integration of content
areas (such as science with social studies, writing with the arts
and so on).
Analytic They are primarily interested in acquiring facts in order to
Learners deepen their understanding of concepts and processes. They are
capable of learning effectively from lectures and enjoy
independent research, analysis of data and hearing what "the
experts" have to say.
Common They are primarily interested in how things work; they want to
Sense "get in and try it". Concrete, experiential learning activities work
Learners best for them using manipulative, hands-on tasks, kinaesthetic
experience and so on.
Dynamic They are primarily interested in self-directed discovery. They
Learners rely heavily on their own intuition and seek to teach both
themselves and others. Any type of independent study is
effective for these learners. They also enjoy simulations, role
play and games.
Source: McCarthy (1997)
ACTIVITY 1.3
Can you identify the types of learners that you have in your classroom?
Explain the criteria you use to identify them.

1.1.3 What is Teaching and Learning?

Are you aware that the traditional method of teaching and learning is a one-way
interaction empowering the teacher on the teaching and learning procedure?
However, changes have taken place where students needs are also taken into
consideration. Educators realise that students do not come into the classroom
with empty heads. They do bring in their own beliefs based on their experiences
gained outside the classroom. These should be considered when planning for the
best teaching practice. In addition, there are also four basic elements of teaching
in general to be considered and practised. Figure 1.1 shows you these four basic
elements.
Figure 1.1: Four basic elements in teaching and learning
Before we go further, let us define teaching and learning. Let us take a look at the
definition of teaching.
Teaching involves planning and implementation of instructional activities

and experiences to meet intended learner outcomes according to a teaching
plan.
How about learning?
On the other hand, learning involves acquiring knowledge, skills and

attitude leading to relatively permanent change to learners behaviour.
Learning involves three important domains: cognitive, affective and

psychomotor. Each of these domains plays a crucial role in the mastery of skills
or knowledge.

Bear in mind that the effectiveness of teaching and learning is dependent on

several factors. Some of the factors are explained in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Four Factors that Affect the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning
Factor Description
Meaningful This refers to the need for meaningful learning to take place for
Learning students to acquire knowledge and skills. Otherwise, they will not be
able to recall what they have learned.
Active This involves students wanting to learn and taking part in the activities
Participation planned by the teacher. Through learning how to do, students will be
able to grasp the learnt concepts much faster.
Positive Feedback needs to be provided by the teacher to enable students to
Feedback know how they progress. Likewise, students do need to provide
feedback on their own learning as well.
Two-Way There is a need for two-way interaction between the teacher and the
Interaction student. This will enable learners to question their doubts and for the
teacher to clarify those doubts. Besides, constant checking on students
understanding will help the teacher to pace his/her teaching.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Can you think of other factors that influence teaching and learning
process? List them.
1.2 TEACHER-CENTRED AND STUDENT-

CENTRED INSTRUCTION
Are you aware that instruction is an important aspect involved in the teaching
and learning process? In this subtopic, you are introduced to the teacher-centred
instruction and the student-centred instruction and how they can benefit the
learners to achieve meaningful learning.
1.2.1 Teacher-Centred Instruction

In this method, the teacher plays an important role as knowledge provider.
Students focus on the teachers delivery and exclusively listen to what is being
conveyed. There are several characteristics of this form of instruction. Among
them are (Cuban, 1983):

(a)" Teacher talk exceeds student talk during instruction;

(b)" Instruction occurs frequently with the whole class small-group or
individual instruction occurs less often;
(c)" Use of class time is largely determined by the teacher;
(d)" The teachers rely heavily on the textbook to guide curricular and
instructional decision making; and
(e)" The classroom furniture is usually arranged into rows of desks or chairs
facing a chalkboard with a teachers desk nearby.
1.2.2 Student-Centred Instruction

Student-centred instruction refers to students exercising a substantial degree of
responsibility for what is taught, how it is learned and for movement within the
classroom. Some indicators for this method are (Cuban, 1983):
(a)" Student talk about learning tasks is at least equal to, if not greater than,
teacher talk;
(b)" Most instruction occurs individually, in small groups (two to six students)
or in moderate-sized groups rather than being directed at the entire class;
(c)" Students help choose and organise the content to be learned;
(d)" Teachers permit students to determine, partially or wholly, rules of
behaviour, classroom rewards and penalties and how they are to be
enforced;
(e)" Varied instructional materials (such as activity centres, learning stations
and interest centres) are available in the classroom so that students can use
them independently or in small groups; and
(f)" The classroom is usually arranged in a manner that permits students to
work together or separately, in small groups or in individual work spaces
no dominant pattern in arranging classroom furniture exists and desks,
tables and chairs are aligned frequently.
Weimer (2002) then presented seven principles of student-centred instruction.

These seven principles are further explained in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Seven Principles of Student Centred Instruction
Principle Description
Teachers do learning Learners do more of:
tasks less " Organising the content;
" Generating the examples;
" Asking the questions;
" Answering the questions;
" Summarising the discussion;
" Solving problems; and
" Constructing diagrams.
Teachers do less telling; This is messier, in that classrooms may be louder, it
students do more may take longer for students to get concepts and the
discovering teacher learns new teaching methods. Students
progressively take more responsibility for their learning
through discovering and uncovering what they need to
know.
Teachers do more This is done through effective assignments and activities,
design work (of which are designed to help students:
activities and learning " Increase learning skills (learning how to learn);
experiences)
" Motivate student involvement and participation;
" Discover work that is related to the discipline/real
world; and
" Develop content knowledge, learning skills and
awareness.
Teachers do more Demonstrate to the students on how an expert approaches
modelling a learning task and how to solve problem.
Teachers do more to get Use collaborative activities and cooperative groups for
students learning from learning.
and with each other
Teachers work to create Create learning environments conducive to students taking
climates for learning responsibility for their own learning.
Teachers do more with Feedback is not just about grades, but also informal and
feedback helps students learn from mistakes.
Source: Weimer (2002)

Do you know that Kolbs Model of Experiential Learning provides one of the
foundations for this model of how learning occurs in the classroom? Figure 1.2
shows you this model.
Figure 1.2: Kolbs Model of Experiential Learning

Source: Kolb (1984)
As shown in Figure 1.2, you can see that this model of learning consists of four
steps. These steps are further explained in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Four Steps of Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning
Step Description
Action/ The learner performs some type of activity related to the lesson or
Activity subject.
Reflection The learner reflects on what they did and what happened as a result of
their activity. This can be in one of several forms free writing,
journaling or small or large group discussions.
Knowledge/ The learner uses the results of the reflection to develop knowledge and
Theory theories, which help further the learning process because the learner is
conceptualising their own theories, not just accepting the theory of the
instructor.
Planning Based on the learners theories, they plan what to do next and anticipate
the results of further activity. This process moves the learner into the
higher levels of thinking than merely recall/recite facts or information.
1.2.3 Teacher versus Student-Centred Instruction

In this subtopic, we are going to compare the two instructions that we learnt
previously. Generally, teacher-centred instruction is a traditional method of
teaching involving the teacher as the dictator deciding what and how to teach.

This method of teaching is a one way interaction where the students are passive
learners.
On the other hand, the student-centred instruction requires that students be

responsible for their learning. This will lead them to start experiencing the
consequences of decisions they make about learning.
There are other differences between these two types of instruction. The following
Table 1.7 summarises them further.
Table 1.7: Teacher versus Student-Centred Instruction
Teacher-Centred Student-Centred
Focus is on instructor Focus is on both students and instructor
Instructor talks; students listen Instructor models; students interact with
instructor and one another
Students work alone Students work in pairs, in groups or alone
depending on the purpose of the activity
Instructor monitors and corrects Students talk without constant instructor
every student utterance monitoring; instructor provides
feedback/correction when questions arise
Instructor answers students Students answer each others questions, using
questions instructor as an information resource
Instructor chooses topics Students have some choice of topics
Instructor evaluates student Students evaluate their own learning; instructor
learning also evaluates
Classroom is quiet Classroom is often noisy and busy
Source: www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/learncentpop
ACTIVITY 1.5
Can you provide other differences between student-centred and
teacher-centred instruction? Explain the differences.
Which form of instruction do you think works well in the classroom?

Justify your answer.

1.3 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES

TO LEARNING
Are you aware that inductive and deductive approaches to learning are
commonly used by teachers in a learning environment? Both approaches have
their own strengths and are dependent on the role of the teacher. Now let us look
at each one more closely.
1.3.1 Inductive Approach to Learning

Let us begin this subtopic by looking at Scenario 1.1 which shows you how
Ms Johana begins her lesson using the inductive approach.
Scenario 1.1:
Ms Johana begins her lesson by presenting five words (that represent
examples) and another five words (that represent non-examples) of a mystery
concept (noun) on the board. She asks her students to think about how the
words are related to each other but not to the non-examples of the mystery
concept. Her students start brainstorming possible characteristics of concepts
by comparing examples and non-examples in groups. They later come up with
a list of characteristics.
The inductive approach focuses on identifying examples and non-examples

leading to the characteristics of a concept. In Scenario 1.1, Ms. Johana presents
both examples and non-examples of a concept (noun). Students are required to
study and identify the characteristics of the concept. This allows them to
emphasise critical and higher order thinking skills into finding the unknown.
What is unique about the inductive approach in teaching grammar is the fact that
rules are presented in a real language context. Students learn through practice
and gain the rules from the practical examples. The teacher plays the role of
providing meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule.
There are several advantages of the inductive approach. Among them are:
(a)" Students can focus on the use of the language without being held back by
grammatical terminology and rules that can inhibit fluency; and
(b)" It increases student participation and practice of the target language in the
classroom, in meaningful contexts.

Another example of using the inductive approach is presented in Scenario 1.2.

The teacher is teaching science to a group of young learners.
Scenario 1.2:
Mrs Lim starts the class with a short talk or discussion about real life
experiences related to water holding capacity (e.g. erosion of school's sports
grounds). The teacher poses questions and the pupils state the types of soil
near their houses and in the school garden. Next, the teacher provides samples
of soil. Pupils touch/feel and describe the soil samples in terms of colour,
texture and particle size, and record their observations in a table. Using the
same type of soil samples, pupils find out if the different types of soil allow
water to pass through them at the same rate.
The teacher instructs the group leaders to read out their observations and
discuss their groups findings with the class. The teacher finally discusses with
pupils which soil type will be best for planting tomatoes in the school garden
or their gardens at home.
In the above scenario, the teacher does not provide direct answers or information
to the pupils. Through the question and answer session, the pupils with the help
of the teacher explore the types and characteristics of soil. They will finally arrive
at their respective findings in which the teacher will guide and facilitate the
learning when necessary.
This form of inductive approach will benefit the pupils as they become more
competent in seeking answers and overcoming ambiguities in learning.
1.3.2 Deductive Approach to Learning

Now let us move on to the deductive approach. Let us read Scenario 1.3 where
Mrs Lim uses the deductive approach in her classroom.
Scenario 1.3:
Mrs Lim begins her lesson by introducing gases to her students. She asks her
students to generate a list of gases that they encounter on a daily basis. Mrs Lim
writes the answers provided by the students on the board. She divides her
students into groups and asks each group to brainstorm on the characteristics
related to the concept. Students examine the class-generated list of gases and
write their own new list of characteristics or properties. Students organise the
concept characteristics by placing the brainstormed ideas into categories.

Based on Scenario 1.3, the deductive approach to learning begins with the
introduction of the concept to the students. The teacher plays an important role
in disseminating knowledge to her students. This method of teaching is
traditional in nature where rote learning is highly emphasised. Students learn the
rule and apply it after they have been introduced to the rule. Teacher plays an
important role as knowledge provider through presentation and explanation.
This approach is suitable for learners of lower level.
However, there are several disadvantages of the deductive approach. Among

them are:
(a)" Teaching is in isolation;
(b)" Little attention is paid to meaning; and
(c)" Practice is often mechanical.
ACTIVITY 1.6
Describe how a teacher decides which approach, inductive or
deductive, is the better choice for a given topic.
1.4 OVERVIEW OF MODELS OF TEACHING

AND LEARNING
Lastly, let us get to know some models of teaching and learning. As a teacher,
you need to be aware of these models in catering to the needs of your learners
with different learning styles. These models are frameworks that serve as guide
in designing suitable activities in the classroom. Awareness of the various types
of teaching models will also allow you to analyse and evaluate their strengths
and weaknesses so as to plan and implement appropriate follow-up actions.
In addition, models of teaching and learning are considered as a blueprint which

specifies approaches to instruction with three main focuses:
(i)" Goals (help students to develop critical thinking and understanding of
concepts);
(ii)" Phases (steps to reach specific goals); and
(iii)" Foundations (which are supported by theories and researches in learning
and motivation).

There are four models that will be introduced to you in this subtopic. They are
listed in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Four models of teaching and learning
Now let us look at each of the models closely.
1.4.1 Social Learning Models

The social learning models are based on the social learning theory. This theory
emphasises that the learning focus is within a social context. Learning can take
shape through observation and imitation of actions. Reinforcement of behaviour
is achieved through reward and punishment.
In addition, these models also enable learners to work together to identify and
solve problems, to develop skills in human relations and to become aware of
personal and social values. Table 1.8 lists the types of social learning models.
These models will be discussed in greater detail in other topics that follow.

Table 1.8: The Social Learning Models
Models Developer Feature

"Partners in Learning " Development of strategies to help
"Positive " David Johnson students work effectively together.
Interdependence " Roger Johnson
" Margarita
Calderson
" Elizabeth Cohen
" Structured Inquiry " Robert Slavin
"Group Investigation " John Dewey " Development of skills for
" Herbert Thelen participation in democratic
process.
" Simultaneously emphasises social
development, academic skills and
personal understanding.
"Role Play " Fannie Shaftel " Study of values and their role in
social interaction.
" Personal understanding of values
and behaviour
"Jurisprudential " Donald Oliver " Analysis of policy issues through
Inquiry " James Shaver a jurisprudential framework.
" Collection of data, analysis of
value questions and positions and
study of personal beliefs
1.4.2 Information-Processing Models

The information-processing models are based on cognitive psychology where the
human brain is perceived as the information processor that resembles computers.
In other words, these models refer to the way people handle stimuli from the
environment, organise data, identify problems, generate concepts and solution to
problems and use verbal and non-verbal symbols.
The information processing modes are seen as beneficial in the learning process
where students are better equipped, enforced with good mental exercises
through different methods and approaches (for example, mastery of concepts
and skills). They also enable students to remember the information for a longer
period of time. Table 1.9 describes eight types of information-processing models.

Table 1.9: The Information-Processing Models

Inductive Thinking Hilda Taba Development of classification skills,
hypothesis building and testing and
understanding of how to build
conceptual understanding of concept
areas.
Concept Attainment Jerome Bruner Used to teach concepts and to help
students become more effective at
learning concepts (concept attainment).
The Picture Word Emily Calhoun How to acquire print literacy,
Inductive Model particularly reading and writing, also
how listening and speaking
vocabularies are developed.
Scientific Inquiry Joseph Schwab Used to study principles, phenomena
and characteristics of scientific
knowledge.
Inquiry Training Richard Suchman Based on the assumption that strategies
used by scientists can be used as a
teaching model especially in the study
of science
Mnemonics Michael Pressley Strategies for memorising and
Joel Levin assimilating information.
Richard Anderson
Synectics William Gordon Enhancing creative thoughts.
Advance Organisers David Ausubel Provide students with a cognitive
structure for comprehending material
presented through lectures, readings
and other media.
1.4.3 Behaviourist Models

The behaviourist models of teaching and learning focus on the teacher as one
who plays a dominant role. It operates on a principle of stimulus-response. This
theory assumes learners as passive and that they start off as a clean slate.
Behaviour of learners can be shaped through positive or negative reinforcement.
There are five types of behaviourist models and these are explained further in
Table 1.10.

Table 1.10: The Behaviourist Models

Mastery Learning Benjamin Bloom Students can master any topic if it is broken
James Block down into small chunks and if they are
given enough time to learn at their own
pace.
Direct Instruction Tom Good Mastery of academic content and skills in a
Jere Brophy wide range of areas of study.
Carl Bereiter
Ziggy Engleman
Wes Becker
Simulation Carl Smith Mastery of complex skills and concepts in a
Mary Smith wide range of areas of study.
Social Learning Albert Bandura The management of behaviour: Learning

Carl Thoresen new patterns of behaviour, reducing phobic
and other dysfunctional patterns and
Wes Becker
learning self-control.
Programmed B. F. Skinner Mastery of skills, concepts and factual
Schedule information.
(Task Performance
Reinforcement)
1.4.4 Personal Family Models

Personal family models of teaching and learning allow students to increase their
sense of self-worth and recognise their emotions and are aware on how emotions
affect their behaviour. The models also increase their creative thinking. There are
two types of personal family models; these are explained in Table 1.11.
Table 1.11: The Personal Family Models
Models Developer Purpose

Non-Directive Teaching Carl Rogers Building capacity for personal
development, self understanding and
autonomy and esteem of self.
Enhancing Self-Esteem Abraham Development of personal understanding
Maslow and capacity for development.

Before we end this topic, let us make a conclusion on the teaching and learning
models. Bear in mind that it is important to be aware of the different types of
teaching models in order for one to identify the best method of teaching his/her
learners. This awareness will guide teachers to create conducive environment for
their learners who consist of different types of learners.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
List two models that represent social learning models, information-
processing models, behaviourist models and personal family models
perspectively.
" Two main factors that affect teaching and learning processes are styles of
teaching and types of learners.
" Teaching involves planning and implementation of instructional activities

and experiences to meet intended learner outcomes according to a teaching
plan.
" As for learning, it involves acquiring of knowledge, skills and attitude

leading to relatively permanent change to learners behaviour.
" In teacher-centred instruction, the teacher plays an important role as a

knowledge provider to students. The students focus on the teachers delivery
and exclusively listen to what is being conveyed.
" Student-centred instruction refers to students exercising a substantial degree

of responsibility for what is taught, how it is learned and for movement
within the classroom.
" The inductive approach focuses on identifying examples and non-examples

leading to the characteristics of a concept.
" The deductive approach uses introduction to begin the learning process.
Teacher plays an important role as a knowledge provider through
presentation and explanation.
" The four models of teaching and learning discussed in this topic are social
learning models, information-processing models, behaviourist models and
personal family models.
" The social learning models are based on the social learning theory.
" The information-processing models are based on cognitive psychology

where the human brain is perceived as the information processor that
resembles a computer.
" The behaviourist models of teaching and learning focus on the teacher as one
who plays a dominant role.
" Personal family models of teaching and learning allow students to increase
their sense of self-worth and recognise their emotions and are aware on how
emotions affect their behaviour.
Deductive approach Models of teaching

Inductive approach Student-centred instruction
Learning Teaching
Learning styles Teacher-centred instruction
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Cuban, L. (1983). How teachers taught. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style. Pittsburgh, PA: Alliance Publishers.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McCarthy, B. (1997). A tale of four learners: 4MATs learning styles. How
Children Learn, 54(6), 46-51.
Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
National Capitol Language Resource Center. (2013). Teaching goals and methods.
Retrieved from http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/gmindex.htm

Topic Social
2 Learning I:
Partners in
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify the significance of partners in learning.
2." State the elements related to cooperative learning when learning
in groups (dyads/partners or small groups); and
3." Examine key concepts related to group investigation.
" INTRODUCTION
The social learning family highlights the importance of partners in learning. It
regards a classroom as a learning community in which each member plays a role
in sharing knowledge with one another. The key element in the social family of
models is cooperation. Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared
goals. Within cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes that are
beneficial to themselves and to all other group members.
In the following section, the term cooperative learning will be used to highlight
the importance of working in groups.

TOPIC 2 SOCIAL LEARNING I: PARTNERS IN LEARNING 21
2.1 COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students
work together to maximise their own and each others learning (Johnson,
Johnson & Holubec 1998). To ensure the success of cooperative learning, the
following elements in Table 2.1 must exist during the group activity.
Table 2.1: Elements in Group Activity
Elements in Group Activity Description

Positive interdependence Each team is dependent on one another in a positive
manner. The members rely on each other to ensure
that the desired goal is achieved.
Individual accountability The members of the team are equally responsible to
contribute towards the completion of the task. They
are deemed capable of attaining competency in the
material to be learnt.
Face-to-face interaction The task may take various forms in which the group
members may need to work individually or members
would have a face-to-face interaction with the other
members. Feedback coupled with constructive
criticism will further motivate and encourage the
members to complete the task as a whole.
Development and use of Through group discussion and collaborations,
collaborative skills learners are trained to develop group management
skills such as trust-building, leadership, decision-
making, communication and conflict management
skills. These skills are pivotal in enabling the group
members to forge a better understanding and positive
working climate.
Group management and To determine the smooth running of the task, group
assessment members can set group goals. These group goals will
function as a good monitoring device or benchmark to
determine the progress of the group. Throughout the
process, group members can make changes to help
them reach their group goals. The experience gained
through this will help the learners become more
focused and goal oriented in terms of reaching their
optimal performance.

22 TOPIC 2 SOCIAL LEARNING I: PARTNERS IN LEARNING
ACTIVITY 2.1
Discuss the challenges faced in setting group work. How does a
teacher overcome these challenges?
2.2 BENEFITS IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING

The learning community which is based on a cooperative learning mode or
partnership in learning possesses the following benefits:
(a)" The learning climate becomes more positive and effective when there is an
element of cooperative learning behaviour amongst the members.
(b)" The aspect of sharing of content and knowledge has immense impact on the
quality of learning in general.
(c)" The interaction with one another during a learning process promotes not
only cognitive enhancements but also helps to develop the learners
interpersonal skills.
(d)" Cooperation among team members fosters positive emotions and promotes
unity among learners, hence developing a positive and effective learning
community.
(e)" Cooperative learning among members of the learning community provides
each individual with the opportunity to establish his or her voice and
therefore helps these individuals to feel empowered and respected by other
members in the group.
(f)" The skills gained from the cooperative learning experiences help develop
the readiness of these learners in facing the real world. The experiences that
they have through working together will provide these learners with the
relevant skills to face challenges when they are at the workplace or dealing
with real life issues.
Based on the above benefits, partnership in learning is indeed a crucial

component in ensuring an effective learning climate in the classroom. However,
one needs to consider how effective partnership can be administered in the
classroom in order to generate the desired learning outcomes.

2.2.1 Competency of Partnership in Learning

Human beings are social beings. They have the intrinsic need to interact and be
part of a community. However, as much as they are wired to be able to
communicate with other individuals, there are situations when communication
may not be as expected. For example, despite being in a classroom with other
learners, there are times when learners faced with group work are unable to
perform as expected. One needs to consider ways to help learners work together.
There are a few ways in which a teacher can increase the competency of
partnership in learning. To ensure effective learning, teachers must take into
consideration factors shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Effective learning factors
Let us study the effective learning factors closely.
(a)" Learners Cognitive Ability

To develop a positive learning community, each member in the community
should be able to participate actively and productively in the learning
process. To ensure the success of the learning task, the teacher should
consider each members learning ability as well as his/her cognitive level.
By identifying and grouping the learners according to their ability, it will
help the teacher to optimise and maximise the learning opportunity. Each
member in the learning community will then be able to independently
perform a task based on his or her cognitive level. In addition, through
identification of the learners ability, the teacher can specify certain task
based on the learners area of specialisation. In this sense, the division of
labour or task within the group will foster positive interdependence among
members.

(b)" Type of Task

The purpose of setting a task is to enable learners in the group to work
together. Hence the task must be designed and implemented systematically
to meet the requirements of the learning outcomes. Firstly, the task must
allow for equal or active participation among group members. This can be
achieved through providing tasks that require members to work in parts or
as a whole whereby each member is assigned to complete a specific area of
focus. Kagan (as cited in Johnson and Johnson 1999) developed the
numbered heads to help participants participate actively in the learning
activity. The numbered head procedure involves students being given a
number and assigned a task. Each student will complete the task and after a
stipulated time, the teacher will call out a number. The student with the
given number will then need to present the findings or answers to the task.
The other students will then check their own answers to verify the answers
provided by the presenter. Using this procedure, each member is required
to contribute towards the task. This encourages a sense of accountability
and responsibility among members.
The second aspect pertaining to task is the assessment of the completed

task. Members in the group may be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated
in terms of completing the task. The mode in which assessment of the
completed task will, in some way, determine the motivation and
commitment of the participants in the learning task. Johnson and Johnson
(1990) posit that evidence from research conducted indicates that
cooperative goal structures benefit learning whereas Slavin (1983) states
that competition between groups enhances learning. Since there are two
contrasting views pertaining to the above, the teacher should make a
decision based on the group type and manner of working. For example, if
the class consists of a homogenous group, the task should be assessed based
on a cooperative goal structure. Each member works cooperatively with
one another to achieve the learning goal. However if it is a heterogeneous
class, the teacher can assess the learners based on their area of
specialisation. At this point each member would need to work
collaboratively to complete the task. Assessment would be based on a
competitive goal structure where each member of the group will be
evaluated based on his or her performance.
(c)" Role of Group Member

In building effective learning community, each member should be aware of
his or her role and responsibility towards the group. To ensure the smooth
running of the task, teacher would need to establish clear guidelines in
terms of the role of the group members. For example, if a particular
member is chosen as a leader of the group, the other members must

support and cooperate with the leader. At the same time, the leader should
take on a democratic stance, allowing for each member to raise concerns,
opinions or views regarding a particular learning activity.
2.2.2 Partnerships in Action

Partnerships in action can be seen through three models: group investigation,
role playing and jurisprudential inquiry, pertaining to the social family of models
of teaching and learning.
These models focus on developing and enhancing the interpersonal skills

amongst learners. The main objective of these models is to cultivate and nurture
a positive learning community that would be able to impact effective teaching-
learning in the classroom. This is realised through the use of the inquiry
approach in which the learners are working cooperatively in groups to address
the specific learning concern.
2.3 COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN ACTION

Cooperative learning is a user friendly tool that can be used in any form of
teaching-learning activity. Among the types of activity that would promote good
use of cooperative learning are laboratory-based tasks or projects.
2.3.1 Laboratories and Projects

This form of work is most common in science related subjects. Since laboratory-
based tasks or projects mostly involves teams, one needs to consider the elements
crucial in enabling cooperative learning. One of the elements is positive
interdependence. At most times, laboratory work involves one or two members
actively participating in the experiment or project. The rest of the team members
may end up being mere observers or reporters. To promote positive
interdependence and individual accountability, each member in the team must
be given a specific task that will impact the overall performance of the group. For
example, one member may be in charge of instrument calibration, another being
responsible for observing and reporting changes that occur during the
experiment, etc. Each member must be aware of his/her role and responsibility
in making the project work.
In addition, awarding individual marks for each member based on performance

in the completion of the project will help eradicate non-participatory situations
within the team. To further promote positive interdependence, the individual
marks awarded to each member can contribute towards the overall grade of the
project. This will raise awareness amongst members of the group that they would
need to work together in order to achieve the desired performance level.
Furthermore, getting each member to work on specific parts of the task can
reduce anxiety and stress among individuals. Work shared is work halved in this
context as the group members will be able to pay attention to specific areas of the
task.
When each member produces his or her output, the other members can provide
feedback and assist the individual to improve on the presented work. This form
of peer editing creates positive impact on learning and overall performance of the
group. During the peer editing session, members exchange views and provide
feedback on their peers work. The feedback can be conducted either orally or in
the written form. The peer feedback can also provide information to the teacher
on the commitment and engagement of each member of the group. Apart from
that, the teacher too will not be faced with extensive and tedious grading as the
products will be more refined due the first round of feedback and revision by the
group members.
During the peer editing process, the teacher can distribute the grading check list
and marking scheme to the group members. Using this grading check list or
assessment tool, the members can provide comments and feedback to their peers.
This form of discussion among the group members will help members to be
aware of the intended learning goals as stipulated in the task. As such, these
group members will then be able to review their group goals and make necessary
modifications to attain the learning outcomes as stipulated in the task.
The focus in the subsequent subtopic would be to explore group investigation,

role playing and jurisprudential inquiry and how these models can be applied in
the classroom to promote effective learning.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Discuss the importance of partnership in learning. Can partnership in
learning be applied to all ages of learners?
2.4 GROUP INVESTIGATION

Group Investigation is a form of cooperative learning in which group members are
actively involved in sharing of knowledge for the purpose of completing a specific

learning task. Thelen (1960) built upon Dewey's ideas and worked out a more
systematic approach to the classroom application of Dewey's ideas. Thelen called
his approach "Group Investigation". His major emphasis was upon the points that
life is social, society creates and nurtures individuals and democracy requires the
creation of a democratic culture with appropriate norms and procedures.
Education in a democratic society must, therefore, provide a democratic school
culture and teachers must be nurturers of democratic life. Thelens (1960) Group
Investigation model (p.278) is grounded on a teaching strategy that focuses on a
democratic approach using academic inquiry.
Thelens view is that individuals interact with one another to establish social order.
Negotiation and renegotiation are pivotal in determining prohibitions and freedom
for action. Thelen posits the importance of social order that will eventually impact
the culture of the society. As such, in group investigation, learners build learning
communities through interaction with one another. Learning communities are
crucial in getting learners develop their critical and analytical thinking skills as
well as help these learners generate effective partnerships in learning.
The classroom is a microscopic representation of society as a whole. The teaching-

learning process seen in the classroom involves a number of experiences that form
perceptions and beliefs in learning and life in general. For learners in a typical
classroom, the climate is structured based on set values by the teacher. As stated by
Thelen (1960), the classroom should focus on the process of generating social order.
The teacher leads the development of social order in the classroom. This is realised
through the academic inquiry process whereby the learners are encouraged to
exhibit their personal views, opinions and interpretations pertaining to specific
puzzling situations. This puzzling situation becomes the stimulus in which the
learners discuss and investigate the task in their respective groups. During the
academic based inquiry process, the learners develop their critical and analytical
thinking skills, in addition to their interpersonal skills.
2.4.1 The Model of Teaching

In the planning and teaching based on the group investigation model, one needs
to consider the following components:
(a)" Syntax (Phases)

Procedure here refers to how the lesson is structured to highlight the group
investigation elements in the lesson. The procedure consists of stages or
phases in which the teacher administers activities to match the requirement
of the group investigation model.

(b)" Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the involvement
of the teacher is discussed and analysed. In the context of the group
investigation model, the teacher and the students act as co-partners in the
learning process. As stipulated, the objective of the group investigation
model is to create and nurture learning communities and effective
partnership. As such, there are ample opportunities for students and
teacher alike to share, discuss, negotiate and analyse learning.
(c)" Teaching Role

This aspect looks into the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning
context. The teacher functions as a counsellor, consultant and friendly critic
(Joyce, 2009).
Table 2.2: Syntax/Phases in Group Investigation
Phase One Students encounter puzzling situation (planned or unplanned)

Phase Two Students explore reactions to the situations
Phase Three Students formulate study task and organise for study (define
problem, allocate roles, etc)
Phase Four Independent and group study
Phase Five Students analyse progress and process
Phase Six Recycle activity
Table 2.2 illustrates the phases in group investigation. Each of these phases will
now be discussed in detail.
(i)" In Phase One, the students are provided with a puzzling situation. This
situation can be sometimes planned as stipulated by the curriculum or it
could be unplanned based on the situation. An unplanned situation
would be for instance, how are the students going to ensure the safety of
their classroom materials since the class door is broken?
The criteria on the selection of puzzling situation is crucial as it will

determine the effectiveness of learning. The aspect will be addressed in the
later part of the topic.

Once the students are provided with the puzzling situation and the
teacher has provided the necessary clarification, the learning proceeds to
Phase Two.
(ii)" In Phase Two, the students, in their groups, explore the task and provide
responses to the given situation. This is an important stage in which the
learners begin to share and discuss ideas pertaining to the situation.
(iii)" In Phase Three, the students become even more active participants in the
learning process. At this point, the effective partnership is formed when the
students organise the unravelling of the puzzling situation. The students
in this phase three will begin to explore the problem in depth in terms of
defining variables and examining causal factors. In addition, the learners
will allocate roles for each member in the group to help solve the
puzzling situation. This activity helps to develop the students critical
thinking skills and provides opportunities for them to work cooperatively
and collaboratively with their team members.
(iv)" In Phase Four, the students continue with their designated task, whether
individually or in pairs or smaller groups. This phase allows the learners to
explore their abilities independently without distractions. At the same time,
as stipulated in the group investigation model, the form of working in
smaller groups or individually provides optimal sharing and learning
among the members in the group. Each member will need to contribute
actively to meet the requirements of the task. This enables the students to
be active members of the learning community. Their views and opinions
will be accounted for and deliberated to attain a higher understanding of
the task.
(v)" Phase Five is an extension of phase four in which members of the group
analyse the process (information accumulated) and the progress of the task.
(vi)" The final Phase Six looks into experiences gained throughout the process
and how the learners could use the skills in exploring the activity or similar
based activities. During this stage, the learners review the groups overall
performance and extend thinking to a broader context that is outside of the
classroom.

2.4.2 Key Concepts in Group Investigation

When using the group investigation model, one needs to consider the following
key concepts:
(a)" Inquiry
Thelens (1960) concern of the inquiry is to:
Initiate and supervise the processes of giving attention to something;

of interacting with and being stimulated by other people, whether in
person or through their writing; and of reflection and reorganisation
of concepts and attitudes as shown in arriving at conclusions,
identifying new investigation to be undertaken, taking action and
turning out a better product (p. 85).
Based on the above definition, inquiry involves active interaction with others
in unravelling the academic inquiry. The learner is encouraged to reflect and
analyse the issue as well as investigate ways in which the issue is solved. The
teacher provides the situation (academic inquiry) in which the learner would
need to identify and formulate the problem and explore the solutions.
Through the investigation and exploration of the problem, the learner is
made aware of the process involved. The learner becomes observant and
conscious of the method used in the academic inquiry process.
(b)" Knowledge
The academic inquiry process allows for expansion of knowledge. The
learners gain knowledge when they are interacting, discussing and exploring
the puzzling situation in their groups. The content knowledge is derived
from the discussion concerning the situation. In addition, the learners acquire
knowledge in forms of methods in collecting and analysing data to support
their hypotheses. The knowledge gathered from the process adds to the
learner content schemata as well as enhances their formal schemata in which
they are exposed to the methods in exploring and analysing a problem.
As cited in Joyce (2009), Thelen formulated the group investigation model to

create a classroom that encourages social order and active participation
amongst learners. Hence the key elements to the group investigation as
posited by Thelen were the inquiries and the acquisition of knowledge.

2.4.3 Learner Benefits in Group Investigation Model

The group investigation model encourages a positive learning climate and
enables learners to acquire knowledge in a systematic and effective manner.
Figure 2.2 presents the skills acquired by the learners when they are involved in
group investigation based activities.
Figure 2.2: Learner benefits from academic inquiry process
Through the academic inquiry process, learners are able to gain knowledge and
skills in various aspects. For instance, during the identification stage of the
problem (phase one and phase two), learners become observant in seeking the
causal factors related to the issue. Their critical thinking is developed at this point
in which they are able to seek out the concerns in an objective manner.
During the gathering data stage (phases three and four), the learners work
together in groups and create a system to collect and analyse data. This further
develops their organisational skill in processing information.
During the analysis of data and progress (phase five), the learners analytical
thinking skills are further enhanced. Sharing and discussing with team members
will help each member to gain knowledge in terms of the different perspectives
and views presented pertaining to the issue.
When the team members embark on the next stage (phase six), they are required
to study the outcome of the data and generate plans. This will eventually lead to
a powerful form of cooperation among the members. Working together as a

group generates a variety of ideas that can enrich the learning process. At this
stage, there may be a possibility that the group would need to make changes to
the initial plans in examining the data. This also provides opportunities for group
members to present their views and contribute actively towards the problem
solving activity.
Reflection is an important component in learning. When learners reflect, they are

revisiting their experiences and consolidating the knowledge gained through the
group activity. Learners further establish their knowledge base using these
experiences and this leads to them becoming more reflective and thoughtful in
their future actions as learners and members of a community.
In general, both the academic inquiry process and knowledge gained from group
investigation contribute towards developing a competent learner and active
participant in a group. These two concepts function as a stimulus to forge
effective group learning and provide a good base for learners to develop their
2.4.4 Criteria in Selecting Puzzling Situation

The puzzling situation in terms of group investigation would relate to a
situation or learning concern that provides opportunities for learners to discuss
and share ideas pertaining to the selected concern. The discussion takes on an
academic inquiry mode in which the learners in their respective groups will
investigate the situation and find ways to solve the concern. The form of
academic inquiry generally has a structured approach (refer to phases in group
investigation). The intensity of the academic inquiry is linked closely to the
puzzling situation. In other words, the puzzling situation functions as a core
tool that stimulates discussions and promotes thinking. Hence it is important the
situations are selected carefully so that the learners are able to obtain the
intended learning skills. The following illustrates the criteria in selecting
puzzling situations:
(a)" The puzzling situation can be a formal or informal situation. Most
importantly, it must promote the desired skills and meet the learning
objectives.
(b)" The puzzling situation must lend itself to academic inquiry and involves
the elements of cooperative learning. The situation must provide
opportunities for learners to explore and analyse the information presented
and generate solutions for the issues concerned.
(c)" The aim of the puzzling situation is not merely seeking the answers to the
problem. The process involved in attaining the intended outcome is crucial

as it provides rich experiences to learners in terms of cooperative learning.

Hence the puzzling situation must be presented in a manner in which the
learners will be able to deliberate, discuss and negotiate possibilities in the
issue.
ACTIVITY 2.3
What other aspects would you need to consider when selecting a
puzzling situation?
2.4.5 Sample Activities Using Group Investigation

A suggested lesson plan is provided based on phases tabulated in Table 2.2.
(a)" Phase One: Students encounter puzzling situation (planned or unplanned)

The teacher has an option to either provide a planned puzzling situation or
work on a situation which is unplanned (refer to Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Planned and Unplanned Puzzling Situation
Planned Situation Unplanned Situation

The teacher refers to the syllabus and The teacher comes to the class and laments
curriculum on animals and their habitats. In that her mobile phone is out of order. She is
one of the skills stated, the teacher is upset as she needs the mobile phone to keep
required to teach on preservation of in contact with others. The discussion leads
animals. The teacher then can proceed to to the significance of mobile phones in
present an example of a planned puzzling todays world. The teacher then can present
situation is Why are certain animals going the following puzzling situation. Why are
extinct? mobile phones so important in our lives
today? How did people before the days of
mobile phones communicate?
(b)" Phase Two: Students explore reactions to the situations

In this phase, teacher gets the learners in their groups to explore the
situations. For example, learners may discuss types of animals and the
reasons why they have become extinct. At this point, the learners engage in
deep discussions in which the responses to situations will enable them to be
more critical and analytical in terms of generating reasons and explanations
pertaining to the situations. With reference to the given planned situation,
learners can explore the issues concerning animals, their preservations as
well as their survival rates. The discussion can take on various angles such as

role of man in endangering animals, the effect of technology, the evolution of

nature and so forth.
(c)" Phase Three: Students formulate study task and organise for study (define
problem, allocate roles, etc.)
In this phase, the learners are able to work together as a team. They could do
a jigsaw structure in which each member in the team would work on a
specific area of the problem. For example, one member may look into the
types of animals facing extinction. Another member may explore the causes
for extinction. The planning and division of work is crucial here as it
determines the effectiveness of the group learning. In the earlier phase, the
learners generated much information pertaining to the situation. When
formulating the study plan, the members would need to negotiate and at
times renegotiate to reach mutual understanding on the job specifications.
Allocation of roles can be carried based on the areas of interest or expertise of
the member. Group members must remain focused on the scope of the study
and the study plan must be in accordance to the aims of the learning which is
to unravel the puzzling situation.
(d)" Phase Four: Independent and group study

In phase four, the group members have the option of working individually or
in smaller groups. The manner of working would depend on the groups
plan of study and anticipated aims. At this point, there is individual
accountability when each member contributes to the task either individually
or in smaller groups. The teacher can monitor the progress and commitment
level of each member. This can be a crucial stage in which assessment of each
member can be obtained to ascertain their level of involvement in the task.
(e)" Phase Five: Students analyse progress and process

This phase has two focuses. The first focus looks into the progress of the
group learning. The group members will examine the data gathered, provide
analysis and consolidate the findings to reach a consensus. The second focus
will be the process in which the group members will relook at the study plan
and make changes when necessary to suit the intended outcomes of the
learning objectives or task. Both aspects require deliberate thinking and
discussion amongst group members. At this stage, the negotiation and
renegotiation help enforce group investigations concepts.
(f) Phase Six: Recycle activity

The recycle phase is the point of reflection for the group members. The team
members will revisit their experiences gained during the group learning. The
reflections will further enhance learners understanding of the knowledge as
well as skills related to the academic inquiry process. The teacher must at this

point emphasise the importance of the process of reaching the intended

outcome. Teacher can guide learners to raise their awareness on the
importance of sharing, discussion and seeking information from each other.
The importance of feedback for self-improvement is also reinforced.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Discuss how reflection can be carried out to facilitate internalisation of the
learning and experiences in the context of group investigation.
Building a community of learners involves active participation of all group

members. In communities of learners, students appear to learn how to coordinate
with, support and lead others, to become responsible and organised in their
management of their own learning and to be able to build on their previous
interests to learn in new areas and to sustain motivation to learn
(Rogoff, Matusov & White, 1996)
Teaching is a whole class enterprise. The teacher treats the class as a whole in
which each member carries out his/her role according to the job specifications
and responsibilities pertaining to the task. The teacher functions as the leader,
setting the stage for optimum learning through cooperative learning in groups.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What are the key elements needed for effective cooperative

learning?
2. Identify and explain the key phases related to group investigation.
" Partnership in learning refers to a dyad to a group of learners working

cooperatively to attain a mutual learning goal.
" Academic inquiry refers to a process that involves investigation, exploring,

and analysing the data pertaining to a learning concern.

" Puzzling situation functions as a stimulus that generates discussion and

cooperative work amongst learners. The puzzling situation could be either
planned or unplanned but related to a learning concern.
Academic inquiry Partners in learning

Cooperative learning Puzzling situation
Learning communities Syntax
Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (1998). Cooperation in the classroom.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. W. & Johnson R. T. (1999). Learning Together and Alone:

Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning (5th ed.). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R.T. (1990). Social skills for successful group work.
Educational Leadership, 47(4), 29-33
Joyce, B., Weil, M., Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson
Education.
Rogoff, B., Matusov, E., & White, C. (1996). Models of teaching and learning:
Participation in a community of learners. Handbook of education and
human development. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Slavin, R.E. (1983). When does cooperative learning increase achievement?

Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429-445
Thelen (1960). Education and the Human Quest . New York, NY: Harper.

Topic Social
3 Learning II:
The Role-playing
Model and
Jurisprudential
Inquiry Model
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." State the benefits of role-playing;
2." Identify the strengths of role-playing and jurisprudential inquiry
models in terms of enhancing learners interpersonal skills; and
3." Analyse the phases and apply these phases appropriately in
classroom practice.
" INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2, you have looked at group investigation. In this topic, you will explore
two other models pertaining to the social family of models. The models are as
shown in Figure 3.1.

38 TOPIC 3 SOCIAL LEARNING II: THE ROLE-PLAYING MODEL AND
JURISPRUDENTIAL INQUIRY MODEL
Figure 3.1: Two social family models
As in the previous topic, each model will be elaborated based on its specific
features, the syntax (phases), which refers to the structure of the model, the social
system, which refers to the teaching and learning climate and the teaching role,
which refers to the roles played by teachers. In addition, you will be shown some
teaching and learning activities using the stipulated models.
3.1 OVERVIEW OF ROLE-PLAYING AS AN

INSTRUCTIONAL TOOL
Role-playing is a crucial component in promoting social interaction.
Role-playing attempts to help individuals seek personal meaning within their

social worlds and resolve personal dilemmas with the assistance of the social
groups.
Joyce (2009)
Role-playing provides a good opportunity for learners to explore the types of

personal or interpersonal dilemmas and seek out democratic and appropriate
ways to resolve these dilemmas.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Have you experienced role-playing in your classroom? What benefits

did you gain from the activity? What were the challenges you faced?
ACTIVITY 1.1

TOPIC 3 SOCIAL LEARNING II: THE ROLE-PLAYING MODEL AND 39
3.1.1 What is Role-playing?
Role-playing involves an acting out of a situation, context or condition in

which each member plays a crucial part.
The interactions produced by the members in the groups can be:

(a)" Structured; or
(b)" Unstructured.
Scripts can be provided and members are required to perform based on the
scripts (structured). On the other hand, a context can be given in which the
members are required to respond spontaneously and independently
(unstructured).
Role-playing basically involves learners dealing with a specific issue or problem

which is discussed via a group. The main aspect of role-playing is to assist and
guide the learner to express his or her feelings and opinions on a certain issue.
3.2 BENEFITS OF ROLE-PLAYING

Figure 3.2 illustrates the four benefits of role-playing and its brief explanation
will be discussed.
Figure 3.2: Four benefits of role-playing

(a)" Experience based learning

Role-playing provides an opportunity for learners to experience situations
that can help them become more sensitive and aware to social issues and
norms. The learners will be able to interact and exchange ideas with each
other. In addition, the reactions from the other participants in the role-
playing activity would help raise the learners awareness of the social
routines and beliefs. This will eventually help enrich their storehouse of
experience and knowledge.
(b)" Release of emotions

Role-playing allows the learners to release their emotions and express their
feelings through the enactment activities. Learners are able to apply the
experiences gained to relate to their own personal dilemmas and issues.
Role-playing then becomes a tool in which the learners can connect to their
personal feelings and emotions.
(c)" Formation of ideas and new knowledge

Role-play provides learners with added knowledge pertaining to a specific
event or enactment. When learners participate in a particular enactment,
they observe and gather ideas from the other participants. Different
perspectives generated through the enactment help widen the knowledge
base of the learners.
(d)" Revisit of beliefs and values

Learners have the opportunity to re-look at the beliefs and value systems.
At times, the learners experience a situation in which they may unlearn or
relearn certain aspects pertaining to their world view.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Discuss other benefits of using role-playing in the classroom. Pay
particular attention to how it enhances learning.
3.3 USING ROLE-PLAYING IN THE CLASSROOM

Role-playing can be an effective teaching learning tool in stimulating deep
thinking and exchange of ideas amongst learners.

3.3.1 The Key Concepts in Role-playing
Figure 3.3: Three key concepts of role-playing
When using role-playing, one needs to consider the following three key concepts
(refer to Figure 3.3):
(a)" Problem Stories
Problem stories are a collection of stories that end with a dilemma.

Shaftel (1967)
These forms of problem stories have two main benefits:

(i)" They focus on a particular problem which the learners are familiar
with; and
(ii)" The problem stories are easily dramatised: The problem can
encompass interpersonal conflicts or social dilemmas that will further
enhance the social development and interpersonal skills of the
learners.
(b)" Enactment
Enactment is a dramatisation of the problem stories.
The learners in their group act out the problem by presenting the
problem through actions and dialogues. The focus here is that the learners
are given the opportunity to dramatise and express their feelings pertaining
to a specific issue. The enactment is not to be regarded as a play
performance or a drama activity.
It has another function, which is to help learners unravel the problem using
dramatisation and ultimately gain understanding on the intended learning
outcome of the issue concerned.

(c)" Analysis
This aspect is most crucial in determining the quality of learning. During
the analysis activity, learners give and share ideas pertaining to the
enactments. The analysis will be based on what the learners observe in their
partners 'or peers' reactions to the particular issue. The analysis involves
examining reactions and responses, which will be discussed to seek
solutions to the problem or issue concerned.

The model of teaching includes syntax, social system and teaching role as
follows.
Role playing involves nine phases.
The nine phases start with a warm-up session that comprise problem
identification, followed by selecting and setting the problem enactment and
finally, a thorough discussion on issue concerned.
Table 3.1 illustrates the nine phases in role-playing. The stages are
systematically organised to allow the learners to experience learning
through dramatisation and exchange of ideas.
Table 3.1: Nine Phases in Role-playing
Phase Description
One Warm up the group
Two Select participants
Three Set the stage
Four Prepare the observers
Five Enact
Six Discuss and evaluate
Seven Re-enact
Eight Discuss and evaluate
Nine Share experience and generalise
Source: Shaftel & Shaftel (1967)

(i)" The first phase involves an initiation into the activity itself. The
teacher and the learners explore the problem stories. At this stage, the
problem is introduced and explored. The procedure and features of
role-playing are also explained briefly;
(ii)" The second stage is another important stage in which the learners are
given roles to play. Before they set off into their task of dramatising
their roles, the learners analyse the roles to reach a better
understanding of the issue;
(iii)" The third stage looks into the setting of the stage in which further
discussion is carried out on the manner in which the enactment will
be staged. Learners are given the opportunity to restate the stipulated
roles. This stage helps the learners to explore in depth the problem or
issues concerned;
(iv)" The fourth stage is focused on the observers. Observers in a role-
playing activity have a crucial task. They are required to identify
aspects during the enactment that need to be observed. In addition, in
stage four, the observation task is clearly delineated;
(v)" The fifth phase is the practical stage in which the role-playing is
carried out. Members in the group enact the roles and observers take
notes.
(vi)" The sixth stage emphasises the elements of discussion and evaluation.
Learners, with the help of the teacher, will review the actions of the
role-playing and discuss main issues pertaining to the activity. Based
on the outcome of the discussion, the members will then plan for the
next enactment. The second enactment will be based on the proposed
changes to behaviour or reactions pertaining to a particular issue;
(vii)" The seventh stage is the re-enactment phase. Roles are revised, new
steps or alternative suggestions are carried out to address the issue
concerned in the problem;
(viii)"In the eighth stage, the learners once again discuss and evaluate the
reactions of the members; and
(ix)" The final stage involves sharing of experiences and consolidating
knowledge gained from the activity above. At this stage, the learners
relate the issue to real life situations. They further explore possible
and appropriate ways in addressing the problems.
(b)" Social System

The social system refers to teaching-learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of student as well as the involvement of
the teacher is discussed and analysed. In the context of the role-playing
model, the students have an active role in attaining learning. The learner is
actively involved in the learning process where learners work with one
another, sharing and discussing ideas and observations.
As stipulated in the social learning family, role-playing helps the learners

explore the human relation problems and eventually enhance their critical
thinking and problem solving strategies.
(c)" Teaching Role

This aspect looks into the role of the teacher in teaching-learning context.
As stated by Joyce (2009), the teacher must adhere to the following
principles:
(i)" Teacher should be non-evaluative
Teacher should accept learners responses and reactions without
placing any form of judgement. Teacher taking on a receptive
approach would eventually encourage learners to express their
opinions freely.
(ii)" Teacher should provide avenues to explore learning
Teacher here should help learners look at various angles of learning.
Divergent thinking is encouraged in terms of learners should be able
to use the learning experience to explore different perspectives to
solve a particular problem.
(iii)" Teacher should effectively synthesise and consolidate learning
Learners throughout the process of role-playing would have provided
extensive responses and reactions in which some of these responses
could have influenced learning. The teacher helps learners to
synthesise ideas from various angles or perspectives.
3.3.3 Criteria in Selecting Problem Stories
Problem stories are pivotal components in generating effective learning.
Hence, emphasis must be given on selection of problem stories when planning

role-playing activities.
There are several types of problem stories that can be explored in the classroom.
Based on Joyce (2009), the problems can take the following forms:

(a)" Interpersonal conflicts

Interpersonal conflicts delve on issues related to two people. An
interpersonal conflict could be based, for example, on a misunderstanding
between two best friends.
(b)" Intergroup relations

They explore concerns related to diversity and differences of outlook
between two groups or more. One example would be the conflict faced by
two groups of learners in a classroom. The first group is considered in the
high achiever category whereas the other group is labelled as slow learners.
The differences in their academic performance can lead to jealousy and ill
feelings amongst the class members.
(c)" Individual dilemmas

Individual dilemmas are more personal in nature. They focus on specific
issues related to an individual in which the individual is experiencing self-
conflicts related to low self-esteem and other personality issues. In addition,
individual dilemmas can arise when the individual is facing contrasting
values or beliefs system from family or friends. The young learner would
not be able to make a value judgement based on the contrasting values due
to lack of experience and maturity.
(d)" Historical or contemporary problems

They are more global in nature. They deal with issues related to society in
general. One example of a contemporary problem would be the impact of
technology on human relationships.
Each problem area explored during the role-playing has a significant influence
on learning. The problem selected is not necessarily confined to the subject
matter as it allows learners to diversify and seek other alternatives to overcome
the concerns. Hence, one should ensure each role-playing or enactment has a
focus in which the teacher should optimise.
ACTIVITY 3.3
What are the commonalitites found in the types of problem stories?

3.3.4 Sample Activities Using Role-playing

Further elaboration is provided based on the following phases.
(a)" Phase One: Warm Up the Group

Teacher introduces the following problem story to the learners.
Example of Problem Story 1
Dylan and Johnny are cousins. They are both 13 years old. They study at
the same school. One day Dylan saw Johnny hitting a younger boy at the
school. When Dylan confronted Johnny about the incident, Johnny
pushed Dylan aside and told him not to interfere.
Dylan felt disturbed and wanted to inform his parents about Johnny. At
the same time, Dylan knew that Johnnys parents are very strict and
would most probably reprimand Johnny severely.
Dylan is in a dilemma. What can he do to help his cousin?
Based on Problem Story 1, the teacher would start the discussion by asking
questions pertaining to the story. A further description or clarification of the
issue is carried out. Teacher could also explain specific terms of meanings or
difficult words.
(b)" Phase Two: Select the Participants

The teacher discusses with the learners on the selection of roles. The roles are
decided based on the given context. The teacher must ensure that the roles
are given specifically to group members who are willing to play the roles as
stipulated in the task.
The experience would be more meaningful when the learners are given the
choice to choose their roles. This will reduce anxiety among them and at the
same time increase active participation during the role-playing activity.
(c)" Phase Three: Set the Stage

The activity mentioned does not require extensive stagecraft similar to play
production context. Setting the stage here focuses more on the learners
outlining the scene. The learners do not prepare any scripts. They only
generate a general line of action in which this becomes a guide to frame and
move the scene of action.

The teacher here can pose questions pertaining to the enactment, for
example, Where is this scene taking place?, What time does this incident
take place?, etc.
Minimal props can be prepared. For example, using materials from the
classroom such as chairs, tables, books and so on.
(d)" Phase Four: Prepare the Observers

In phase four, the focus would be on the observers. The observers are
assigned to scrutinise aspects of the role playing so that the entire class can
later examine and analyse it.
The observers take on active roles in evaluating the effectiveness of the role-
playing, the behaviour and actions of the players as well as defining the
ways of thinking and feelings of the players.
Shaftel & Shaftel (1967)
In order to achieve this, each observer will be assigned tasks to ensure that
the data above is gathered for further discussion. The observers are crucial as
they can help generate meaning on the role-playing activity. The observers
can select a particular enactment and analyse the feelings and actions of the
players. They could explore the various alternative ways in which a player
could have presented the role in the play.
At this point, the teacher helps by providing the observers with prompt
questions like As you watch the role-playing, how does Dylan try to solve
the problem?, Do you think Dylans problem can happen in real life? and
What would you do if you were Dylan?
(e)" Phase Five: Enact

This phase is where the learners perform their roles. It is spontaneous, each
learner or participant responds based on one anothers response and actions.
The performance is not structured or scripted in any manner. The main aim
of enacting the play is to identify the desired behaviour established, the
characters are developed and a behavioural skill is practised.
According to Shaftel (1967), the performance is to be short. There may be

instances where the teachers would need to re-enact the scene to clarify
misunderstanding of the issues raised during the role-playing activity. For
example, in the example given, Dylan could choose to not to tell Johnnys
parents. Based on the action, discussion can be generated on the reasons or
major roles changed to create variety or different angles to the situation.

(f)" Phase Six: Discuss and Evaluate

In this phase, the observers and participants will begin evaluating the
presentation and discussing the various interpretations, actions and
responses of the participants. Discussion may evolve on how a particular role
should be carried out or what a particular participant should have done in
the role-playing.
The teacher here functions as a moderator, providing thinking questions to

both observers and participants. Teacher can pose questions such as Did
you agree with Dylans action on not informing Johnnys parents?, Why do
you think he reacted in that manner? and Do you think that is the best way
to solve the problem? Other participants can respond to the questions. The
discussion generated will later develop into the next phase, which is the re-
enactment.
(g)" Phase Seven: Re-enact

The re-enactment can take place many times. Teacher together with the
students will exchange ideas and interpretations based on the previous
discussions and generate new angles for the designated roles. For example, in
the first enactment, Dylan decides not to inform Johnnys parents. However,
for the second enactment, there may be a variation in which Dylan will
inform Johnnys parents about their sons misbehaviour. This revelation can
result in changes and reactions from the other characters.
There may be other views, for instance, Dylan informing the discipline
teacher or Dylan speaking to one of Johnnys good friends. The various
stances taken by participants or learners help the learners to develop their
problem solving skills as well as explore the diversity in human behaviour
and characteristics. At the same time, they are also able to examine the roles
of each member, for example, family member, friend, teacher and parents.
The awareness that the learners gain from phase seven will help them in their
phase eight.
(h)" Phase Eight: Discuss and Evaluate

In this phase, the teacher will explore and discuss in greater detail the issues
in phase seven. This is again an important stage that conceptualises the
knowledge and experiences gained throughout the phases.
(i)" Phase Nine: Share Experience and Generalise

The main aim of this activity is to enable the learners to relate problem stories
that are familiar to them. They need to gain further insight on how these
problems can be explored and solved. Through the enactment and re-

enactments, learners are able to articulate their own personal conflict or

problems, thus creating an active and responsive learning society.
3.3.5 Instructional and Nurturant Effects in the Role-

playing Model
The role-playing model provides opportunities for the learners to develop their
As stated by Joyce (2009), role-playing helps learners in the following aspects:

(a)" Develop skills to analyse personal values and behaviour;
(b)" Develop strategies for problem solving especially in the area of interpersonal
or even personal conflicts; and
(c)" Develop empathy for others.
The abovementioned instructional and nurturant effects seen through the

implementation of the role-playing model mould and develop learners to become
better learners. The role-playing activity enables the learners to hone their skills
in analysing personal and behaviour. When these learners participate in role
playing, they gain awareness of their personal beliefs and prejudices that may
have influenced their actions or behaviour during the activity. This awareness is
indeed significant to help these learners to develop into better and matured
individuals.
The role-playing activity also provides opportunities for the learners to develop
strategies for problem solving. This is especially evident when they are facing
interpersonal or personal conflicts. Through the exploration and discussion of the
problem stories, these learners will be trained to seek solutions to a specific
concern highlighted in the role-playing.
The role-playing activities in accordance to the principles of the social family are
aimed at developing learners who have empathy for others. One of the goals of
the role-playing activities is to help learners become sensitive to predicaments of
others and eventually become compassionate individuals in society. This can be
achieved when the learners listen and respond to one another during the role-
playing activities.
The teacher needs to ensure that the learning activities promote empathy and
help the learners to analyse their personal behaviours and values systems. In

addition, the learning activities should help the learners to devise problem-
solving strategies when encountering an interpersonal based conflict.
The learning activities would eventually mould and nurture learners to become
more expressive as well as skilful in the areas of negotiation and problem
solving.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
What are the phases involved in the role-playing model?
3.4 OVERVIEW OF THE JURISPRUDENTIAL

INQUIRY MODEL
The jurisprudential inquiry model was created by Donald Oliver and James P.
Shaver with the purpose of helping students to think systematically in
addressing contemporary issues.
Joyce et al. (2009)
The jurisprudential inquiry model takes on a more global approach whereby the
learners are required to have critical and substantiated views on areas related to
legal, ethics as well as social issues.
This model draws on a few assumptions:

(a)" The social values raised in the discussion during the inquiry are legitimate;
however, they may conflict one another. This is due to the different
personal values systems within particular societies;
(b)" Resolving the differences through negotiations and discussions are among
the ways in which learners are able to solve or seek resolution to complex
issues; and
(c)" The third assumption highlights the role of the learner in the
jurisprudential inquiry learning process. The learner is regarded as a skilful
judge and able to analyse both sides of the arguments and assess the
evidence available to make appropriate and well-informed decisions.

3.4.1 Using Jurisprudential Inquiry with Learners
Using jurisprudential inquiry with learners involves high level of thinking on

complex issues pertaining to social, ethics, political and others.
Hence, the participants of this inquiry model, that is, the learners, would need to
possess the following skills:
(a)" Familiar with the value framework;
(b)" Able to clarify and resolve issues; and
(c)" Knowledgeable in contemporary political and public issues.
The following will illustrate the value framework.
According to Oliver (1995), there are three types of problems as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Three Types of Problems
Problem Description
Value problem Involves clarifying the values or legal principles in conflict and
making a choice between them.
Factual problem Looks into exploring facts related to a conflict
Definitional Which explores controversial issues that analyse the meanings of
problem the words used or the words used to describe a particular conflict.
Now let us look at an example for each type of problem.
(a)" Value problem: The conflict explores the decisions or choices to be made
pertaining to the issue of abortion. The victim is a young unmarried girl,
sexually assaulted and hence, becoming pregnant. The conflict is, the young
pregnant victim is not able to cope emotionally and mentally with the
notion of having the unwanted child. She wants to resort to abortion. At the
same time, there are legal issues pertaining to killing an unborn child. How
does one resolve the above conflict?
(b)" Factual problem: The conflict raised here involves a wife seeking alimony
from her soon-to-be divorced husband. She claims her millionaire husband
amassed the wealth whilst still married to her and hence, she has the legal
right to obtain a certain percentage of the wealth accumulated during their
marriage. To resolve this conflict, facts pertaining to the legality of their

marriage (marriage certificate), total income as well as expenditure of the

couple must be scrutinised to seek a resolution.
(c)" Definitional problem: The term total freedom or freedom of expression

can be viewed through many angles. How does one define total freedom
or freedom of expression? The definition of these terms may vary from
one country or one culture to the other.
At times, arguments can centre on definitional, value and factual problems.

Certain issues are complex in nature whereby the learners, during the activity,
would need to seek and establish the meaning of the key term discussed and
explore other areas related to the issues.
To ascertain common understanding of the key terms, the learners may need to
resort to the dictionary, through discussions or reading other factual-based
documents to seek clarification and establish meaning.
Sometimes an issue may have more than one value.
The best way to select the dominant value is looking at the degree in which
the value is compromised.
Oliver & Shaver (1966)
To reach an agreement or consensus, at times, the learners or participants of this

approach would need to explore the conflict using the factual approach.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Discuss the significance of each type of problem for learners.

The following illustrates the key areas pertaining to the model of teaching.

There are six phases in this model as shown in Table 3.3. The initial phases
starts with the orientation of the case followed by identifying issues and
taking positions. The fourth phase explores stances and patterns of
argumentation, allowing the learners to further clarify and analyse values

within the conflict. The fifth phase refines the positions with the aim of
seeking resolutions and making decisions. The sixth phase, which is the
final stage, will test the factual validity and determine the predicted
outcome of the decisions made.
Table 3.3: Six Phases in Jurisprudential Inquiry
Phase Description
One Orientation to the case
Two Identifying the issue
Three Taking positions
Four Exploring the stance(s), patterns of arguments
Five Refining and qualifying the positions
Six Testing factual assumptions behind qualified positions
Source: Shaftel & Shaftel (1967)
(i)" Phase One: Orientation to the Case

In the first phase, the teacher introduces the materials and reviews the
facts pertaining to a case or claim. The teacher here will need to be
clear and knowledgeable in the subject matter to help facilitate the
learners in the subsequent phases. The case can be based on any one
of the aspects in the value framework, for instance, value problem,
definitional problem or factual problem.
(ii)" Phase Two: Identifying Issues

The second phase focuses on identifying issues. The learners play a
major role here where they are required to read and understand the
issue concerned. Next, they would need to synthesise the facts and
select one issue for discussion. During the selection process, the
students would identify values and conflicts presented within the
issue. The phase could also involve the students recognising factual
and definitional questions pertaining to the conflicts.
(iii)" Phase Three: Taking Positions

This is the stage where the students take a position or stance in terms
of the social value or consequences of the decisions. The students are
required to articulate their ideas.
(iv)" Phase Four: Exploring the Stance(s), Patterns of Arguments

Phase four explores the stance(s) or patterns of argumentation with a
purpose of establishing the point in which the value was violated.
This can be based on a factual approach in which the learner should

refer to documents and factual evidence to support the case.
The students too must present the desirable or undesirable

consequences of the position to further highlight the stance taken.
When defining the patterns of argumentation, the learners must be
able to prioritise one value or the other and demonstrate lack of gross
violation of the second value.
(v)" Phase Five: Refining and Qualifying the Positions

In phase five, the learners refine and further qualify their positions by
stating the reasons and examining the number of similar situations.
This phase helps develop the learners to become more informed of
their positions and be more confident in asserting their positions
made.
(vi)" Phase Six: Testing Factual Assumptions Behind Qualified Positions

The final phase, which is phase six, is based on testing factual
assumptions and determining their relevancy to the claims. The
learners explore the possibility of predicted consequences to ascertain
the factual validity on the claims.
(b)" Social System
The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate, which explores

the relationship and level of autonomy of student as well as the
involvement of the teacher.
The teacher provides guidance at the beginning of the activity and

gradually releases control as the students take over the discussions and the
negotiation process. The learning climate is active and dynamic. The
teacher can function as a point of reference at times when the discussions
reach a confrontational mode. The teacher involved in this approach must
be competent in anticipating students thoughts pertaining to value claims.
The teacher should encourage continuity of thought, enabling the students
to justify and support arguments with substantial evidence.
(c)" Support System

The support system that helps make the jurisprudential inquiry work is the
type and forms of materials. Since the inquiry taken on the case study
analysis mode is based on the value claims, it is expected that the students
should be equipped with adequate materials. The materials must be related

to the case and help the students draw opinions and support to defend their
case or positions.
3.4.3 Points to Consider when Applying Jurisprudential

Inquiry
The application of the jurisprudential inquiry model is not necessarily a complex
process if one adheres to the following:
(a)" This jurisprudential inquiry model works well with older students as they
are able to relate and discuss contemporary issues using holistic and global
perspectives. The topics or issues discussed can be challenging for young
learners especially if they lack world knowledge and are not able to support
their ideas using external sources;
(b)" This mode of inquiry can be rather confrontational and may lead to a
negative learning environment. One way to reduce the tension is through
generating small groups in which the groups argue their points and take
time out to re-evaluate their stands or positions pertaining to the claims.
The members in the groups are required to build the strongest possible
case. In the process of discussion, the members are aware that they can
choose a different stance at the end of the discussion; and
(c)" Each conflict or position taken needs time for discussion and analysis.
Teachers should let each case be deliberated on, giving the opportunity for
the learners to accumulate ideas, reflect on the ideas as well as present their
case in a confident and effective manner.
Skills on negotiation and argumentative techniques require time and need

to be taught gradually and naturally. To help the learners acclimatise with
the inquiry model mode, the teacher could provide initially a simple case
with some conflicting but straightforward values. This will enable the
learners to familiarise themselves with the process of gathering data and
using the data to support their arguments.

ACTIVITY 3.5
1." Elaborate on the roles of the teacher and students when carrying out
the jurisprudential inquiry process.
2." Discuss the importance of each phase (role playing model) in:
(a)" Promoting social and interpersonal skills among learners; and
(b)" Developing the learners interpersonal skills.
3.4.4 Instructional and Nurturant Effects

The jurisprudential inquiry model provides many benefits to learners. Table 3.2
presents the instructional and nurturant effects as stated by Joyce (2009):
Table 3.2: Instructional and Nurturant Effects
Instructional Effects Nurturant effects

Framework for analysing social issues Develops empathy or pluralism
The ability to assume role of the other Gains facts about social problems
Competence in social dialogue Develop the capacity for social
involvement and desire for social action
(a)" Instructional Effects

The three instructional effects are as follows:
(i)" Framework for analysing social issues

The teacher should prepare the learning environment to enable the
learners to use the materials to discuss and analyse the materials in an
effective manner. Learners will be given the opportunity to identify
policies, apply social values to policy stances as well as identify and
resolve definitional, factual and value problems in a systematic and
organised manner.
(ii)" The ability to assume role of the other

This is another instructional effect gained in this model. The learner
becomes more skilful in carrying out forceful dialogue with other
members. These interactions and exchange of ideas build on the social
relationship by helping learners to be more socially accepted and

acknowledged. The materials provided in the class should encourage

the above form of interactions.
(iii)" Competence in social dialogue

This is one of the outcomes of the inquiry process in which learners,
through the process of analysis, discussion and presentation of their
case, will become more competent in speaking skills, hence creating
confident and well-informed speakers. The teacher can facilitate and
guide the learners to achieve the desired outcomes in terms of what is
required of good and effective speakers.
(b)" Nurturant effects

The three nurturant effects are as follows:
(i)" Develops empathy or pluralism

The inquiry process allows the learners to explore and exchange ideas
in a vigorous manner. Through these discussions and presentation of
ideas, the learners become more aware and sensitive towards the
views of self as well as others. They learn to be more accommodative
and receptive to ideas that are different from their point of view. The
feelings of empathy and pluralism are enhanced through these
interactions, creating a more positive learning environment in
accordance with the requirements of the social learning family.
(ii)" Gains facts about social problems

The opportunity created through this inquiry helps learners widen
their knowledge base. They are able to enhance knowledge through
the accumulation and analysis of data of their case.
(iii)" Develop the capacity for social involvement and desire for social action
The purpose of the inquiry model is to develop learners who are able
to present contemporary ideas in a systematic and organised manner.
The classroom becomes a rigorous and vibrant learning place.
Through social interactions, learners build learning communities
within the classroom.
ACTIVITY 3.6
Elaborate, with specific examples, how instructional and nurturant effects
can be created in a class of sixteen year olds.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
Identify and elaborate the key principles involved in planning and

implementing jurisprudential inquiry in a classroom.
There are two models pertaining to social family: role-playing and

jurisprudential inquiry.
Role-playing model involves a dynamic and active participation by both the

teacher and students.
Role-playing model promotes expression of thoughts and develops

interpersonal skills when exploring personal and general issues pertaining to
the learner and the community.
Jurisprudential inquiry model encourages systematic and organised thinking

process by carrying out case presentations on contemporary issues.
In the jurisprudential inquiry model, the learner will gain world knowledge
and build self-confidence as an effective and well informed speaker.
Definitional problem Problem stories

Enactments Role playing
Factual problem Value problem
Jurisprudential inquiry model

Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (1998). Cooperation in the classroom.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Rogoff, B., Matusov, E., & White, C.(1996). Models of teaching and learning:
Participation in a community of learners. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance
(Eds.), The handbook of education and human development: New models
of learning, teaching and schooling. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Shaftel, F. R., & Shaftel, G. A. (1967). Role playing of social values: Decision-
making in the social studies. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Pearson Education.

Topic Information
4 Processing I:
Concept
Attainment
Model and
Picture-Word
Inductive
Model
(PWIM)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify the features of the concept attainment model and the
picture-word inductive model (PWIM);
2." Describe the process of each model;
3." Identify the strengths and weaknesses of each model; and
4." Apply each model in the classroom.

TOPIC 4 INFORMATION PROCESSING I: CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL 61
AND PICTURE WORD INDUCTIVE MODEL (PWIM)
" INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on two models pertaining to the information processing family
of models: the concept attainment model and picture-word inductive model
(PWIM). The concept attainment model was initiated by Jerome Bruner while
PWIM was introduced by Emily Calhoun for the purpose of enabling students to
improve their learning. Now let us look at each of the models closely.
4.1 WHAT IS CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL?

Concept attainment is one of the teaching models under the information-
processing family of models. It requires students to figure out the attributes of a
category that is already formed in the mind by comparing and contrasting
examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not
contain these attributes. To understand the concept attainment model, it is
important that you know what a concept is.
4.1.1 What is a Concept?

A concept is an abstract idea that represents each of the objects listed in a given
category. These objects have attributes (or characteristics) that are important for
its meaning. For example, noun is a concept; when a teacher lists down words
that are nouns (e.g, cat, flower, tree, etc.), these words become positive
exemplars. On the other hand, when words other than nouns are included in the
list (e.g, beautiful, because, on, etc.), these become negative exemplars. As the
teacher asks students to study by comparing and contrasting both the positive
and negative exemplars, the attributes are discovered. For example, one of the
attributes for noun is that it is a naming word.
Joyce (2009) claims that there are two types of concept learning: concept
formation and concept attainment. Both are different as explained in the
following subtopics:
4.1.2 Concept Formation

Concept formation is a process of sorting out given observations of phenomena
into meaningful classes or concepts. The examples of the concept are later
categorised together. There are three stages to concept formation. These are
shown in Table 4.1.

62 TOPIC 4 INFORMATION PROCESSING I: CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL
Table 4.1: Concept Formation Stages
Stage Description
Stage 1 Identify the concept and collect data.
Example: Students find pictures of various types of
transportation.
Stage 2 Find a way to classify/group the objects that makes
sense.
Example: Students may group the pictures according
to several categories such as air and water
transportation.
Stage 3 Provide reasoning for classification.
For example, look at the words below and identify the item that does not belong.
Pigeon Cat Rat Chair Sparrow
You would recognise that three of the items are living things and one is not. You
will also be able to make distinctions that both the pigeon and the sparrow are
birds, have wings and can fly. While the cat and the rat cannot fly. The
comparison made is known as concept formation where students are able to
distinguish the similarities and differences between the items presented.
Concept formation is an ideal teaching method that allows students to examine

and think of a way to classify the objects. This allows for critical and creative
thinking among the students.
4.1.3 Concept Attainment

The concept attainment model is used by teachers who have specific concepts to
be taught. Concept attainment refers to the process of finding out defining
attributes of a given class; that is identifying examples and non-examples of a
given category. The negative and positive examples are then differentiated.
There are three stages dealing with the concept attainment process as illustrated
in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Three stages dealing with the concept attainment process
Source: Joyce and Calhoun (1996)
The concept attainment model is ideal for children of all ages. It is used for the
purpose of introducing new topics or reinforcing important ideas taught in the
earlier lessons. It also enables learners to have a deeper understanding of the
knowledge being taught.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1." When would you use the concept attainment model?
2." How does concept attainment promote discovery learning?

Let us look at the first scenario.
Scenario 1
Mrs Wong presents the following list of words labelled Yes or No to her
eight year old pupils.
Yes No
ship snake
shop spade
shake slate
Pupils are given some time to look at the list of words.
Mrs Wong says, Now I am going to give you a word. Can you identify if it is
a yes or no?
Mrs Wong writes shell on the board. Immediately the pupils said Yes.
Mrs Wong continues, What about these words?
Mrs Wong writes stick, sleep and socks on the board. The pupils uttered
No to these words.
Can you tell me why you said yes to these words? asked the teacher.
Based on Scenario 1, you will notice that Mrs Wong followed a set of rules when
she introduces concept attainment to her pupils. These rules are shown below:
(a)" Identify the concept to be developed. Example, the // sound;
(b)" Make a list of both positive (yes) and negative (no) examples;
(c)" Introduce positive examples that consist of attributes of the concept to be
taught;
(d)" Introduce negative examples of attributes of the concept which do not have
the sound //;
(e)" Both positive examples (marked Yes) and negative examples (marked No)
are listed on the board;
(f)" Present each word card by saying either this is a yes or this is a no and
place it under the appropriate column;
(g)" Pupils are asked to look at the examples pasted under each column and ask
what they have in common; and

(h)" Later pupils are asked to provide examples of words that fall under the
positive examples and negative examples.
One will notice that concept attainment is a constructivist approach to teaching

and learning. This teaching model allows students to use their prior knowledge
and understanding in identifying the attributes. This is achieved through the
process of comparing and contrasting. It allows learners to differentiate between
relevant and irrelevant information related to the concept. It also allows for
observation, classification and hypothesis of the concept and making connection
of newly attained concepts with new information. Table 4.2 show us the syntax of
the concept attainment model.
Table 4.2: The Syntax of the Concept Attainment Model
Phase Activity
(1) Presentation of Data and " Teacher presents labelled examples.
Identification of Concept " Students compare attributes in positive and
negative examples.
" Students generate and text hypotheses.
(2) Testing Attainment of the " Students identify additional unlabeled examples
Concept as "yes" or "no".
" Teacher confirms hypotheses, names concept, and
restates definitions according to essential
attributes.
" Students generate examples.
(3) Analysis of Thinking " Students describe thoughts.
Strategies " Students discuss role of hypotheses and
attributes.
" Students discuss type and number of hypotheses.
Source: Joyce (2009)
4.1.4 Advantages of Using the Concept Attainment

Model
Among the advantages of using the concept attainment model are:
(a)" Promotes thinking process where students are required to establish a
hypothesis about the concept;
(b)" Inculcate discovery learning and higher order thinking skills;
(c)" Students become independent and analytical thinkers;
(d)" Helps make connections between what students know and what they will
be learning;
(e)" Learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives,
(f)" Learn how to sort out relevant information;
(g)" Extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example
of that concept ; and
(h)" Students go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition,
concept is learned more thoroughly and retention is improved.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
How does the concept attainment model allow students to think
analytically and enhance their long-term learning?
4.1.5 Instructional and Nurturant Effects of the

Concept Attainment Model
The concept attainment model provides a range of instructional and nurturant
effects to help learners gain a better understanding of the content and learning
process.
(a)" Instructional effect

(i)" Nature of concepts the characteristics or features of the concept are
clearly depicted during the learning process. This helps the learner to
understand the concept and gain a better knowledge of the subject
matter.
(ii)" Concepts, conceptual systems and their application the teacher
provides input and support on the ways in which the concepts are
derived and how they are applied in the learning activity.
(iii)" Concept-learning strategies teacher would train and expose learners
to use strategies that will enable them to gain the concepts within the
learning unit.

(b)" Nurturant effect

(i)" Conceptual flexibility the learners become more adaptable to the
learning process in which they will be able to view the data or
concepts from various angles. The learners will be more aware of the
various interpretations of the data and able to seek associations within
the information provided.
(ii)" Inductive reasoning the data provided, though maybe
overwhelming at some point, can help train the learners to be
effective thinkers. The learners will use the data and arrive at well-
substantiated conclusions.
(iii)" Tolerance of ambiguity the ambiguity in the initial stages of learning
will help the learners to be more tolerant and receptive towards
different ways of thinking. This is an important element to develop
critical and creative thinkers so learners will not easily get
demotivated when facing challenges during the learning activity.
4.2 WHAT IS PICTURE-WORD INDUCTIVE

MODEL (PWIM)?
The picture-word inductive model (PWIM) comes under the information
processing model. It is an instructional approach focusing on the use of familiar
pictures of objects, actions and scenes (Calhoun, 1999). It is an inquiry-oriented
strategy that uses pictures to elicit words from learners. This model is designed
by Calhoun aiming at primary level beginning readers and older beginning or
early stage readers (Joyce, 2009). The foundation of this model is based on
the inquiry nature of young children. They are described as natural
conceptualisers (Joyce & Weil, 2009). At a very young age, children pose various
questions to sort out their curiosity. They tend to seek meaning by sorting out
and classifying information they have acquired through observation (everyday
encounter) and interactions. Their ability to listen and speak at a very young age
allows them to experiment with the language. That is the reason why children
are known to have natural acquisition of language. They learn how to crack the
code of the language through discovery. Therefore, they must discover the rules
of the language in order for them to use the language.

Now read the following scenario:
Scenario 2
Child : What is that?
Father : Its a bird.
Child : What?
Father : A bird.
Child : A bird? Why?
Father : Because it has feathers.
Child : Feathers? Why?
Father : So that it can fly.
Child : You need feathers to fly?
Father : Yes, you need feathers to fly.
Based on the conversation between father and son, the childs curiosity is evident
when he sees something unfamiliar (a bird) and wanting to know what it is. His
fathers answers lead him to want to know more about the bird which leads to a
new discovery that birds have feathers and that they need feathers to fly.
Similarly, Calhoun believes that interaction through reading is an important
aspect of a childs learning process since it allows them to encounter information
and ideas leading to learning.
ACTIVITY 4.2
How can a child interact through reading?

Now let us look at Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Picture-word dictionary
One way of making students interact through reading is with the use of pictures.
One example is shown in Figure 4.2 where a familiar scene is displayed by the
teacher for students to view. This picture consists of objects/items which
students have seen in their daily lives. Parts of the picture are labelled for easy
recognition and reference. This is what PWIM is based on. Besides developing
students vocabulary, PWIM can also be used in other subjects such as
mathematics, science and language. It allows students to make generalisations in
which they will form a basis for analysis.
4.2.1 How is PWIM Carried Out?

It is important for a teacher to introduce images or pictures which students are
familiar with when using PWIM. This will allow them to identify and make
associations to something that they already know and move on to the unknown.
Now let us look closely at how Miss Jane carries out the PWIM in her classroom.

Scenario 3
Miss Jane is an English teacher for the Year One class. She wants to introduce
the first topic which is family members. She pastes a picture on the board.
The picture is a scene of a living room. She asks the pupils to study the
picture. They then take turns to identify the family members from the picture.
As each person is named, Miss Jane draws a line from the picture of the
person to a place on the background paper where she writes the word, spells
it and then asks the pupils to spell and say the word. They review the words
frequently, spelling them, saying them and tracing the line from the word to
the picture. During this lesson, seven words are shaken out of the picture.
Some of the words are: mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, brother,
sister and aunt.
Based on Scenario 3, Miss Jane has successfully introduced the PWIM in her
classroom. She introduced a familiar picture scene and asks pupils to shake out
words from the picture by identifying each family member. A line is drawn from
the person identified out of the chart paper where the word is written, thus
connecting the item they identify to the word already in their vocabulary.
Miss Jane continues her second lesson the next day by printing the identified
words into word cards and asking them to read and spell the word cards one by
one. She further asks the pupils to look at the picture chart to find each word and
trace it to the picture. After a few days, Miss Jane asks her pupils to form simple
phrases or sentences using the words based on the ability of the pupils.
By repeatedly carrying out the activity as shown by Miss Jane, the pupils are able
to make connections between the items and the associated words. This process
will slowly transmit their learning from verbal to written form. This is made
possible since pupils are required to identify and observe the words as they are
spelled. They further make connections to the words and add on to their
vocabulary.
Based on Scenario 3, the procedure for carrying out PWIM in the classroom is
shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Procedure for carrying out PWIM
SELF-CHECK 4.2
Identify the procedures for conducting PWIM in the classroom.
PWIM requires a picture to be displayed and the teacher facilitates, asking

students to take turns identifying items and actions. As each word is uttered, the
teacher writes it on the paper and draws a line to the item or action. He or she
has the students say the word and spell it. This process is known as shaking the
words out of the picture.
Over time students are encouraged to read the words, trace the lines from words
to items/actions. They spell the words and learn how to use the chart as a picture
dictionary. The words are then keyed into a computer and each word is printed
out on a card. These cards are given to the students to use as the lesson
continues. The students then sort the words into categories as the teacher asks
and guides the students.
Students continue to find more words in the picture, and place them into
categories. The teacher assesses the students knowledge of the words out of
context. Then the class moves on to sentence construction. First the teacher
models making sentences out of the words and then the students dictate their
own sentences. Word recognition out of context is again tested before the teacher
moves the students into paragraph construction.

4.2.2 Advantages of Using PWIM in the Classroom

Calhoun (1999) identified several advantages of PWIM as indicated below:
(a)" The strategy emphasises phonics, grammar, mechanics and usage of
Standard English;
(b)" Pictures provide concrete visuals for the learning of new words, phrases
and sentences;
(c)" As students are using pictures related to content material under study, they
feel a part of the classroom community and can participate in class
activities;
(d)" The picture word chart serves as an immediate reference, or picture
dictionary, that enables students to eventually add the words to their own
sight vocabulary. The teacher can choose to emphasise almost any sound
and symbol relationship (introduced or taken to mastery);
(e)" Students are assisted to see the patterns and relationships of the English
language, enabling them to apply this learning to newly encountered
words;
(f)" Students hear and see words spelt correctly and participate in correct
spelling and writing; and
(g)" Students benefit from the teacher modelling of the key words and concepts.
With extensive practice, students begin to learn how to create sentences and
paragraphs related to the subject under study.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of using PWIM in the

classroom?
2. What do you think a teacher needs to do before introducing

PWIM model to her students?

4.2.3 How Can Teachers Use PWIM in the Classroom?

There are various ways a teacher can introduce PWIM in the classroom. Some of
the ways are shown below.
(a)" Development of sight vocabulary
Scenario 4
The Year 2 children are seated on the floor. Mrs Tan pastes a poster on
the board (see Figure 4.4). It features a scene of a childrens playground.
Mrs Tan says, We are going to get some of the words for this weeks
reading vocabulary by shaking words out of this picture. Study the
picture carefully. When I call your name, come forward and point to
one of the items in the picture and say what it is. Then I will write the
word and draw a line from that item to the word.
The children study the picture. After a few minutes, Mrs Tan calls out
one name Mary.
Mary walks forward and points at an object and says, This is a swing.
Mrs Tan draws a line from the swing and writes swing in large print,
spelling out each letter as she writes. Then she asks all the students to
repeat after her. This process continues and at the end of the session,
Mrs Tan lists down eight words from the picture:
See saw Merry-go-round Swing Slide

Sand box Trees Bridges Children

Figure 4.4: Mrs Tans teaching aid: Picture dictionary
Scenario 4 indicates that PWIM is able to improve pupils sight vocabulary.

Mrs Tan scaffolds her pupils to identify each object found in the picture.
This activity allows pupils to be able to name the words correctly. The
repetition of spelling also enhance pupils memory to remember and recall
the words. The following day, Mrs Tan prints out the identified words as
word cards. Each pupil gets his/her own set of smaller vocabulary cards
where he/she can sort the words by making reference to the picture.
After a week, Mrs Tan conducts the following lesson (refer to Scenario 5).
Scenario 5
Let us look at the picture again. Can you name each of the objects
found in the picture? The pupils begin naming each object.
Mrs Tan points at one of the trees. What can you see here? One of the
pupils says, A small tree.
Mrs Tan says, Very good. This is a small tree. She writes the phrase
small tree and draws a line towards the tree. What about this one?
(Pointing at a bigger tree).
One of the pupils, Lina answers, That one is big. Big tree. Mrs Tan
says, That is a big tree.
Mrs Tan repeats the process of writing the phrase big tree and draws
a line from the phrase to the tree in the picture.

In Scenario 5, Mrs Tan introduces phrases which allow pupils to expand

their vocabulary as well as construct phrases and sentences. Mrs Tan
models the correct sentence form and pupils are able to learn from her and
use that experience to create their own sentences. Pupils form sentences by
selecting common attributes which they are familiar with. They search and
identify attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of a given
group or category from non-examples.
Pupils read and spell the words as they are shaken out of the picture.
These words are placed on large vocabulary cards where they can look at
and for the teacher to use for group instruction. Students also get their own
set of smaller vocabulary cards. They sort these words and consult the
picture dictionary to check their understanding and refresh the meaning of
the words. Students keep their word cards in word banks or word boxes,
consulting them as they wish and eventually arrange them to compose
sentences.
(b)" Skill in Phonics
Read the following scenario.
Scenario 6
Mr Ibrahim introduced a picture (Figure 4.5) to his students a week ago.
The penguins were chosen because the students had the opportunity to
see one during the school field trip to the zoo recently. Based on the
PWIM model, the students identified a list of words describing the
penguins.
Today, Mr Ibrahim asks the students to look at the picture dictionary

again. Mr Ibrahim says, Im going to select some of the words and I am
going to sort out some and put them together. I want you to think about
why I put them together.
Mr Ibrahim pulls out five words and places them on the board. Then he
calls on Salleh, who says, You put all the words that begin with s
together.
How many of you agree with Salleh? Everyone agrees.Does anyone

has another reason? Sheela volunteers by saying that all the words have
the same ending ing.

Mr. Ibrahim ends the lesson by discussing the initial // sound and the
ending ing sound. He gives the students homework which is to find at
least six words that begin with s and has the ing ending.
The students are required to list them on a piece of paper and drop them
in the picture word box in the morning.
Figure 4.5: Mr. Ibrahims teaching aid: Picture dictionary

Source: https://www.google.com.my/search?q=picture+word+inductive+model
Based on Scenario 6, Mr Ibrahim asks the students to analyse the words and
develop phonics concepts inductively. This is achieved by selecting
particular words identified by the students earlier through the picture
dictionary (refer to Table 4.3 for an example).
Table 4.3: Identification of word categories
Identification of word categories

Explanation
by the students
fat, fast All begin with f.
All have the same two first letters.
blue, black All have b at the beginning.
All have l after the first letter.
All are colours.

Slithering, sliding, swimming All begin with s.

All end with ing.
All are action words.
Mr Ibrahim manages to explore beginning and ending sounds and

structural property of the words. PWIM model enables students to learn
words that begin with a particular sound and with particular letters
representing those sounds. This will allow students to use their critical
thinking and to build generalisations that form the basis of structural and
phonetic analysis (Joyce, 2009).
ACTIVITY 4.5
When and how would you use PWIM with your students? Do you think
this model is suitable to be used in your classroom?
4.2.4 Instructional and Nurturant Effects of PWIM

Below are the instructional and nurturant effects of the Picture-Word Inductive
Model.
(a)" Instructional effect

(i)" Self-teaching capacity teachers help learners to become independent
by getting them to generate words and meanings from pictures
(ii)" Inquiry skills using language teacher provides learners with the
skills to use language to seek for more information pertaining to the
picture.
(iii)" Skills in reading the teacher will be able to provide more reading
exercises or sessions to help learners develop their reading skills.
(iv)" Conceptual control over reading and writing PWIM establishes a
strong link between reading and writing. Hence teacher can provide
activities that promote the link between reading and writing among
the learners.

(b)" Nurturant effect

(i)" Express self through writing learners would be able to articulate
their thoughts through writing during the activities.
(ii)" Develop culture of reading apart from other language skills, PWIM
focuses on reading as well. Learners would be able to expand their
reading vocabulary and enhance their language proficiency.
(iii)" Learn collaborative skills PWIM requires learners to work together
in completing the activities. The group will develop and promote
positive interactions among the members.
The concept attainment model is useful for both younger and older learners.
Learners discover new concepts when they compare and contrast sets of
exemplars.
The PWIM is very effective for beginner learners.
PWIM enhances students sight vocabulary and construction of phrases and

sentences.
PWIM scaffolds learners in writing (constructing paragraphs).
Attributes Non-exemplars
Concept Picture dictionary
Concept attainment PWIM
Concept formation Shaking words out
Exemplars

Calhoun, E. F. (1999). Teaching beginning reading and writing with the picture
word model. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Pearson Education.
Joyce, B. R. & Calhoun, E. F. (1996). Creating learning experiences. Alexandria,

VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Topic Information
5 Processing II:
Advance
Organisers and
Memorisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify the features of advance organisers and memorisation ;
2." Describe the process of each of the models;
4." Apply each of the models in the classroom.
" INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on the information processing family of models; namely
advance organisers (the advance organiser model) and the memorisation (the
memory model). Advance organisers were introduced by Ausubel (1963)
focusing on the best ways of scaffolding ideas while memorisation focuses on
building connections of items conceptually.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the differences between advance organisers and memorisation?

TOPIC 5 INFORMATION PROCESSING II: ADVANCE ORGANISERS 81
AND MEMORISATION
5.1 WHAT IS THE ADVANCE ORGANISER

MODEL?
Advance organisers were introduced by Ausubel (1963) who believes that the
role of a teacher is to organise subject matter and present information through
lectures, readings and providing tasks to the learner to integrate what has been
learned (Joyce, 2009). The role of a teacher is to organise the presentation to be
learned while the students are to master ideas and information. The advance
organisers allow students to strengthen their cognitive structures, their
knowledge of a particular subject at any given time. Ausubel believes that
students minds should be able to receive and process information in order for
learning to take place.
Now read the following scenario.
Scenario 1
Mrs Thomas is teaching her students poetry and wants them to know the
differences between metaphor and simile. She begins by presenting an
organiser. The organiser differentiates the two literary devices by showing
examples such as he is as fierce as a beast to represent a simile and he is a
beastfor a metaphor. She explains that simile makes comparison by using
phrases such as; as___ as and like a___. On the other hand, metaphor does not
use these phrases and a few examples are provided to differentiate both
literary devices.
Mrs Thomas then presents her students with a poem and asks them to identify
the literary devices. They list down the literary devices and then discuss in
groups for their choice of answers.
Scenario 1 is an example on how advance organisers are used. Mrs Thomas

introduces her students to the difference between metaphor and simile as an
advance organiser. This is achieved by pointing out that simile uses phrases for
comparison such as as ___ as and like a ____among others. She provides
examples for better comprehension. She then presents her students with a poem
and asks them to read and identify words or phrases that represent metaphor
and simile. The students come up with a list and discuss why they have selected
those phrases.

82 TOPIC 5 INFORMATION PROCESSING II: ADVANCE ORGANISERS
AND MEMORISATION
ACTIVITY 5.1
How do advance organisers allow for meaningful learning to take place?
Ausubel (1963) believes in the mastery of academic material through

presentation. He is concerned with how teachers organise and present
information meaningfully for the learners to understand and comprehend. He
believes that a teacher plays an important role as an organiser of subject matter.
Therefore the teacher should be able to organise and present what is to be
learned by the learners. The advance organisers provide concepts and principles
that should be learned by the students directly. Now read the following scenario.
Scenario 2
A teacher takes her 10-year-old pupils on a visit to the zoo. Before entering the
zoo, she says, I want to give you an idea that will let you understand the
types of animals you are going to see. You are going to see various types of
animals in a short while. There are some animals that roam on land while
others can be seen swimming in the water. Recall what we have learned last
week on land and sea animals. The teacher further provides examples of
animals from each category.
As they begin their tour, the teacher points out the various types of animals
found. Do you see here, she asks, That is a crocodile. As you can see, the
crocodile is moving towards land. There are some animals that can live on
land and in the water as well. Then she continues by saying, Look at the
features of the crocodile. What does it need to be able to live in the water?
Scenario 2 shows how the teacher was able to use the advance organisers where
she provides ideas that can be linked to the particular characteristics of the
animals. She provided the intellectual scaffolding to structure ideas and
information with regards to the types of animals found in the zoo. Advance
organisers allow the teacher to strengthen pupils cognitive structures
(organising knowledge in the mind). Ausubel believes that cognitive structure
plays an important role in making meaningful learning of new materials (Joyce et
al., 2009, p. 249).

AND MEMORISATION
ACTIVITY 5.2
Define meaningful learning based on your own experiences.
A persons previous knowledge is normally stored in the cognitive structures of

the brain. In order for acquisition of new knowledge to take place and to be
meaningful, previous knowledge or schema needs to be activated by means of an
introductory instructional strategy (Ausubel, 1978). It provides a mental
scaffolding to learn new information (Hassard, 2005).
Meaningful learning requires to the following:

(a)" Preparation of the learner;
(b)" Organisation of the material by the teacher;
(c)" What the learner has learned is intellectually linked and understood in the
context of the previously learned; and
(d)" The learner must be ready to comprehend and relate what is being
presented, rather than to memorise.
Learners are said to be active learners where they are required to relate the new
material to their existing knowledge. Advance organisers are a deductive
information processing model and are normally presented at the beginning of the
lesson. Ausubel (1963) proposes that new ideas can only be usefully learned if
they can be related to already available concepts or propositions by the learners.
5.1.1 Principles Governing Advance Organisers

There are two principles that govern advance organisers. First is progressive
differentiation. It refers to the organisation of the content in the subject field. It
simply means that the most general ideas of the discipline are presented first,
followed by more detailed and specific ideas. One example is seen in the earlier
scenario when the teacher introduced two literary terms: metaphor and simile.
She defines and provides examples for each of the terms.
Second is integrative reconciliation. It refers to the need for the new

materials/ideas to be learned by relating them to previously learned context. One
example is the syllabus used in the Standard Curriculum for Primary Schools
(KSSR) where the sequence of the curriculum is organised in such a way that
each successive learning is related to previous topics. Another example is found

AND MEMORISATION
in the earlier scenario where the teacher asks her students to recall what they
have learned in class on land and sea animals and relate to the animals that can
live in both worlds.
5.1.2 Categories of Advance Organisers

There are two categories of advance organisers: expository organisers and
comparative organisers. Expository organisers are used when unfamiliar
materials are taught. New schema is built by providing new information. These
represent the intellectual scaffold on which students will hang onto the new
information as they encounter it (Joyce, 2009). For example, a teacher can
introduce the story of the well-known Hellen Keller to her students and discuss
her difficulty in communicating with others and the use of sign language. Later,
the students will be able to use this new information (sign language) when
learning about the mode of communication.
On the other hand, comparative organisers are used for learners to recall
previous knowledge by activating the existing schema. It is used for familiar
materials by discriminating between old and new concepts. For example, in a
literature class, if the learners have already learned about Robert Frost and are
now about to learn about William Wordsworth, a compare and contrast double
bubble map would aid learners to learn more about each poets style of writing.
The information gained from the advance organiser will aid learners to progress
in their learning.
Advance organisers can take many forms such as a simple oral introduction by
the teacher, student discussions, outlines, timelines, charts, diagrams and concept
maps (Brandsford, 2004).
According to University of Pittsburgh research on advance organisers, the

following strategies can function as advance organisers:
(a)" Use charts, diagrams, oral presentations or concept maps. For example,
provide a graphic that contains a visual clue about a complex relationship
among many parts;
(b)" Give a scenario and ask students to infer rules based upon their current
knowledge;
(c)" Have students identify the characteristics of a known phenomenon and
then relate it to the new idea/concept. For example, discuss characteristics
of air pollution to introduce the effect it has on the environment and living
things;

AND MEMORISATION
(d)" Offer renderings of different types of geometric forms before discussing

their individual likenesses and differences;
(e)" Review basic concepts of society (in order to activate the students' schema
for "culture") prior to studying a unit on culture;
(f)" Ask students to compare and contrast the new content based on what they
already know. For example, what can they tell about its colour, shape,
smell, feel or taste? and
(g)" Identify a problem and ask for a reason why it may occur (before teaching
the reason). For example, discuss the origins of a war before describing its
major battles.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Identify the different types of advance organisers.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using advance organisers in the
classroom.

AND MEMORISATION
5.1.3 Advance Organisers

Teaching using the advance organiser model involves three phases as described
in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Three Phases in Advance Organiser Model
Phase Description
(1) Presentation of Advance " Clarify aims of the lesson.
Organisers
" Present organiser.
" Identify defining attributes.
" Give examples or illustrations where appropriate.
" Provide context.
" Repeat.
" Prompt awareness of learners relevant
knowledge and experience.
(2) Presentation of Learning Task " Present material.
or Material
" Make logical order of learning material explicit.
" Link material to organiser.
(3) Strengthening Cognitive " Use principles of integrative reconciliation.
Organisation
" Elicit critical approach to subject matter.
" Clarify ideas.
" Apply ideas actively (such as by testing them).
There are two principles that govern advance organisers. The first is related to
the way content should be presented. The most general ideas of a subject should
be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and
specificity. Second, the instructional materials should attempt to integrate new
material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-
referencing of new and old ideas.
5.1.4 Advance Organisers in the Classroom

One of the strategies of using advance organisers to teach is PLAN as proposed
by Caverly (1997). PLAN refers to Predict/Locate/Add/Note. This strategy is
used before, during and after reading. Table 5.2 displays the steps on how PLAN
is carried out.
AND MEMORISATION
Table 5.2: The PLAN Strategy
P Predict by previewing the text and creating a concept map. A tree

trunk with extending branches is recommended.
L Locate prior background knowledge on the map with checks and
new concepts with question marks.
A Add new branches to the map to represent new knowledge acquired
during reading. Verify, modify and add to prior knowledge.
Confirm the new concepts with question marks.
N Note, after reading, if the macrostructure of the material is indeed
what they have predicted prior to reading. If the structure is
different, they construct a new map to better represent the authors
rhetorical structure.
Source: Caverly (1997)
For further explanation of the PLAN strategy, refer to

http://dept.clcillinois.edu/vpe/gened/pdf/Reading_PLAN.pdf
Another form of advance organisers is concept webbing or mapping which is

pictorial in nature. It uses a hierarchical, visual display of various graphs to map
out the main concept and the supporting material. Students with disabilities who
use graphic representations as advance organisers perform better on tests, due in
part to the way the organisers provide retention, recall, and scaffolding of new
ideas and concepts with preexisting schemata (Robinson, 1998). In addition, the
visual organisation increases students understanding by providing a skeletal
map that increases their ability to link new concepts with prior knowledge;
therefore, increasing retention and recall (Hassard, 2005).
Atherton (2005) suggests that advance organisers could also be used as note-
taking devices. He suggests gapped handouts (uncompleted handouts), which
leave blanks for students to fill in as the teacher provides instruction. The teacher
can choose to leave large spaces for note-taking or simple blanks where
keywords can be placed. Gapped handouts can also take the form of concept
webs, charts, and tables. Later, these handouts can be used as study guides for
tests (Atherton, 2005). Refer to Table 5.3 for an example.

AND MEMORISATION
Table 5.3: Gapped Handout
Instruction: Read Jonathans daily routine and fill in the table below.
I usually get up late about 8 oclock in the morning. I normally have light breakfast
with my parents around 8.45am and then leave for work at 9.15am. I go to work by
bus and reach my office just before ten.
When I arrive at the office, I always check my email. Then I will do the paper work
and have a meeting with my team from 12.00 till 12.30pm. During lunch hour, I
usually have my meal prepared by my mother. I do not prefer eating at the cafeteria
since the food is not very good.
I usually finish work at about 7 oclock and reach home about one hour later. I
normally have dinner with my parents at about 9 oclock.
Time Activity
8.00
8.45
AM
9.15
PM
Mayer (1979) proposed the following guidelines for constructing advance

organisers:
(a)" Short set of verbal or visual information - This will allow learners to recall
information;
(b)" Present prior to learning a larger body of to-be-learned information - The
organisers should be introduced first to prepare learners to grasp
information or as a lead-in to a much complex subject matter;
(c)" Containing no specific content from the to-be-learned information - The
content should be short since the organiser is used to introduce the
information that is to follow. The advance organiser should not include any
of the specific information that will be presented later. It should deal with
the subject or content at a more abstract and general level;

AND MEMORISATION
(d)" Providing the means of generating the logical relationships among the
elements in the to-be-learned information - The organiser should enable
learners to see and make the link between the structure of the discipline or
subject and the information to be presented later; and
(e)" Influencing the learners encoding process - The link mentioned earlier will
allow learners to enhance their understanding and recall the details
presented later.
5.1.5 Advantages of Advance Organisers

There are several advantages of using advance organisers in the teaching and
learning process including the following:
(a)" To teach both concepts and generalisations;
(b)" To teach content within a lesson;
(c)" To view or make a clear link between concepts, for example subordinate,
co-ordinate and super ordinate relationships;
(d)" To learn new ideas and relate them to already available concepts; and
(e)" To organise the material which is to be learned for the learners.
5.2 WHAT IS THE MEMORISATION MODEL?

Memorisation is one of the techniques used in remembering facts and
information. Our everyday lives are governed by memorisation. For example,
one would memorise the things needed to be completed or bought.
Remembering things can be achieved only if one pays attention to the things they
are focusing on. For example, you are unlikely to remember what is on display
on the isle of a supermarket unless you pay particular attention to the items. As
students, you would likely try to memorise information and facts in preparing
yourself to sit for an examination. However, certain information will be forgotten
once the examination is over.
Joyce et al. (2009) presented three different cues that link to memorisation. The
first is retrieval cues that refer to the comparison made from one item to the other
and rehearse what we have gained. This information becomes retrieval cues that
allow us to sort through our memories at later times to locate information.
Retrieval cues are normally stored in the short-term memory.

AND MEMORISATION
Episodic cues, on the other hand, relate to the long-term memory dealing with
sequences of experience to which one is exposed. For example, relating bitterness
of bitter gourd to the medicine taken when one was young. Fear of a dog that
follows being bitten by a dog. Episodic cues play a role in remembering past
events and also allow us to predict the future events based on the past. They will
also allow us to make decisions on what to do.
Categorical cues deal with conceptualising items by categorising. These cues deal
with the ability to discriminate between things into different categories. For
example, when one sees the rainbow, we see it in terms of distinct colours.
Another example is when we categorise our students in the classroom according
to gender (boys and girls) or proficiency level.
Joyce (2009) claims that it is important for one to be able to memorise skilfully
since competence based on knowledge is essential for survival. Therefore, one
should be able to have the ability to increase learning power and the capability of
storing information.
There are various ways for one to remember what needs to be recalled at a later
stage. The first, which is very common, is through rote learning. The rote
procedure requires one to say what is to be memorised over and over again until
the information is implanted in the brain. This is not an effective form of
memorising and takes a longer time to remember. Besides, it does not make any
link or relationship of the things to be memorised; hence rote learning may not
be meaningful for the learner.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Try and recall the time when you were a student and were asked to
memorise a list of things. How did you memorise them?
5.2.1 The Link-Word Method

It is important for more mental activity to take place in order for a richer mental
context. Additional associations need to be linked to memorisation to increase the
cognitive activity (Joyce, 2009). One of the ways of achieving this is through the
link-word method. It allows learners to either:
(a)" Remember familiar material to link with the unfamiliar items; or
(b)" Provide an association to establish the meaning of a new material.

AND MEMORISATION
Studies have indicated that learners who are able to master the link-word
method use more elaborate strategies for memorising material as compared to
less effective memorisers.
One example of link-word method is shown in Figure 5.1. The link-word method
is used to help young learners to remember the numbers. For example, number
one is linked to the word bun.
one = bun six = sticks
two = shoe seven = heaven
three = tree eight = gate
four = door nine = vine
five = hive ten = hen
Figure 5.1: Link-word memory exercise using numbers

Source: http://www.eudesign.com/mnems/_mnframe.htm
Besides linking numbers to the associated words, they also rhyme for easy recall.
For examples; one-bun, two-shoes and three-tree. Students can also visualise the
numbers with the pictures they represent to create a strong mental association
between numbers and words that rhyme with it. Besides allowing students to
recall the numbers in the correct order, this method allows learners to pronounce
the numbers correctly as well.

AND MEMORISATION
ACTIVITY 5.5
Imagine you are taking the literature class and are asked to memorise a
list of American poets. How would you go about memorising them?
One of the ways of memorising the list is through the link-word-method as

shown below.
Name list : Robert Frost, Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, Sylvia

Plath, T. S. Eliot, W. B. Yeats, John Milton
Reorganised list : T.S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, Emily Dickinson, Robert Frost,
John Milton, Walt Whitman, W. B. Yeats
Cue Phrase : Eli, Please Dont Freeze My White Yogurt
5.2.2 Mnemonics
Mnemonics is one of the methods used to help one remember information better.
It connects words to objects, events, actions and qualities that they represent
(Joyce, 2009). It can be used in various disciplines including language,
mathematics and science. The word mnemonics originated from the Greek
mnemonikos, referring to the mind.
Mnemonics are used widely in aiding learners to remember and recall

information easily. One example is shown below.
Thirty days hath September;

April, June, and November;
All the rest have thirty-one;
Excepting February alone;
Which hath but twenty-eight, in fine;
Till leap year gives it twenty-nine.
The example is a form of a rhyme used to teach learners the number of days in
each month of the year. Mnemonics come in various forms. Among them are
through the use of acronyms. Look at the example below.
Monkey Nut Eating Means Old Nutshells In Carpet.

AND MEMORISATION
The acronym above is used to allow learners to remember the correct spelling of
the word mnemonic. Through the memorisation of the phrase, one would easily
identify and recall the spelling of the intended word by taking the initial letters of
each word.
Other examples of spelling mnemonics are shown below:

(a)" A Rat In The House May Eat The Ice Cream (ARITHMETIC);
(b)" Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move (RHYTHM);
(c)" George's Elderly Old Grandfather Rode A Pig Home Yesterday
(GEOGRAPHY); and
(d)" Trails Of My Old Red Rose Over Window (TOMORROW).
Source: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples/examples-of-mnemonics.html
Other mnemonic technique uses the initial letters of a phrase to memorise the
order of a list of items. For example, try to recall the names of the planets in the
solar system starting with the one closest to the sun. This task would seem
difficult but through the use of mnemonics one could easily memorise and recall
the order accurately.
My Very Easy Method: Just Set Up Nine Planets.

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.
There are also other ways of remembering which is through the use of visuals.
For example, in order to remember the number of days in each month of the year,
the use of fists allows for easy recall. The method involves placing your two fists
together with the thumbs tucked in and counting across the knuckles and spaces
in between (but not counting the space between the hands). If each month is
assigned to a knuckle or space in turn, each knuckle month has 31 days, whilst all
of the space months have just 30 days; except of course for February!
The number of days in each month can also be found by counting across the
knuckles and valleys on the back of each clenched fist from left to right as you
can see in Figure 5.2.

AND MEMORISATION
Figure 5.2: Remembering the days in the months

Other examples of visual mnemonics are shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Mnemonics for ordering objects in the solar system (left);
and correctly spelling does (right)
Source:http://www.google.com.my/search?q=visual+mnemonics&tbm
Mnemonics can also be in a form of a poem as shown below where besides

enjoying recitation, learners will be able to comprehend parts of speech.

AND MEMORISATION
Every name is called a NOUN,

As field and fountain, street and town;
In place of noun the PRONOUN stands,
As he and she can clap their hands;
The ADJECTIVE describes a thing,
As magic wand and bridal ring;
The VERB means action, something done -
To read and write, to jump and run;
How things are done, the ADVERBS tell,
As quickly, slowly, badly, well;
The PREPOSITION shows relation,
As in the street, or at the station;
CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways,
Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase;
The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark!
I need an exclamation mark!'
Through Poetry, we learn how each
of these make up the PARTS OF SPEECH."
5.2.3 Concepts in Enhancing Memory

Joyce (2009) identified the following concepts as techniques in enhancing
memory of learning material:
(a)" Awareness
Paying attention to things or ideas is the basic principle in remembering.
This will create an awareness leading to learning.
(b)" Association
This is a concept of linking a new piece of information with something
familiar. For example, remembering the spelling of the word bouquet by
associating to the object flower. Therefore, a teacher can provide the cue
A bouquet of flowers for better understanding of the meaning and spelling.
(c)" Link System

This is related to making connections between two ideas. For example,
what would you do if you are asked to remember these words?
cat broom bicycle elephant hat scissors carpet

AND MEMORISATION
You may start by visualising an unusual picture such as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: An unusual picture
The link system is based on the combination of mental images. Imagine a

picture of the first item cat in your mind. Now you need to link the first
item to the second, which is the broom. Now picture the cat holding a
broom. Next step is to link the broom to the next item, bicycle. Picture the
cat with the broom riding a bicycle. Next, imagine an elephant with a hat,
holding a pair of scissors and flying on a carpet. If you have actually seen
these mental pictures in your mind you will have no trouble remembering
the seven items in sequence.
(d)" Ridiculous Association

This association is linked by identifying items or objects that are ridiculous,
impossible or illogical. There are several ways of making an association
ridiculous.
(i)" Rule of Substitution
Example: If you are to remember a tree and a pair of chopsticks,
picture the tree holding chopsticks on one of its branches.
(ii)" Out of Proportion Rules
This works by making small things gigantic or changing big things
into miniatures. Example: Picture a tiny tree growing on a huge pair
of chopsticks.
(iii)" Rule of Exaggeration

Example: Picture hundreds of trees running down the street paved
with thousands of chopsticks.
AND MEMORISATION
(e)" Substitute-Word System

This is used to remember abstract words. Take any word or phrase and
think of something that sounds like or reminds you of. Example:
Remembering parts of a flowering plant:
" For the petal, picture a flower pedaling a bicycle;
" For the stamen, use the words steam and men. Picture men emitting
steam from their bodies or surrounded by steam. Hissing noises
associated with the steam or the smell of sweat makes the picture more
vivid. The steam image could be tied more closely to flowers if an
image were made showing a flower wilting in a steam room or growing
out of a steaming teapot tended by a group of men; and
" For the pistil, picture one evil-looking flower with a pistol holding up a
cowering flower.
Source: http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/memory3.html
Table 5.4 highlights examples of techniques you can use to memorise important
information.
Table 5.4: Examples of Memory Techniques
When to Use It Technique Example

For information Acronym - an invented BRASS is an acronym for
involving key words combination of letters with each how to shoot a rifle--
letter acting as a cue to an idea Breath, Relax, Aim, Sight,
you need to remember. Squeeze.
For information Acrostic - an invented sentence EVERY GOOD BOY
involving key words where the first letter of each DESERVES FUN is an
word is a cue to an idea you acrostic to remember the
need to remember. order of the G-clef notes on
sheet music-- E,G,B,D,F.
For ordered or Rhyme-Keys - a 2-step memory Food groups:
unordered lists process: 1." Dairy products: one-
1." Memorise key words that bun-cheese on a bun.
can be associated with 2." Meat, fish, and poultry:
numbers (one-bun); two-shoe-livestock with
2." Create an image of the items shoes.
you need to remember with 3." Grains: three-tree-sack
key words. (A bun with of grain hanging from
cheese on it will remind me tree.
of dairy products.)
4." Fruit and vegetables:
four-door- opening a

AND MEMORISATION
door and walking into a

room stocked with
fruits and vegetables.
For approximately Loci Method - Imagine placing To remember presidents:
twenty items the items you want to remember Place a dollar bill (George
in specific locations in a room Washington) on the door.
with which you are familiar. Walk into the room and see
Jefferson reclining on a sofa
and Nixon eating out of the
refrigerator.
For foreign language Keyword Method - Select the In Spanish, the word
vocabulary foreign words you need to "cabina" means phone
remember, then identify an booth. Invent an image of a
English word that sounds like cab trying to fit in a phone
the foreign one. Now imagine an booth. When you see the
image that involves the key word "cabina", you should
word with the English meaning be able to recall this image
of the foreign word. and thereby retrieve the
meaning "phone booth."
For remembering Image-Name Technique - invent Shirley Temple - her curly
names a relationship between the name (rhymes with "Shirley") hair
and the physical characteristics around her temples.
of the person.
For ordered or Chaining - Create a story where Napoleon, ear, door,
unordered lists each word or idea you have to Germany
remember will cue the next idea Story: Napoleon had his ear
you need to recall. to the door to listen to the
Germans in his beer cellar.
Source: http://www.iss.stthomas.edu/studyguides/memory.htm
5.2.4 Advantages of Using Memorisation

There are several advantages of using memorisation. Among them are:
(a)" Provide a memory bridge to help you recall information that otherwise is
difficult to remember;
(b)" Involve rearranging or reorganising information, which also helps you
personalise the information and be a more active learner;
(c)" Add interest to studying by providing you with new ways to work with
information;
(d)" When used properly, they allow you to spend less time retrieving
information from your long-term memory;
AND MEMORISATION
(e)" Help students who are below average in verbal ability who might have
greater difficulty with complex learning strategies; and
(f)" It is applicable to all age levels.

Memorisation Model
The memorisation model is aimed at helping learners remember facts or
information effectively. As such, it is crucial for the teacher to provide the
appropriate learning tools and adequate learning opportunities for learners. The
instructional and nurturant effects are as follows:
(a)" Instructional effects

(i)" Mastery of facts and ideas the teacher needs to ensure that the
activities are able to help learners gain mastery of facts and ideas.
Activities should be laden with adequate and appropriate information
to enable learners enhance their knowledge base.
(ii)" Tools for mastering information and concepts relevant teaching-
learning tools can be employed in the classroom to ensure that the
learners are able to effectively remember and retain information. A
variety of tools catered to the different competency levels of the
learners can help in creating an effective teaching-learning
environment.
(iii)" A sense of intellectual power Teachers can promote positive and
powerful learning sense within the classroom. This can be achieved
through encouraging the learners to be in control of their own mental
activities. The awareness of the learners ability to control and modify
their thought processes can create a sense of intellectual power within
the individual.

(i)" Self-esteem learners gain self-esteem as they progress through the
activities. Their ability to store and retrieve will certainly boost their
confidence level making them feel more receptive towards the
learning process.
(ii)" Self-understanding The process of retrieving and storing
information is conducted systematically. The process entails a
detailed procedure using various learning tools. The learners become
active learning participants in the process in which the information is

AND MEMORISATION
processed in a meaningful and effective manner. Learners are not

mere rote learners. This learning process encourages meaningful
interaction and associations to the learning items.
(iii)" Self-reliance and independence Once learners gain self-esteem and
able to understand the process of learning, they will eventually
become self-reliant and independent. They will be able to take
responsibility of their learning as they are made more aware of their
mental capacity.
The advance organiser model is useful to structure concepts and teach the
skills of effective reception learning. It enhances learners critical thinking.
The memorisation model aids in increasing the capacity to story and retrieve
information. It allows for creative forms of thinking. It allows learners to be
more meaningful and effective memorisers.
Advance organisers Meaningful learning

Cognitive structure Mnemonics
Integrative reconciliation Progressive differentiation
Link-word-method Scaffolding
Atherton, J. S. (2005). Teaching and learning: Advance organizers. Retrieved from

http://www.learningandteaching.info/teaching/ advance_organisers.htm
Ausubel, D. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. New York,

NY: Grune & Stratton.

AND MEMORISATION
Caverly, D. (1997). Teaching reading in a learning assistance center. In S.

Mioduski & G. Enright (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th and 18th annual
Winter institutes for learning assistance professional (pp. 27-42). Tucson,
AZ: University Learning Center, University of Arizona.
Hassard, J. (2005). Meaningful learning model. In the art of teaching science.

Retrieved from http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.10.html
Pearson Education.
Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning?

Review of Educational Research, 49, 371383.
Robinson, D. H. (1998). Graphic organizers as aids to text learning. Reading

Research and Instruction, 37, 85-105
University of Pittsburgh. Advance organizers. Retrieved from

http://www.cidde.pitt.edu/using-advance-organizer

T op i c Information
6 Processing III:
The Scientific
Inquiry Model
and The
Synectics
Model
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify what scientific inquiry and synectics models are;
2." Describe the process of each of the models;
4." Apply each of the models in the classroom.
" INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on the information processing family of models, namely the
scientific inquiry model and the synectics model. Firstly, we will look at the
scientific inquiry model that uses a biological method called the Biological
Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) and the inquiry training model which was
developed by J. Richard Suchman (1962). Secondly, we will then focus on the

TOPIC 6 INFORMATION PROCESSING III: THE SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 103
MODEL AND THE SYNECTICS MODEL
synectics model, which was proposed by William Gordon (1961) to enable

learners to learn in a more interesting manner.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What do you think are the differences between the scientific inquiry and
the synectics models? Discuss with your coursemates.
6.1 WHAT IS THE SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY MODEL

The scientific inquiry model is an instructional model that emphasises the
scientific method in teaching activities. It is a framework of interactions between
teachers and learners. There are five essential components to inquiry as stated
below:
(a)" Learners are engaged by scientifically orientated questions;
(b)" Learners give priority to evidence;
(c)" Learners formulate explanations from evidence;
(d)" Learners evaluate explanation; and
(e)" Learners communicate and justify their proposed explanation.
(National Research Council, 2002)
The following subtopic will explore the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study
(BSCS) as proposed by Schwab (1965), which works well for both young and
adult learners.
6.1.1 The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS)

The BSCS approach teaches learners to process information using techniques
similar to those of research biologists. It begins by identifying problems leading
to the use of particular method to solve the problems at hand. This approach
emphasises content and process (Joyce, 2009).
The BSCS uses several techniques to teach science as inquiry. They are:
(a)" Use many statements such as the following; we do not know, we are
unable to discover how it happens. These statements encourage the
students to be aware of their lack of knowledge in the subject matter, thus
propelling them to be more active in seeking the answers.
104 TOPIC 6 INFORMATION PROCESSING III: THE SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
(b)" Use narrative of the inquiry history of major ideas in biology are
described and followed step by step. The students will be able to identify
and examine the scientific procedures used in the study. This will
eventually lead to a structured and systematic form of thinking and
learning.
(c)" The laboratory work is arranged to induce students to investigate problems.
As this is a science related subject matter, practical work becomes one of the
major components. The students will be exposed to a systematic form of
investigation in the process of learning.
(d)" The laboratory programmes are designed in blocks that involve the
students in one investigation of a real biological problem Managing the
learning through sizeable chunks makes learning more effective. The
practical work or laboratory programmes are divided into phases to enable
the students to gradually progress in their learning.
(e)" Use invitations to inquiry where students actively engage in activities
leading to reasoning related to a front-line item of investigation or to a
methodological problem in biology. The teachers role is crucial here in
facilitating and guiding the students to achieve the learning outcomes. The
high order questions posed can be a stimulus for the students to rationalise
and substantiate their learning ideas.
Adapted from : Joyce et al., (2009, pp.163-164)
The strategy for the BSCS model is designed based on the following
understanding:
(i)" How knowledge arises from interpretation of data;
(ii)" As principles and concepts change, knowledge changes too;
(iii)" Knowledge changes for a good reason. There are possibilities for present
knowledge to be revised in the future and that does not mean that the
present knowledge is false; and
(iv)" The essence of BSCS is to teach the students on how to process information
using the four phases in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Phases of the BSCS Approach
Phase Approach
Phase One Area of investigation is posed to the students.
Phase Two Students structure the problem.
Phase Three Students identify the problem in the investigation.
Phase Four Students speculate on ways to clear up the difficulty.
Phase one explores an area of investigation in which the students are required to
examine and analyse. In phase two, the students further examine the problem by
scrutinising areas that pose difficulties. The forms of difficulties or challenges
could be in data gathering, data collection or even interpretation. In phase three,
the students speculate about the problem so that the area of difficulty is
identified for further action. The final phase looks into the ways the students
clear up the difficulty (i.e, through redesigning the experiment, exploring the
data in different angles and so on)
ACTIVITY 6.2
Read the following scenario and identify the procedure of conducting the
BSCS approach in the classroom.
Scenario 1
One morning, Mrs Yongs 12-year-old students were surprised to find various
potted plants that were stunted and withered on the left side of the classroom
and some healthy potted plants on the right side of the classroom. After
settling down, Mrs Yong asked, what can you see on your left and right side
of the classroom? One student answered, there are a few healthy potted
plants on my right while the ones on my left are dying.A very good
observation, Lina. answered Mrs Yong. One of the students asked, Why are
the plants dying? What happened to the plants?That is a very good
question, James. answered Mrs Yong. Now this is what I want you to do. In
groups, try to answer the question posed by James. What do you think is the
cause of the problem?

From Scenario 1, it shows how Mrs Yong uses the BSCS model to teach her
students in the classroom. First, she begins by posing the area of investigation by
placing both the healthy and unhealthy potted plants in the classroom. This leads
to students curiosity and a few questions were duly posed. Mrs Young leads the
students to structure the problems and identify the problems. Finally, students
are asked to present their findings on the possible reasons for the plants to wither
and how to solve the problem.
Over the years, The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) curriculum
development team has improvised and developed the existing four phases of
BSCS approach. They also introduced the Five Es (Engagement, Exploration,
Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation) as a learning cycle based on the four
phases mentioned earlier. This is shown in Table 6.2 below.
Table 6.2: The 5Es Approach
5 Es Approach
Engagement Questions are posed to engage students in activities that draw upon
their prior knowledge.
Exploration Hands-on activities are set for students to understand the concept.
Students experiences are drawn upon to understand the concept.
Explanation Students generate the explanation of the concept.
Elaboration Students are guided to apply their learning in a new situation to
reinforce their learning.
Evaluation Students assess their understanding of the phenomenon
Source: Bybee (2006)
ACTIVITY 6.3
Can the BSCS approach be applied to any subject? Discuss with your
coursemates.
6.1.2 Inquiry Training Model

The inquiry training model, which comes under the scientific inquiry model, was
developed by Suchman (1962) to teach students the process of investigating and
exploring unusual phenomena. This model can be applied to any subject and can
be taught to young learners as well as adult learners. Now let us look at the
following scenario.

Scenario 2
After two weeks of holiday, Mr Jaimys Year 5 students are settling down in
their classroom when they notice their art teacher placing poster paint of three
different colours on the table.
What are these for? asks one child.

Are we going to paint something today? remarks another.
That is right. says the teacher. We are going to have fun with colours.
But there are only three colours! shouted a child.
Mr Jaimy gets the children to gather around the table and asks, How can we
have more colours?
There are three colours here, blue, red and yellow. How can we have more?
asked one of the children.
I cannot answer that, said the teacher.
Can we mix the colours? asked a girl.
Why dont you try and let me know, uttered Mr Jaimy.
Soon the students were busy mixing the colours.

Look! said Linda, I mixed yellow and blue and see what happened. Its
green.
Mr Jaimy began the inquiry training by asking his students to pose questions
which eventually led students to identify the solution to the problem. The
students formulated theories about the situation which they were familiar with
but still found puzzling. Finally, they gained new knowledge on what actually
had taken place.
The inquiry training model exposes students to the scientific process by allowing
them to increase their understanding of science, productivity in creative thinking
and skills for obtaining and analysing information. It also requires active
participation among the children who are eager and curious to explore. It also
allows students to raise questions and search for answers based on their
curiosity.

The inquiry training model undergoes five phases as shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: The Inquiry Training Model
Phase Activity Description

Phase One Confrontation with the " Explain inquiry procedures
problem " Present discrepant event
Phase Two Data Gathering for " Verify the nature of objects and
Verification conditions
" Verify the occurrence of the
problem situation
Phase Three Data Gathering for " Isolate relevant variables.
Experimentation " Hypothesise (and test) causal
relationships.
Phase Four Organising, Formulating an " Formulate rules or explanations
Explanation
Phase Five Analysis of the Inquiry " Analyse inquiry strategy and
Process develop more effective ones
Suchmans (1962) inquiry training model is based on the assumptions that:

(a)" Students are natural enquirers and can become conscious of and learn to
analyse their thinking strategies;
(b)" New strategies can be taught directly and added to the students existing
ones; and
(c)" Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the
tentative, emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative
explanations
Vanaja (2003) claims for the need of certain rules for the inquiry sessions. They are:
(i)" Type of questions: The questions are phrased whereby the teacher is only
required to respond with a yes or a no. Students cannot pose questions
that require the teacher to verify the students theories or assumptions. At
this point, the teacher may take caution on the type of questions posed. The
BSCS approach emphasises the content and process. As such, it is crucial that
the learners are given the opportunity to explore the various interpretations
and assumptions derived from the investigations. Direct answers or
verifications from the teacher will impede the learning process.

(ii)" Number of questions: Once called upon, a student may ask as many
questions as he or she wishes at a stipulated time.
(iii)" Student involvement: Any student can test any theory at any time. The
students should argue the merits of one anothers theories and feel free to
test all the theories that have been put forth. Anytime the students feel a
need to confer with one another without the teachers presence, they can do
so freely.
This model allows learners to gain confidence in solving future problems. This is
possible since the model allows learners to gain experience through problem
solving and discovery learning.
ACTIVITY 6.4
Can you identify the advantages of using the Inquiry Training Model in
the classroom? Discuss with your coursemates.
6.1.3 Instructional and Nurturant Effects of The Inquiry

Training Model
The following illustrates the instructional and nurturant effects derived from
using this model.
(a)" Instructional effects

The inquiry training model focuses on content and process. As such, the
model highlights the scientific knowledge as the main content in the
teaching-learning scenario. The teacher would focus on facts and aspects
related to science to further enhance the knowledge base of the students.
The teacher also looks into the process of research, especially in the area of
biology. The teaching methods are inclined towards exploring and
experiencing the process of doing research in order to help the students
gain skills in conducting a research based investigation.


According to Joyce (2009), the nurturant effects of using the model in the
classroom are:
(i)" Create an open-mind and ability to balance alternatives
Students as natural inquirers become active learners as they become
aware of the learning process. The process entails exploration and
investigations. The learning begins with a state of ambiguity in which
the students must learn to examine and clarify. This process
encourages the students to be more tolerant about the tentative,
emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative
explanations.
(ii)" Cooperative spirit and skill
Students also gain new strategies that can be taught directly and
added to the students existing ones. These can be realised through
group work during practical work and investigation process, where
students are able to enrich their thinking.
(iii)" Commitment to scientific enquiry
Students will eventually develop as autonomous learners and are able
to approach future problems with confidence. Their participation in
the activities will enable them to become more involved in learning
that promotes a scientific based approach.
6.1.4 Procedure in Using the Inquiry Training Model

in the Classroom
The inquiry training model follows this procedure which can be carried out on
other subjects as well (Joyce, 2009).
(a)" Present a discrepant event or puzzling situation.
(b)" Describe the procedure: Students are to form explanations for what they see
by asking yes-no questions only. Students may not ask the teacher to
explain the phenomenon to them.
(c)" Allow for questions that verify what events and conditions students
observe. Forestall causal questions until the next stage.
(d)" Allow for questions that enable students to identify relevant variables and
test their hypotheses.
(e)" Guide students to state the explanations they have formulated.
(f)" Prompt students to analyse their inquiry strategy.

ACTIVITY 6.5
When and how would you use the Inquiry Training Model with your
students? Do you think this model is suitable to be used in your
classroom?
6.2 WHAT IS THE SYNECTICS MODEL?

The term synectics was introduced by Gordon (1961) referring to a creative
problem-solving process. It integrates brainstorming in defining problems,
objectives or needs (Caruso, 2011). Through this method, new insights are sought
in an interesting, yet fun way of looking at the problem. Gordon (1961) claims
that synectics has four main assumptions:
(a)" Creativity is crucial in our daily lives. We use creativity in accomplishing
daily routines. For example, when we are faced with a conflict, we tend to
be creative to find solutions or alternatives to overcome the problem.
Gordons model highlights that ideas can be developed through creativity
where the model looks into increasing problem-solving ability, creative
expression, empathy and insight into social relationships.
(b)" Contrary to the previous belief that creativity is an innate and abstract
feature, Gordon posits that creativity can be described and taught. The
teacher uses techniques incorporating metaphors or similes to promote
creative thinking among the students. The creative output of the students
can be explained and described, hence, creativity can be trained or
inculcated amongst students.
(c)" Creative invention in all domains or disciplines possesses the same
underlying intellectual principles. In other words, to generate elements or
products based on creativity, one experiences similar thought processes
irrespective of being in the arts or science field. Arts and Science domains
are diverse in nature. While the former focuses on aesthetic and personal
based responses, the latter looks into factual content. However, both of
these domains can employ the similar approach. For example, when a
teacher uses metaphor in the teaching of literature, she is conducting a form
of analogous learning. The metaphor is used to compare a certain character
or situation in the literary text. Similarly, in the science based teaching, an
analogy could be used to provide insight on the content. For example the
use of direct analogy to teach effects of deforestation on nature. Teacher can
seek responses from students by getting them to imagine that they are trees
being chopped down. The responses generated by the students can be

linked to effects of deforestations; trees die, trees lack nutrients, earth

becomes exposed to landslides and so on.
(d)" Gordon also emphasises that creativity is not an intensely personal
experience. Creativity can be shared in which an individual or a group of
individuals can produce similar inventions. Gordon believes that
individual and group inventions are produced in a similar manner.
Synectics uses analogy as the main element in making meaningful learning.

Analogy functions by making connections or associations between ideas and
concepts. Joyce (2009) describes synectics as approaching problems by leading
students into an illogical world. This will allow students to invent new ways of
seeing things, expressing themselves and eventually approaching problems.
Synectics makes room for different elements to be brought together in the process
of seeking for new ideas or solutions.
Now let us look at another scenario. Mrs Selvas students have a problem
identifying the structure of the earth. This is what she did in her science class.
Scenario 3
Mrs Selva brought a layered cake to her class and asked her students to look at
it. She explained that the cake was an analogy of the earth. She cuts the cake
into half to reveal the layers of the cake. She explained that the four layers of
the cake correspond to the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core of the earth.
Students took a slice of the cake to examine it and compare it to
representations of the earth in their textbooks.
Based on the scenario above, Mrs Selva used the layered cake (the familiar) as an
analogy to explain the structure of the earth (the new). Gordon (1961) believes
that analogy is a basic tool that enables learners to make connection to facts and
feelings of their experience with the facts that they are just learning. This will
help students to visualise content easier and faster.
The Synectics strategy strongly believes in the importance of creativity.
Joyce (2009) state that the process of synectics is based on a set of assumptions on
the psychology of creativity as shown below.
(a)" We can directly increase the creative capacity of both individuals and
groups by bringing the creative process to consciousness. Teachers should
make students aware that creativity can be learnt and developed.

(b)" Emotional and irrational aspects are highly emphasised leading to new
ideas. It is crucial that the students responses are scrutinised and further
expanded to link to new learning. Teachers can shape the responses to fit
into the learning needs. Students who generate emotional or irrational
responses need to be guided to help them achieve the learning objectives. In
order to do so these emotional and irrational elements must be understood
in order to increase the probability of success in a problem solving
situation.
Therefore, creativity is seen as a conscious process. To make the creative process

work, the link between familiar and leading towards unfamiliar must be
established. Old ideas must be linked to new ideas to enable the students to build
from their prior knowledge and eventually expand their knowledge base.
6.2.1 Types of Synectics

The synectics activities are based on three types of analogies. They are described
as follows:
(a)" Personal analogy

Take a few seconds and try to answer the following question by filling in
the blanks in Table 6.4. Pretend you are a pair of dirty shoes. What are you
thinking?
Table 6.4: Personal analogy
Describes the object by listing its basic Characteristics:

characteristics
Describes the emotions the object might Emotions:
have in a given situation
Describes how someone feels when using Feeling:
the object
Describes what it feels like to be the given Objects feeling:
object
Personal analogy places the person at the centre of the problem to gain a
new perspective. It allows students to expose their feelings when they
become part of the object being compared. Based on the example above,
one may describe the shoes as something useful and strong. The shoes may
feel sad and unhappy due to its condition. This form of emotional
expression allows students to feel empathy towards the object leading to a
solution to the problem. One example of a personal analogy was used by

Albert Einstein. He used these questions to figure out the solution to the
theory of relativity.
How would the world appear if I were to travel on a beam of light?

Would it be possible to travel faster than light?
These questions would sound absurd and illogical at that point of time.
However, Einstein managed to identify a solution to the problem.
Gordon (1961) identified four levels of involvement in personal analogy.

They are:
(i)" First-person descriptor of facts

This is the lowest order of identification where students are asked to
associate themselves as part of an object. Students can only respond to
what they think they feel without empathy because they are detached
from the object.
Example: Pretend you are an umbrella. What are you feeling?

Possible answers: I feel beautiful. I feel useful.
(ii)" First-person identification with emotion

This level allows students to recite common emotions but do not
present new insights. In describing the umbrella, you might say, I
feel hot when walking along the street.
(iii)" Empathetic identification with a living thing

Able to identify emotionally with the subject of the analogy.
Example:
As a giraffe I am very sad. I dont feel beautiful. My neck is too long
and I find it difficult to talk to someone face to face. I wish I had a
shorter neck.
(iv)" Empathetic identification with a non-living object.

The person sees himself as a non-living object and tries to explore the
problem from a sympathetic point of view.
Example:
The students are able to identify emotionally and kinaesthetically with
the subject of the analogy. Based on the same example provided
earlier, one may show more insight into the life, feelings and
dilemmas of the umbrella. For example: It is frustrating. Sometimes I
feel drenched and other times I feel hot. I wish to be kept indoors but
then people may not be able to see the colourful design on me.
(b)" Direct analogy

This form of analogy makes comparison between two objects or concepts. It
is the basic mechanism by which an individual tries to see problems in new
contexts. It is clear and straightforward. There is no self-involvement by the
students.
Example: Compare a chilli to fire. In what ways are they similar or

different?
(c)" Compressed conflict

Compressed conflict is creating a phrase using two words that contradict
each other. The greater the contradiction, the better the students ideas and
solution will be.
Examples: correct mistake, open secret
6.2.2 The Synectics Procedure

The synectics model utilises two strategies in teaching. The first is creating
something new and second making the strange familiar. Now let us look at
each one more closely.
(a)" Creating something new

This strategy focuses on helping students to view their existing problems in
a new light (Joyce, 2009). This strategy utilises the three types of analogy.
This strategy helps students to develop a new understanding. The
procedure of this strategy is elaborated in the following table.
Table 6.5: Creating something new
(1) Description of Present Teacher has students describe situation as they

Condition see it now.
(2) Direct Analogy Teacher suggests direct analogies, select one and
explore (describe) it further.
(3) Personal Analogy Students become the analogy they selected in
phase two.
(4) Compressed Conflict Students take their descriptions from phase two
and three, suggest several compressed conflicts
and choose one.

(5) Direct Analogy Students generate and select another direct

analogy, based on the compressed conflict.
(6) Re-examination of the Teacher has students move back to original task
Original Task or problem and use the last analogy and/or the
entire synectics experience.
An example of how a lesson can be carried out is shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6: How a Lesson can be Carried Out via Creating Something New
Steps Aspect Description

1 Describe the " Begin with a familiar topic.
topic " Have students write a paragraph describing the topic
individually or collaboratively.
" Share descriptions or descriptive words.
2 Create direct " Form a direct analogy between the descriptive words
analogies and an apparently unrelated category.
" Example: Name a machine, plant, food, flower, animal
that reminds you of as many words as possible.
" Generate a list of analogies, be sure to ask for
explanations for analogy.
" Vote on one particular analogy to pursue further.
3 Describe " Instruct students to view reality from the perspective
personal of the metaphorical object that was selected: How
analogies does it feel to be this object?
" List reactions and explain why students experienced
these feelings.
4 Identify " Instruct students to examine the list of descriptive
compressed feelings and put them together as pairs of words that
conflicts seem to fight, conflict or contrast each other.
" Generate a list and have students explain conflicts.
5 Create a " Instruct students to create another direct analogy.
new direct " Describe a machine, plant, food, flower or animal that
analogy represents both words in the conflict.
" Vote on the best analogy.

6 Re-examine " Compare the last analogy with the original topic.
the original " This is the first time the original subject is discussed
topic
" Describe the original topic again in writing.
7 Evaluate " Discuss the experience and the process with the
students.
" Ask students to explain why certain images were
very powerful to them and why others were not.
" Ask students to describe their response to the
process.
Source: coedpages.uncc.edu/theafner/.../synectics.htm - United States
(b)" Making the strange familiar

This strategy allows students to understand and internalise new or difficult
material. Metaphors are used in this strategy to analyse concepts. Look at
Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Making the Strange Familiar
(1) Substantive Input Teacher provides information on new topic.

(2) Direct Analogy Teacher suggests direct analogy and asks students to
describe the analogy.
(3) Personal Analogy Teacher has students become the direct analogy.
(4) Comparing Students identify and explain the points of similarity
Analogies between the new material and the direct analogy.
(5) Explaining Students explain where the analogy does not fit.
Differences
(6) Exploration Students re-explore the original topic on its own
terms.
(7) Generating Students provide their own direct analogy and
Analogy explore the similarities and differences.

An example of how a lesson can be carried out is shown below.
Table 6.8: How a Lesson can be Carried Out in Making the Strange Familiar
Steps Aspect Description

1 Provide " Select new material to be learned.
information " Provide factual information for the topic.
2 Present the " Present analogies with the subject or topic.
analogy
3 Use personal " Ask students to imagine what it feels like to be the
analogy to analogy.
create " List feelings.
compressed
conflicts " Pair words to create conflicts or contrasts.
" Select one pair for further discussion.
4 Compare the " Discuss how the topic or subject represents both
compressed parts of the conflict or contrast.
conflict with the " Describe feelings on each side of conflict.
subject
5 Identify " Identify differences between the subject or topic
differences and the analogy.
6 Re-examine the " Ask students to write about, or discuss original
original subject topic or subject using images and ideas presented
in the analogy.
7 Create new " Encourage students to create their own analogies
direct analogies for the subject or topic.
" Select analogies that are far removed from the
topic or subject.
8 Evaluate " Discuss the process with the students.
" Have students describe what parts of the activity
were helpful to their thinking.


Synectic Model
According to Joyce (2009) the synectic presents the following instructional and
nurturant effects:
(a)" Instructional:
(i)" Group cohesion and productivity the synectics-based activities
create the social environment that provides cohesive opportunities to
learners. Teachers can employ the model to promote group
collaboration and synergy within the classroom. The discussion that
ensues within the activity creates opportunity for the members to
share ideas and enhance their creative and critical thinking skills.
(ii)" Tools for metaphoric thinking Teacher utilises a variety of teaching
techniques that include tools for metaphoric thinking. Teaching
becomes more interesting and challenging when the teacher uses the
metaphors and analogies to explore the subject matter.
(iii)" Problem-solving capacity the teaching scenario implements problem
solving techniques to develop and enhance students ability to seek
solutions to a problem. The phases in the synectics model involve the
use of analogies. The model provides opportunity for the students to
seek similarities or differences between the old and new knowledge
as well as assess the appropriateness of the analogy.
(b)" Nurturant:
(i)" Self-esteem The increased awareness of their creativity will
eventually increase students self-esteem. They will feel more
involved in the learning process as their interpretations and views of
their perspectives in the subject matter is taken into account.
(ii)" Adventurousness The learning becomes exploratory in nature.
Students will not be restricted to a rigid form of thinking or
responding. When examining the subject matter, the students will be
able to think in a divergent manner making learning more exciting
and meaningful.
(iii)" Achievement of curricular content The students will experience
meaningful learning and will be able to grasp the content of the
subject matter. The diverse approaches in learning which includes
students prior knowledge and interpretation of the new knowledge
will help create effective learning towards the achievement of the
curricular content.
The inquiry training model brings students directly into the scientific process.
It enhances students understanding of science, productivity in creative

thinking and skills for obtaining and analysing information.
It creates independence or autonomy in learning.
Creativity can be enhanced through synectics.
Synectics can be used as a tool in creative writing, solving problems and

coming up with new innovation (creating a product/design) among others.
The teacher plays an important role in scaffolding the students when

applying synectics in the classroom.
Analogy Inquiry
Discovery Investigation
Engagement Scaffolding
Explanation Synectics
Exploration
Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Scotter, P. V., Powell, J. C., Westbrook,
A., & Landes, N. (2006). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins,
effectiveness, and applications. Colorado Springs, CO: BSCS.
Caruso, S. (2011). The synectics approach to creative writing. Retrieved from

http://www.eadulteducation.org/adult-learning/the-synectics-approach-
to-creative-thinking/
Pearson Education, Inc.

Gordon, W. J. J. (1961). Synectics. The development of creative capacity. New York,

NY: Harper & Row.
National Research Council. (2002). Inquiry and the National Science Education
Standards: A Guide for teaching and learning. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press
Schwab, J. (1965). Biological sciences curriculum study: Biology teachers

handbook. New York, NY: Wiley.
Suchman, R. J. (1962). The elementary school training program in scientific

inquiry. Report to the U.S. Office of Education, Project Title VII. Urbana:
University of Illinois.
Vanaja Digumarti Bhaskaran Rao. (2003). Inquiry training model. New Delhi,
India: Discovery Publishing House.
Retrieved from http://www.coedpages.uncc.edu/theafner/.../synectics.htm -

United States

Topic Behavioural
7 Learning:
The Direct
Instruction
Model and
the Simulation
Model
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Elaborate key components and principles related to direct
instruction and simulation models;
2." Discuss the phases involved in direct instruction and simulation;
and
3." Examine the instructional and nurturant effects in both direct
instruction and simulation models.
" INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will explore two models pertaining to the behavioural family.
The models are direct instruction and simulation. Each model will be elaborated
based on its specific features, phases and essential components. In addition, you
will also be shown some teaching-learning activities using the stipulated models.

TOPIC 7 BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING: THE DIRECT INSTRUCTION MODEL 123
AND THE SIMULATION MODEL
Other than that you will be provided with a brief background on behavioural
models as well as elaboration on the main principles pertaining to the models.
7.1 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIOURAL MODELS OF

LEARNING
Behavioural Learning models originated from classical conditioning of Pavlov
(1927) and Thorndike (1911, 1913) on reward learning. Pavlovs experiment
involved food, a dog and a bell. The experiment highlighted the significance of
conditioning in which a response is generated by providing an appropriate
stimulus.
Figure 7.1: Stimulus response theory
At the pre-conditioning stage, the dog did not react to the ringing of the bell.
However placing the food in front of the dog caused the dog to salivate.

124 TOPIC 7 BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING: THE DIRECT INSTRUCTION MODEL
During the conditioning stage, the bell was rung a few times before the dog was
given the food. After conditioning, the dog was able to salivate merely by
listening to the bell. This showed that the bell functioned as a substitute stimulus
in replacement of the food. The dog associated the bell to food and thus
responded to the substitute stimulus (the bell) based on the conditioning process.
Thorndike further explored the concept of connectionism, which stresses on the

learning based on connection between stimulus and response. Thorndike
illustrated the concept using the following laws: the law of effect, the law of
exercise and the law of readiness. The law of effect explores negative and positive
reinforcements in making sure the desired response is generated. The law of
exercise works on the idea that the more stimulus is provided, the more
responses are generated. As such, it is important that the stimulus provided is
adequate to produce the required or anticipated response. However, Thorndike
through his research also discovered that stimulus-response alone would not be
able to yield the desired effect without the element of feedback. Feedback helps
to reinforce the response and enhance performance.
The law of readiness involves the ability of the physiological (nervous system)
aspect to react and respond accordingly to the stimulus-response patterns. The
readiness helps in forming patterns of behaviour (Saettler, 1990).
Based on the above contributions by the proponents of behavioural theory,

among others, more researchers explored the dimensions of behaviourism as a
learning theory.
Skinner was one of the researchers who worked on what was called the operant
conditioning mechanism. The mechanism looks into reinforcement /reward
structures to reinforce expected behaviour. The structures fall into the following
categories:
(a)" Positive reinforcements: When the expected responses are rewarded, there
is a strong possibility of the responses to be repeated.
For example, when a student is praised for his work, the student will most
likely produce a similar work performance in future.
(b)" Negative reinforcement: It involves the removal of a negative condition in

order to strengthen the behaviour.
For example, a student is not given homework as he had performed well in

his class discussions. The student views the homework as a negative aspect
and in order to make sure he does not get extra work (homework) he

presents the expected behaviour (active class participation). Wolfgang

(2001) suggests that negative reinforcements are used sparingly in the
classroom as their effects are short term based.
(c)" Extinction or Non-Reinforcement: When a particular response is not given

attention or reinforced, it is hoped the negative behaviour can be
eradicated.
One example would be when the teacher ignores a student for

misbehaviour with the hope that the student will eventually stop
distracting the class.
(d)" Punishment: When a particular reward or benefit is removed to weaken the

behaviour.
For example, when the students come late for class, they are sent for
detention class, resulting them to lose their break time.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Consider the following example and determine whether it is an example
of negative reinforcement or punishment:
Rahoul did not complete his homework. As a result, the teacher told
him to write an essay on merits of working hard. Rahoul also had to
complete the homework and submit to the teacher.
Self-Check 7.1 clearly indicates a punishment as Rahoul had not performed the
expected behaviour (completing his homework). Hence, he was punished where
he was given extra work (writing an essay), in addition to completing his
homework.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Discuss examples of negative reinforcements that have been carried out
in a classroom. Share ideas on how significant these negative
reinforcements are in developing behaviour modifications.

7.2 PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

According to Joyce (2009), the behavioural theory highlights four main
principles: behaviour as an observable, identifiable behaviour; maladaptive
behaviours are acquired; behavioural goals are specific, discrete and
individualised; and behavioural theory focuses on the here-and-now.
(a)" Behaviour as an observable, identifiable behaviour

Behaviour theory stresses on behaviour being observable that one could
identify and explain the behaviour in an explicit manner. The theory
believes that when one is provided with the right condition and adequate
time, one can learn the right behaviour or unlearn the undesired behaviour.
The role of stimulus is pivotal in ensuring the desired outcome. The
theorists believe that this approach involves a continuous and deliberate
study of the learners as well as careful planning of learning environment,
choice of stimulus and expected responses as well as constant modification
or revisit of students responses and reactions to the stimulus.
(b)" Maladaptive behaviours are acquired

Behavioural theory focuses on behaviour modifications. It is common that
throughout learning, students tend to develop certain aversion to a
particular learning experience. These aversions can impede students
progression in learning. For example, if the child has an aversion or
maladaptive behaviour towards Mathematics, the child will tune off
towards learning the subject. It takes time to eradicate the maladaptive
behaviour but most importantly one should not ignore the behaviour. The
teacher would need to pay attention to these aversions so that the learners
would be able to overcome the learning obstacles to progress to the next
stage in learning.
(c)" Behavioural goals are specific, discrete and individualised

Learning goals play an important part in developing positive behaviour.
The behavioural goals must be specific to enable the teacher to plan, design
appropriate instructional materials to meet the intended learning outcomes.
The goals should be discrete in nature to ensure that the behaviour
modifications are made on the particular learning response. If the goals are
connected, it makes the teaching and learning complicated. The teacher
would not be able to identify which aspect of learning that is needed to be
identified in order to generate the right learning response or behaviour.
Each individual is unique. One stimulus given to two individuals will

generate different or similar responses. This is because each individual

possesses different personality traits that respond or react differently to a

stimulus. Hence, it is crucial that the procedures encouraging positive
behaviours must be catered or customised to the specific individual.
However, group training can be made possible when the learning

procedures have taken on a self-paced mode. Each member in the group
can proceed and progress according to his or her pace based on the specific
learning goals and tasks indicated in the procedure.
(d)" Behavioural theory focuses on the here-and-now

Past behaviours or performances have no or little impact. The behaviourists
believe that the focus is on attending to learning behaviour at present, not
stressing on causal factors or variables, which may have caused the learner
to experience failure in learning. The behavioural theory looks at behaviour
modification with a positive view where past failures or mistakes are not
highlighted. The aim is to generate good behaviour through careful
planning and implementation of specialised and individualised learning
procedure.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Discuss the four principles of behavioural theory as stated and suggest
how teachers can create a conducive learning climate for their students.
7.3 OVERVIEW OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION

According to Joyce (2009), direct instruction plays a limited but important role in
the comprehensive educational programme. Critics further claim that direct
instruction should be used with caution, in terms of frequency and manner of
use. The two major goals, as stipulated by Joyce (2009), of direct instruction are
the maximisation of student learning time and the development of independence
in seeking educational goals.
7.3.1 Key Concepts in Direct Instruction

According to Barak Rosenshine (1979), direct instruction has the following
characteristics: an academic focus, a teacher-centred focus, little student choice of
activity, use of large groups instead of small groups for instruction and use of
factual questions and controlled practice in instruction.

(a)" Academic focus here means that the learner only focuses on completing the
assigned academic tasks. Teacher solely prepares or uses learning materials
that would directly help the learner complete the task.
(b)" A teacher-centred focus highlights the importance of the teacher as the

main agent in teaching-learning process. The teacher sets the learning goals.
She also makes sure that the students are aware of the learning goals.
During the learning process, the teacher actively assesses the students
development. The teacher would provide scaffolding in terms of
demonstration or modelling to assist the students to complete the tasks.
(c)" Since this model uses the teacher centred approach, there is little student
choice of activity. Students merely follow what the teacher has set out for
them to do. The teacher tends to use large groups instead of small groups
for instruction as it helps to optimise academic learning time. Most
importantly, to ensure optimal use of learning time, it would be effective to
place students of the same learning capacity within the same group. In this
way, the teacher is able to focus relevant and appropriate learning tasks for
the students.
(d)" This approach stresses on the use of factual questions. Since the aim is to
maximise learning time, the questions posed by the teacher during the
teaching-learning sessions are directly related to the content or subject
matter. Factual based questions provide a good base for the learners to
obtain and reinforce their understanding on the subject matter.
(e)" Practice is an important component in this approach. The controlled

practice in instruction helps the students learn effectively. The teacher,
provides scaffolding during the initial stages of learning. The controlled
practice during instruction will help the students understand the key ideas.
The controlled practice will cause limited diversion in learning, enabling
the students to maximise their academic learning time by focusing on the
key concepts of the subject matter.
7.4 PRINCIPLES FOR PRACTICE IN DIRECT

INSTRUCTION
Practice in direct instruction model is an important concept. As stated by Joyce
(2009), there are some principles pertaining to designing and implementing
practice. The first principle is designing the levels of assistance or guidance. The
main aim of the direct instruction is to maximise learning time and help learners
become independent learners. The designing and planning of practice must be

carried out meticulously so that the students can produce minimal or no errors
and reach mastery levels.
At the initial stage, when a new skill or concept is introduced, the teacher leads
the students through each step in the learning process to ensure that few errors
are made. After this highly structured practice, the students are allowed to
practise on their own while the teacher monitors them. When the students are
able to practise with accuracy, they are ready for independent practice.
The second principle is based on the length of the practice sessions. The longer
the practice session, the longer it takes for the students to forget what they have
learnt. According to Joyce (2009), the sessions must be intense, highly motivated
to achieve optimal learning outcomes. However, older students can manage
longer sessions supported by clear feedback.
The third principle is the need to monitor the initial stage of practice. The
learners are still in the process of accumulating and assimilating the new
knowledge or learning the skills. Thus students at this level must be guided
carefully by the teacher. The teacher should provide immediate corrective
feedback to help the learners reinforce their learning. The teachers feedback will
also help the students gain confidence and motivate them to progress to the next
level.
The fourth principle looks into the distribution of practice. Regular and
systematic intervals of practice session will help the learners gain and retain
information in an effective manner.
The final principle is the timing factor of the practice sessions. In the initial stage,
the practice session should be close together. This is because the learners are still
getting accustomed to the new learning items. It would be more effective if the
practice sessions are given frequently to help the learners gain knowledge and
confidence in completing the task. At the independent stage, the practice session
should be slightly further apart to enable the teacher to assess the ability of the
learners to work on the task independently.

7.5 THE MODEL OF TEACHING

The following illustrates the direct instruction model:
(a)" Syntax ( Phases)

Direct instruction has five phases of activity: orientation, presentation,
structured practice, guided practice and independent practice. For effective
implementation of the phases, careful and detailed diagnosis of students
knowledge or skills must be carried out to optimise learning.
(b)" Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the involvement
of the teacher is discussed and analysed. In the context of direct instruction,
the teacher is the authoritative figure. The social system is highly structured
whereby each activity is determined by the teacher and conducted based on
the aims of the learning goals. The students do not have any control over
the choice of activities as the teacher sets the teachinglearning goals.
(c)" Teaching role: this aspect looks into the role of the teacher in the teaching-
learning context. As stated by Joyce (2009), effective teachers employ the
following strategies:
(i)" Setting a framework the teacher needs to establish a framework for
the lesson and orient the students to the new materials. An effective
teacher will articulate the aims, purposes and procedures of the lesson
to help the students gain a preliminary idea of new learning idea.
(ii)" Providing clear and lucid explanation the effectiveness of the lesson
relies heavily on the teachers ability to present the content in a clear
and organised manner. According to Rosenshine (1985), effective
teachers spend more time explaining the material than non-effective
teachers.
(iii)" Posing convergent questions as opposed to divergent questions as
stated earlier in this topic, the teacher using the direct instruction
model in the classroom needs to pose questions, which are factual
based. Rosenshine (1985), further claims that effective teachers ask
more questions to check students understanding than less effective
teachers. However, in addition to the quantity of questions, one
should also consider the quality of questions. The teacher should
present questions that are able to assess students level of
comprehension and assist the students to reinforce their learning of
the new material.

(iv)" Giving feedback Feedback is an important element in the teaching-

learning process as it helps the students to assess and reflect their
learning process. Once teacher has posed questions and the students
have responded, the teacher would need to provide feedback. The
feedback given provides the students with valuable input to ensure
that they have achieved the learning outcomes. Feedback can
motivate the students to progress in their learning especially when
they are faced with challenging learning items.
(v)" Provision of learning activities as this model emphasises the
importance of practice, therefore an effective teacher would need to
provide well-designed activities that would provide rich learning
opportunities for the students. The activities must be planned and
implemented in accordance to phases whereby there is a gradual
release of power from the teacher to the student. The activities
designed should take on initially a highly dependent mode where the
teacher fully guides or scaffolds the students. Subsequently, the
activities must move to a more independent level allowing the
students to practise the new input with little or no teacher guidance.
The following table illustrates the phases in direct instruction as mentioned in the
previous section.
Table 7.1: Syntax/Phases in Direct Instruction
Phase 1 Orientation
Phase 2 Presentation
Phase 3 Structured Practice
Phase 4 Guided Practice
Phase 5 Independent Practice
Source: Joyce,Weil & Calhoun (2009)
(a)" The first phase is orientation. The teacher establishes the content, lesson
objectives and procedures of the lesson. The teacher can employ the
following techniques in getting students oriented to the lesson.
(i)" Provide activities that stimulate students prior knowledge;
(ii)" Discuss the lesson objectives with the students. This will help the
students get a clear understanding of the direction of the lesson;
(iii)" Provide clear directions or instructions on how the lesson is to be
conducted. This will enable the students to gain idea on what they are
required to do during the lesson;
(iv)" Explain the learning materials that will be used during the lesson.
This is helpful especially if the students are not familiar with some
learning resources; and
(v)" Present an overview of the lesson. Providing an overview is liken to
giving a map to the students to view the general aspects or areas of
learning. This will further help these students gain a better
perspective on the lesson and heightened their readiness towards
learning the new material.
(b)" The second phase is presentation. In this stage, the teacher explains or
demonstrates the new concepts or skills. This is a pertinent stage as new
learning starts at this point. The teacher must provide clear and explicit
explanation to help the learners gain understanding of the new learning.
Oral and visual forms of the explanation would benefit in this case. At the
initial stage, the learners, for example, could be provided with a visual
representation of the new learning item so that the concepts can be more
explicit and concrete in nature.
According to Rosenshine (1985), to facilitate effective learning, the teacher

must:
(i)" Present materials in small steps so that students can master each new
input gradually. Too much of information provided all at one go can
cause cognitive overload, causing loss of attention and reduction in
learning.
(ii)" Provide many varied examples of new concepts or skills - The
students learn through the examples. It is important that the examples
used convey the key aspects of the learning input and provide a rich
and relevant experience to the learners.
(iii)" Conduct modelling or giving narrated demonstrations of the learning
tasks. Students learn through observations. When the teacher models
or demonstrates the concept or skill, the students gain a better picture
of the concept. This is especially effective when the concepts are
abstract in nature or the skills are too complex.
Apart from providing explanation, the teacher should subsequently check

students understanding of the newly learnt item. This can be carried out
using questions where the teacher can ask students to repeat the key ideas
learnt and recall the steps or procedures in the learning or even recall
information pertaining to item.

(c)" The third phase is the structured practice. The teacher plays a dominant
role here. She provides practice examples guiding the students all the way.
Students usually can work in groups. The teacher provides feedback as the
students explore the examples. Most importantly, the corrective feedback
based on the practice examples is a crucial feature in this phase. The
feedback helps the students reinforce their learning and use the new
knowledge in the subsequent phase.
(d)" The fourth phase is guided practice. The students are given the opportunity
to work on the learning items with some support from the teacher. The
teacher at this stage gets to assess the students ability to perform the
learning tasks. The teacher monitors and guides the students when
necessary.
(e)" The fifth phase is independent practice. The students are independently
working on the learning items. The main aim of this phase is to reinforce
new learning and ensure retention of the knowledge. The students will also
gain fluency in the learning process. The feedback is provided at the end of
completion of particular learning tasks. The teacher provides more than one
learning task at this stage to enable the students to reinforce and retain
knowledge.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Discuss the importance of each stage in developing learners towards

mastery of content and skills.
7.6 INSTRUCTIONAL AND NURTURANT

EFFECTS IN DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The main aim of the direct instruction model is to maximise academic learning
time by getting the students actively engaged in learning in a focused content
area. In doing so, this model believes that through extensive and organised
practice sessions, students will be able to accurately complete the learning tasks
and achieve success in learning.
Based on the above, there are some instructional and nurturant effects derived
from using the model. The effects are as follows:


(i)" Mastery of academic content and skills the initial process of learning
itself begins with focusing on academic content. As such, the learners
are constantly guided on achieving the learning goals. The
differentiated levels of practices; guided to independent levels further
help these students to gain their mastery of content and skills.
(ii)" Student motivation feedback is provided at every stage of the lesson.
This is to help the students reflect on their learning process as well as
enhance their motivation. When the teacher provides positive feedback,
students become motivated and engaged in the learning process.
(iii)" Self-paced ability the practice examples sessions are self-paced and
based on the mastery levels. By participating in the practice sessions,
the students are trained to work progressively and develop
academically in a systematic and organised manner.
(b)" Nurturant Effects

Self-esteem this model promotes high self-esteem in students. Students,
once they have achieved the learning goals, would possess the mastery of
skills or content. This will indeed increase their self-esteem as they feel
empowered with a sense of accomplishment.
ACTIVITY 7.4
The sample lesson plan below illustrates teaching the topic Telling
Time using the direct instruction model. Identify the instructional and
nurturant effects derived from the lesson. Discuss and share your ideas
with your peers.
Lesson Plan: Telling Time
Objective
Students will be able to tell time to the hour, half hour and quarter
hour using analogue clocks.
Standard
State Mathematics Standard. Measurement: The student will tell time
to the nearest five-minute interval and to the nearest minute using
analogue and digital clocks.

Procedures
Clarify Goals and Establish Set

Tell students that they will be working on telling time. Ask if they know
how time is measured (years, months, hours, minutes etc.). Tell
students today you will learn to tell time in minutes and hours.
Demonstration
1." Hold up a clock face. Tell students that in order to tell time they
must understand the parts of a clock. Ask students which hand
shows the hour (short). The short hand moves around the clock in
how many hours? Move the short hand one hour at a time while
students count. Ask how many times the short hand goes around
the clock in one day (twice because there are 24 hours in a day).
Move the hands around the clock twice illustrating day and night.
Ask which hand shows the minutes. Ask how many minutes are
in an hour (60). Ask how long it takes for the short hand to move
from one number to the next (60 minutes, 1 hour). Illustrate and
count as necessary for understanding.
2." On the board, draw two clock faces. Divide one clock into two
equal sections. Divide the other into four equal sections. Guide
students to understand that each of the two sections is half an
hour. Ask how minutes are in a half an hour (30, which is 1/2 of
60). Point out that the half-hour can be referred to in more than
one way. Place the hands on the clock face to 1:30. 1:30 can be
called one-thirty, half past one, or 30 minutes past one. Write the
terms on the board.
Repeat with quarter hours. Show 1:15 on the clock face. 1:15 can
be referred to as one-forty-five, quarter past one, or 15 minutes
past one. Show 1:45 on the clock face. Ask students to give several
ways to refer to 1:45. Tell students that 1:45 can also be referred to
as 15 minutes to two or a quarter to two. Explain the difference
between "past" (after) and "to" (before).

Guided Practice, Check for Understanding and Provide Feedback
1." Show a variety of times on the clock face (hours, half-hours and
quarter-hours) and ask students to give the time in several different
ways.
2." Ask students for times when they usually do things such as wake
up, leave for school, do their homework, eat meals, go to bed. Write
the times and activity on the board (keep them to whole, half and
quarter hours). Have a student come up and show the time on the
clock face.
3." What time am I? Have a student come up, whisper a time to the
teacher, then illustrate the time using their arms as the long and
short hand; other students must tell the time being illustrated. Check
for understanding and provide feedback and clarification as needed.
4." Give the group a story problem to apply what they have learned.
For example:
Spongebob and Patrick began fishing for jellyfish at 3:00. They

fished until 3:15. They rested for 15 minutes, then fished for 15 more
minutes before going home. What time did the clock show when
they went home? Illustrate using the clock face if necessary.
Check for Understanding and Provide Feedback

Give students the Telling Time worksheets. One group of exercises has
clocks with hands and students must write the time. Another has the
clock and time and students must draw the hands. There are also two or
three story problems. Students work independently on the worksheet
while the teacher checks student work and gives feedback as needed.
Extended Practice
Tell students to finish their Telling Time Worksheets for homework. Ask
students what they learned today (telling time by the hour, half hour and
quarter hour). Tell them that tomorrow they will tell time in minutes and
in 5-minute intervals, and learn to figure out how much time has
"elapsed" (gone by, passed).

Assessment
The worksheets serve as the assessment.
Give story problems with differentiated levels of difficulty.
Pair students who are having difficulty with students who have
reached understanding.
Work individually with students who are having difficulty
understanding using the clock face to illustrate.
Source: Adapted from a lesson plan by Molly B. F. Walls, George Mason University,
Fairfax, VA/Randolph Elementary School, Arlington, VA, 2002.

SELF-CHECK 7.2
1." What are the phases involved in the direct instruction model?
2." Discuss the significance of each phase in optimising the learners

academic learning time
7.7 OVERVIEW OF SIMULATION

Simulation refers to playing the roles of persons engaged in real life pursuits in
the classroom. The simulations should be as realistic as possible to help the
students develop the skills and concepts necessary for the performance of a
specified area. Students through the simulation also learn the consequences of
their actions or errors. They will become more aware of the actual results in real
life, hence making them more knowledgeable and skilled in managing the
specified area of study.
7.7.1 Model of Teaching

The following illustrates the key areas pertaining to the model of teaching.

There are four phases in this model. The first phase is orientation. Students
are presented with a broad topic on the simulation and the concepts that
need to be incorporated into the simulation activity. The second phase
involves the preparation of the students in the simulation activity. The
students are given adequate training to ensure they understand the rules
and procedures of the activity. The third phase deals with the simulation
operation where the learners experience the simulation and gather feedback
as well as self-assess their performance. The fourth phase is the participant
debriefing. This is an important phase as it explores the participants
learning experiences and obtains feedback from the participants regarding
the effectiveness of the simulation activity in enhancing their learning.
(b)" Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby it
explores the relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the
involvement of the teacher. The teachers roles are as follows:

(i)" To explain the teacher needs to explain the rules and procedures to
make sure that the learners are able to follow the simulation activity
in a systematic and organised manner. This is an important learning
feature as in real life, rules are made to facilitate the implementation
of a process.
(ii)" To referee since simulation is a rule-driven activity, the teacher
would need to act as a referee to ensure the participants follow the
procedure. In addition, the teacher should also monitor and control
learner participation to achieve the intended learning goals. For
example, before the start of the simulation, teacher can assign learners
in teams to maximise and optimise their potentials. This again is
helping the learner to relate to real life situations where one needs to
work in groups or teams and not individually.
(iii)" To coach the simulation activity is considered as practice sessions to
help the learners develop their content knowledge or skills. It is
crucial for the teacher to coach and guide the students, where
possible, in achieving their learning goals. However caution must be
made not to take the role too seriously as the students are allowed to
make mistakes. The key point here is that the participants learn from
their mistakes. This can be accomplished through the teachers
feedback and guidance.
(c)" Support System

The support system involves the learning materials or resources used in the
simulation activity. Most of these simulations are computer-based
simulations. However there are many other resources, namely in social
studies domain, which can be used to project or stimulate real life
situations.
The Table 7.2 illustrates the phases in simulation
Table 7.2: Syntax/Phases in Simulation
Phase One Orientation

Phase Two Participant Training
Phase Three Simulation Operations
Phase Four Participant Debriefing
Source: Joyce, Weil & Calhoun (2009)
In the first phase, the teacher introduces the topic by presenting the key concepts
that will be incorporated in the simulation activity. The teacher will proceed to

explain the simulation as well as the gaming procedure. Basically at this stage the
teacher is providing students with a brief overview of the simulation activity.
The second phase involves participant training. The participants or the students
take on an active role. Prior to participation in the activity, the students are
presented with the rules, roles procedures, scoring, types of decision as well as
activity goals so that the learner can engage effectively in the simulation activity.
The teacher assigns roles to the participants or students. The students participate
in abbreviated practice sessions.
In the third phase, the simulation operations are conducted. During the activity,
the teacher can provide feedback to help the learners understand the mechanism
of the simulation. There are opportunities for students to clarify their
misconceptions and evaluate their performances.
In the final phase, participants or learners are debriefed. During the debriefing,
the teacher can focus on the following:
(a)" Describing events and learners perceptions and reactions;
(b)" Analysing the process;
(c)" Comparing the simulation to the real world; and
(d)" Appraising and redesigning the simulation.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Elaborate how the fourth phase in simulation can help learners.
7.8 INSTRUCTIONAL AND NURTURANT

EFFECTS
The simulation model provides many benefits to learners. The following presents
the instructional and nurturant effects as stated by Joyce (2009):

(i)" Self-teaching capacity simulation activity provides opportunity for
the learners to self-learn. The experiences gained through the activity
help the learners to identify their mistakes or shortcomings. For
example, when the student is experiencing a simulated driving
experience, the turns of the wheel and the consequences of the
movements provide input to the learner. This learning experience

makes the student realise his actions and thus provokes the student to
reflect and assess his actions. This becomes a learning point.
(ii)" Curricular knowledge and skills the simulation activity attends to
the focussed content and skills. Hence, by completing the simulation
activities, the students will gain knowledge and master the skills.
(iii)" Self-confidence as learners the simulation activity allows the
learners to experience learning in an independent manner. The
teacher guides when necessary. The learners, through the experience
of completing the simulations, become more confident when they are
able to master the content or the skills.
(b)" Nurturant Effects

(i)" Responsiveness to feedback The simulation activity is based on
actions and responses. As such, the action made and reactions to the
actions are learning opportunities. The participant becomes more
responsive to the feedback given by the simulator or the teacher.
(ii)" Independence as learners the simulation model gives accountability
to the students to experience learning through trial and error. As
such, the students feels empowered and there is a certain degree of
independence generated during these simulation activities.
(iii)" Sensitivity to cause-effect relationships The main aim of the
simulation model is to raise students awareness of real-life
endeavours. Hence, the simulation activity develops the students
sensitivity towards cause and effect relationships. Students become
more alert of the repercussions of their actions in their daily life. For
example in the simulation activity, they are required to drive a car on
a busy street. By attending to the activity, students will become more
aware of the consequences of driving too fast or not complying to the
traffic rules. The simulation activity will make these students realise
the importance of road safety rules.

ACTIVITY 7.5
Elaborate with specific examples how instructional and nurturant effects
can be created using the simulation model.
ACTIVITY 7.6
Identify and elaborate on the key principles involved in planning and
implementing the simulation model.
Direct instruction model involves meticulous and careful planning as its aims
are to maximise academic learning time.
The practice sessions in direct instruction model must be carefully designed

to meet the learning outcomes. The practice sessions are designed according
to levels of guidance ranging from guided to independent levels.
The principles in designing and implementing practice sessions are crucial in

ensuring optimal learning.
Simulations provide opportunities for learners to anticipate real life

endeavours. This pseudo experience will create awareness on types of
responses and reactions.
The teacher, using the simulation model in the classroom has to guide and
help the learners develop their skills in terms of exploring their responses.
Academic learning time Positive reinforcement

Direct instruction Punishments
Guided practice Reward structures
Negative reinforcement Simulation

Pearson Education, Inc.
Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:

Methods and models for todays teachers. New York, NY: John Wiley and
Sons.
Rosenshin, B. V. (1979) Content.., Time and Direct Instruction. In P. L Peterson

and H. J. Walberg, (ed.). Research on teaching: Concepts, findings and
implications. Mc Cutchan, Berkeley, CA.

Topic Mastery
8 Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Elaborate on the concepts in mastery learning;
2." Explain the significance of Individually Prescribed Instruction
(IPI) as a mastery learning model; and
3." Describe the characteristics of the objectives in the IPI model.
" INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will examine and explore the key concepts pertaining to
mastery learning. Mastery learning focuses on individualised instruction and
learner centred techniques. As such, there is a special emphasis on individually
prescribed instruction (IPI) that promotes individualised instruction and caters to
the needs of the students in accordance with mastery learning. The IPI is a
structured and systematic programme catered specifically to meet the individual
requirements of the students.
8.1 PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALE OF

MASTERY LEARNING
The philosophy of mastery learning is based on a set of teaching-learning beliefs.
There are two assumptions in the belief system:
(a)" Virtually all students can learn all important academic content to a level of
excellence; and
(b)" The primary function of schools is to define learning objectives and to help
all students to achieve them.

TOPIC 8 MASTERY LEARNING 145
Benjamin Bloom (1976), the main developer of the theory and practice of mastery
learning explains the stages pertaining to the belief system in mastery learning.
The first stage, according to him, assumes that some students are good learners.
They are able to cover a substantial amount of content matter and complex
material as compared to poor learners. The belief on the differences between
good and poor learners results in a formation of an educational system that
explores ways to help these two diverse groups of learners.
The second stage, Bloom describes, is one where he believes that all students can
eventually learn and retain equally complex or difficult material, but that some
will learn much faster than others will. This belief would suggest an educational
system where the important content is taught to everyone (with some taking
longer than others to learn), and then the faster learners get lots of enrichment.
The final aspect in the set of his beliefs is that the favourable learning conditions
can expedite the learning rate amongst the students. Bloom states most students
become very similar with regards to learning ability, rate of learning, and
motivation for further learning -- when provided with the favourable learning
conditions. Hence, from the above explanation, one could conclude that the two
assumptions in the belief system form the basis of mastery learning. All students
possess equal capacity to achieve the expected learning outcomes. Most
importantly would be the implementation of the learning objectives in enabling
the students to reach their capacity.
Adapted from http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-

hopkins-center-for-prevention-and-early-intervention/publications/mlm.pdf
This following section will explore IPI (Individualised Prescribed Instruction)

which will illustrate the importance of learning objectives as well as describe the
steps in enabling mastery learning to take place.
8.2 DEVELOPMENT OF MASTERY LEARNING

To trace the development of mastery learning, one would need to examine the
work of John B. Carroll (1963) in which he highlighted the importance of aptitude
in influencing students learning rate. He believed that every child had the
potential to learn. The only difference would be the time taken to master the
learning item. Carroll (1971) further elaborated on the meaning of aptitude.
Aptitude is a trait related to students academic performance. Students with good
aptitude will possess good learning capacity and eventually perform well in their
studies.

146 TOPIC 8 MASTERY LEARNING
There is a stark contract between the above teaching-learning scenario and the
conventional teaching-learning climate whereby in the latter, the teachers set out
one learning task to be completed by all students within a stipulated item period.
The different learning abilities of the students are not taken into consideration,
resulting in little learning especially from students who are unable to complete
the task on time.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Aptitude is key factor in learning. It can enhance or impede learning.

Discuss the above concerning difficult learners in a classroom.
To optimise learning time, Carroll developed the following formula:

LR= (time spent on learning I time needed to learn)
LR stands for learning rate that represents the time taken by the learner to learn a
particular learning item. Carroll identified two factors that could affect the
learning rate: perseverance of students and opportunity to learn.
The first factor, perseverance of the student, is dependent on the students ability
and inclination towards learning itself. If the student is interested and motivated
then he would be able to persevere towards the learning goals. The second factor,
opportunity to learn, is very much dependent on the access to learning and time
allocated to learn.
According to Carrolls stance, everyone has the capacity to learn. The only
difference would be the time taken to master the learning item. Hence, aptitude
is an important component in stabling learning. However, one needs to take into
consideration the importance of learning goals, use of appropriate materials and
most importantly sufficient time.
There are a few key areas in instruction that one needs to consider when aptitude
is used as a guide to design and implement teaching:
(a)" Vary styles of instructions aptitude focuses on how to implement teaching

in an effective manner. Each learner responds to learning in a different
manner. To achieve maximum results in learning, teachers would need to
implement teaching strategies that cater to the needs of the students.
However, Block (1977) states that the most important factor to consider is
the use of a variety of effective ways to learn.

(b)" Quality of instruction the effectiveness of learning would very much

depend of the quality of instructions. Teachers who are able to disseminate
knowledge in a clear and lucid manner will help learners achieve the
learning objectives effortlessly.
(c)" Organisation of the curriculum to ensure maximum learning output,

teachers must be able to structure and organise the curriculum to meet the
requirements of the learning objectives. This includes classroom
management issues such as student grouping, seating arrangements and
use of relevant and appropriate learning resources.
Bloom (1976) explored further the two factors stated above and developed a
specific strategy to guide teachers to generate and implement differentiated
instruction for students. This strategy is labelled as mastery learning.
This strategy requires the teacher to organise concepts and skills into
instructional units. Formative assessments are also designed and implemented at
the end of each unit to help provide feedback to students and teachers on the
learning progress of each student.
The formative test helps learners identify their weaknesses or areas that need
improvements. As for the teachers,these diagnostic test data will be used to
generate corrective actions to help the learners to work on areas that they have
not mastered yet. A point to note here is that the corrective actions, which are in
the form of learning activities must be designed to cater to the individual
learning needs of the students.
Bloom also suggests that the subsequent formative assessments are provided to
ensure that the students thoroughly master the skills or content. The first
assessment task functionis to help and guide the students to practise and master
the skills or content. The second test is used to help verify if the corrective actions
are significant in improving the students learning competency. In addition, it
provides a motivational element as the students have more opportunities to
practice on the learning items.

Figure 8.1: Mastery Learning Instructional Process

Source: Guskey (2005)
Figure 8.1 illustrates the process in which the individualised learning takes place.
The first formative assessment provides two options: the enrichment activities
and the corrective activities. The enrichment activities help students who have
already mastered the skill to move on to the next level, while the corrective
activities help provide additional support to students who are not able to master
the skill. The corrective activities are conducted at least twice to enable the
students to confidently learn and practise the intended learning items.
In summary, Bloom uses the following principles in designing the instructional

procedures:
(a)" Mastery of the subject is defined by a set of objectives, which are in
accordance to the requirements of the unit or syllabus. This form of
learning is objectives driven to enable the learners as well as the teachers to
be aware of the significance of teaching-learning.
(b)" Learning is conducted in manageable portions. For example, large units are
divided into smaller chunks in which each sub-unit is accompanied with
learning objectives. All these sub-units and the related learning objectives
form the overall unit itself.
(c)" For each learning unit, the appropriate instructional strategy is identified.
The attention rendered on the selection of instructional strategy helps the
teachers conduct the lessons effectively to meet the requirements of the
learning objectives and the needs of the learners.
(d)" Each unit has a brief diagnostic test to provide formative evaluation and
identify learning problems. Students are given the feedback to guide them
to progress in their lesson.

(e)" The diagnostic test results or the data from the formative evaluations will
be used to design and implement supplementary instructions to help
students in need.
(f)" Learners can progress to the next level after they have mastered the present
level. The focus is on the mastery of the level and not the completion of the
level.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1." Discuss what suitable formative assessment tasks can be given to a
group of learners facing a specific learning problem.
2." Define the learning problem and provide relevant examples of the
assessment tasks.
3." Discuss how a teacher can implement the guidelines stated earlier
in a classroom. Provide examples to substantiate your ideas.
8.3 CONCEPTS IN MASTERY LEARNING

The following concepts are crucial in mastery learning and require special
mention:
(a)" Feedback, Correctives and Enrichment

Feedback is an important component in mastery learning. Feedback is used
to diagnose students learning concerns and the same time prescribes
intended learning items for the students to master. However, just providing
feedback alone will not guarantee success in learning. The corrective
activities based on the feedback will offer guidance and support in helping
the students deal with their weakness in the specific learning area. Bloom
(1976) posits the importance of variations in teachers teachings to enable
the students to decrease variations in results.
(i)" Correctives must be qualitatively different from initial teaching.
Merely replicating what was taught earlier will not help the students
master the required skill. The learners should be given additional
materials and more time to explore and learn the material at their own
pace. One of the most effective correctives are activities that allow the
students to use varied learning styles and techniques. Guskey (2001)
suggests that teacher collaboration in producing corrective activities

can help in reducing teacher work overload in preparing the

materials.
(ii)" Corrective activities must be accompanied with enrichment activities.
This is to ensure that the learning needs of students at all levels of
competencies are attended to. The notion of mastery learning is to
guide, motivate and if possible expand the students learning capacity
based on their capacity. As such providing enrichment activities will
provide opportunities for good students to expand their knowledge
base.
(iii)" Feedback, corrective and enrichment activities can be implemented in
many ways. Teachers can use conventional methods, for example, the
paper-pen method by conducting quizzes, essay writing and so on. In
addition, performance-based tasks, skills demonstrations and oral
presentations can be also carried out.
(iv)" To enable optimum learning to occur, it is encouraged that the class be
divided into two separate groups: enrichment and corrective groups.
If possible, one teacher can attend to one group while another teacher
guides and monitors the progress of the other group. In realistic
conditions, this may not be possible. Therefore, having two different
groups based on their competency will help the teacher manage the
class more effectively.
(b)" Instructional Alignment

Instructional Alignment refers to the clarity and consistency in instructional
components. The teaching-learning components are as presented in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Major components in the teachinglearning process
The teacher plays a key figure in ensuring the effectiveness of the process
above. First, the teacher must be able to identify relevant and appropriate
skills or content matter that the students must master. This will then be
presented as learning goals or learning standards. The instruction or the

delivery of content must be clear, organised for the students to learn

effectively. The feedback should be purposeful and significant to help the
students realise their weakness. Teacher should also be able to generate
relevant and suitable corrective activities to overcome students learning
problems. The evaluation of students must be deliberate to provide each
learner the opportunity to maximise learning.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Read the following statement by Bloom (1978). Based on the statement

below, discuss how critical and creative thinking can be promoted in
the classroom using the mastery learning approach.
I find great emphasis on problem solving, applications of principles,

analytical skills and creativity. Such higher mental processes are
emphasised because this type of learning enables the individual to
relate his or her learning to the many problems he or she encounters
in day-to-day living. These abilities are stressed because they are
retained and utilised long after the individual has forgotten the
detailed specifics of the subject matter taught in the schools. These
abilities are regarded as one set of essential characteristics needed to
continue learning and to cope with a rapidly changing world.
8.4 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE AND

PRODUCTIVE LEARNING
Block and his colleagues developed a set of ideas and practices for
individualising instruction. Through their research, they discovered four
important guidelines that can create an effective and productive learning climate.
The guidelines are:
(a)" Variety is not necessary the researchers found that by merely presenting a
wide array of ways to learn will not necessarily help the students. Most
importantly is the use of effective ways of learning. In other words, teachers
must be selective and scrutinise techniques and approaches that will yield
positive results in learning.
(b)" Individualised classroom instruction need not necessarily be individual
based and student paced. The teacher does not necessarily need to provide
individual based instruction to produce results in learning. What are most
crucial are the quality and/or suitability of feedback or corrective activities

to support the instruction. For example, in their study, they found small
group study sessions to be more effective among primary, secondary and
college students. Individual based correctives are more suited for older
students as the younger students have yet to develop autonomy and
responsibility necessary in this form of learning.
(c)" Start small here the researcher suggested for the teachers to start small,
experimenting with small chunks of the content or skills. In this way, the
teacher is able to assess the manageability of the process and explore ways
to optimise the learning process.
(d)" Respect the ecology of the classroom. In the attempt to bring something
new or innovative to the classroom, sometimes one fails to see the
classroom environment. Changes proposed can be more smoothly
implemented if one considers the limitations and possibilities within the
constraints of the classrooms.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Block and his colleagues conducted this study many decades ago. Can
these views be applied in todays classroom? Justify your views.
8.5 INDIVIDUALLY PRESCRIBED INSTRUCTION

The supporters of mastery learning, like Bloom and Block, believe that
modification of group instruction would allow students more time to learn and
receive adequate individual instruction. As such, many modern approaches or
techniques were generated to provide individualised instruction. One example of
the above method is the individually prescribed instruction (IPI), developed by
the Learning Research and Development Centre of the University of Pittsburgh.
According to Scanlon, IPI is not a new set of ideas but a re-examination and
reassembly of many curriculum developments. He further states that IPI is a
vehicle that allows the teacher to monitor each childs progress but more
important it allows each child to monitor his own behaviour in a particular
subject.
Scanlon highlights that the IPI is based on a set of objectives that relate to the
diagnostic instruments, syllabus/curriculum and teaching techniques. The
objectives of IPI are to:

(a)" Allow students to master learning at individual learning rates;

(b)" Ensure active participation during learning;
(c)" Develop and foster self-initiated and self-directed learning;
(d)" Promote student evaluation of progress towards mastery; and
(e)" Provide instructional materials and techniques catered to students needs.
There are some assumptions pertaining to the learning process using IPI.
According to Joyce (2009), the assumptions are as follows:
(a)" The difference in students performance is based on the amount of time
each student takes to practise and master the skill.
(b)" Specific and highly individualised conditions must be planned and
organised so that each student can work in a systematic manner, based on
his pace towards the learning goal.
(c)" Self-learning and self-directed learning can become crucial materials to
promote independent and active learning.
(d)" Each student must be able to master or at least meet the prerequisites of a
specific unit or learning item before proceeding to the next level.
(e)" When the student is able to proceed to the next level, both the teacher and
the student must be aware of the evaluation outcomes. This information
will help in generating individual instructional prescriptions to help the
individual overcome challenges in learning.
(f)" A reduction of unrelated workload can help ease the teachers burden. This
will eventually create productive teachers focused on designing and
implementing individualised instructional materials for the students.
(g)" The student is accountable to conduct his own study plan. However, the
plan must adhere to the learning goals.
(h)" Cooperative and collaborative learning are encouraged among students.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Explore the assumptions stated above. Discuss the possible challenges

faced by teachers when administering IPI.

8.6 OBJECTIVES IN THE IPI

According to Joyce et al. (2009), IPI planners ensure the quality of objectives to
ascertain the success of the programme. Hence, there are a few points to consider
when one develops objectives for the learning process.
(a)" Explicit and observable objectives - the objectives generated must inform
the students exactly what they need to do or perform. The objectives should
consist of terms that are observable or measurable for example; describe,
list, explain and so on.
(b)" The objectives must be grouped into meaningful streams of content. For
instance, in mathematics, the objectives for the topic on numbers should
contain types of numbers (even, odd and so on). However, there may be a
possibility of having objectives sharing two different topics or content
matter. The most important point to note here is that the objectives need to
be linked and are relevant to one another.
(c)" The objectives should be sequenced in a systematic manner, having the
simple objectives first and then followed by the more difficult objectives.
(d)" The objectives for each unit should also provide opportunities for students
to explore the subsections so that they can gradually work on smaller parts
of the whole unit.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1." What are the key concepts in mastery learning?
2." What are the general features of the objectives in the IPI model?
" Aptitude and amount of time are crucial aspects that impact learning.
" Mastery learning involves a detailed and organised learning procedure which
emphasises mastery of skills and achievement of learning objectives
" Feedback and corrective activities are essentials in ensuring an effective and
productive learning climate.

Aptitude Individualised learning

Corrective activities/Correctives Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI)
Enrichment activities Learning rate
Feedback Mastery learning
Formative assessment Objectives
Pearson Education.
Allen D. Warren, Eastern Kentucky University Mastery Learning: A basic

introduction. http://allen.warren.net/
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Guskey, T. R. (2001). Mastery learning. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.),

International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp. 9372-
9377). Oxford, England: Elsevier Science.
Guskey, T. R. (2005). Formative Classroom Assessment and Benjamin S. Bloom:

Theory , Research and Implications. Annual Meeting of American
Educational Research Association (p. 12). Montreal Canada: University of
Kentucky .
Robert G. Scanlon (1968). The expansion of an innovation: Audio-visual

Instruction, 13 (9): 946-48, November.
Block, James. H (1977) Individualised Instruction: A Mastery Learning

Perspective. Educational Leadership, 34 . 337-341.
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-
733.
Carroll, J. B. (1971). Learning from verbal discourse in educational media: A

review of literature. Research Bulletin, 71, 61, Educational Testing Service.
Topic The Personal
9 Family of
Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Identify the foundation of the personal family models;
2." Explore the non-directive teaching model;
3." Point out the characteristics of the non-directive teaching model;
and
4." Discuss the importance of developing positive self-concepts for
conceptual growth.
" INTRODUCTION
The personal family of models is based on the humanistic psychology that
focuses on the learner. This model allows learners to gain self-confidence and a
realistic sense of self by building empathetic reactions to others (Joyce, Weil &
Calhoun, 2009). It allows learners to have the authority in deciding what he or
she will learn and how to learn. Therefore, the teachers see the learners as
partners. According to Devi (2010), this model indicates that academic
achievement can be increased by tending the psyches of the learners.
The main goals of the personal family of models are to:

(a) Increase students' self-worth;
(b) Help students understand themselves more fully;
(c) Help students recognise their emotions and become more aware of the way
emotions effect other aspects of their behaviour;
(d) Help students develop goals for learning;

TOPIC 9 THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS 157
(e) Help students develop plans for increasing their competence,

(f) Increase the students creativity and playfulness; and
(g) Increase the students openness to new experience.
In the following sections, you are going to learn a model introduced under the
personal family of models, which is the nondirective teaching model and aspects
pertaining to developing positive self-concepts.
ACTIVITY 9.1
What do you understand by the term non-directive?
9.1 OVERVIEW OF THE NON-DIRECTIVE

TEACHING MODEL
This section will highlight the non-directive teaching model by focusing on the
ways a teacher could use this model to tap into students learning potential. The
role of a teacher is also clarified to distinguish the teaching and process with
other models of teaching.
9.1.1 The Non-directive Teaching Model

The non-directive teaching model was introduced by Carl Rogers as a form of
therapy in the learning process. It focuses on the need for positive human
relations in the learning process. Now, let us look at Scenario 1.
Scenario 1:
Brad is an 8-year-old pupil who creates problems in the classroom. He has lost
focus and becomes a constant clown in class, being laughed at by other pupils.
Many teachers have complained about Brad who likes to make jokes on
others.The following is the conversation between Brad and his discipline master.
Mr Orlando : Brad, can I speak with you for a while?
Brad : Okay.
Mr Orlando : How are you getting on in class?
Brad : I am doing fine.

158 TOPIC 9 THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS
Mr Orlando : How about the reading class?

Brad : I have given the best but sometimes my friends like to laugh
at me.
Mr Orlando : What did you do to make them laugh?
Brad : I do not know. It is the words I say, I guess.
Mr Orlando : Do you think they are enjoying the joke you make or
otherwise?
Brad : What do you mean?
Mr Orlando : Just because your friends are laughing does not mean that
the joke is funny.
Brad : I should stop making jokes then. But then, I will not have any
friends to talk to. I thought if I make jokes, I will have more
friends.
Mr Orlando : It is fine to make people laugh. Just make sure they are not
making fun of you. Likewise, you should not make fun of
them.
Brad : Now I realise why some of the teachers are not happy with
my jokes.
Mr Orlando : What do you normally joke about?
Brad : Mostly about my friends.
Mr Orlando : Why do you joke about them?
Brad : To have more friends. I thought the more I joke about them,
the more they will like me.
Mr.Orlando : Do you think your friends like to hear those jokes?
Brad : I guess they are angry with me now for making fun of them.
Perhaps I should stop making jokes altogether and focus on
the teacher teaching instead.
Mr Orlando : Do you know that it is possible to make people laugh without
getting into trouble?
Brad : Perhaps I should start answering the questions posed by the
teacher and if I think of something funny about the lesson,
well, I might say it.
Mr Orlando : That is a good idea, Brad.
Based on the scenario above, you will notice that Mr Orlando did not provide
any solution for Brad. The whole interview focuses on Brad and Mr Orlando
merely playing the role of a facilitator. The teacher manages to keep Brads frame
of reference and allows Brad to express his feelings. Besides that, Mr Orlando

also manages to make Brad realise the problems he is facing in class. As you can
see, Mr Orlandos role is that of a facilitator who has a counselling relationship
with his pupil. He constantly guides Brad to explore his problem and to explore
new ideas on how to solve the problem. This is evident when in the end, Brad
comes up with the solution to his problem by focusing on the teachers teaching
and saying something funny about the lesson instead. The relationship between
Mr Orlando and Brad are seen as partners in learning where the teacher is not
being biased or stating his preference in solving the problem. Both the teacher
and the pupil share ideas openly and communicate honestly with each other.
ACTIVITY 9.2
How can one create a partners in learning environment?
9.1.2 Characteristics of Non-directive Teaching Model

There are several characteristics of the non-directive teaching model. They are:
(a)" The teacher shows warmth and responsiveness, expressing genuine interest
in the student and accepting him or her as a person;
(b)" It is characterised by permissiveness in regards to the expression of feeling;
the teacher does not judge or moralise;
(c)" The student is free to express feelings symbolically but is not free to control
the teacher or to carry impulses into actions; and
(d)" The relationship is free from any type of pressure or coercion. The teacher avoids
personal bias or reacting in a personally critical manner to the student.
9.1.3 What are the Roles of the Teacher in this

Model?
Do you know the roles of the teacher in this model? According to Joyce et al.
(2009), the roles of teacher in this model are to do the following:
(a)" See the world as the students see it;
(b)" Create an atmosphere of empathetic communication;
(c)" Mirror students thoughts and feelings;
(d)" Use reflective comments to raise students consciousness of their own
perceptions and feelings, thus helping them to clarify ideas;
(e)" Accept all feelings and thoughts even those that other students may be
afraid of or may view as wrong or perhaps even punishable. Recognition
of both positive and negative feelings are important for emotional
development and positive solutions;
(f)" Act as facilitators; and
(g)" Develop partnership between teacher and student.
As you can see, the teacher plays an important role in making students
understand their own needs and values so that they can learn to direct their own
decisions with regards to their learning. The teacher should respect his/her
students abilities in identifying their own problems and to formulate solutions.
The teacher does not interpret, evaluate or offer advice; instead he/she reflects,
clarifies, accepts and demonstrates understanding (Joyce et al., 2009). Therefore,
this model focuses on facilitative learning. As you can see in the scenario above,
Mr Orlando directs his student to take responsibility of his own problem by
posing questions such as these:
What do you normally joke about?

Why do you joke about them?
Do you think your friends like to hear those jokes?
Mr Orlando successfully developed empathetic communication where he was

able to mirror his students' thoughts and feelings in clarifying their ideas.
Therefore, this model highlights equal partnership between teacher and student.
The teachers goal is aimed at helping students' understand their own needs and
values so that they can effectively direct their own educational decisions.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What are the types of questions you can pose in order to build equal
partnership between teacher and student?
9.1.4 Phases in the Non-directive Teaching Model

There are several phases in the non-directive teaching model. These phases are
important in building equal partnership between the teacher and the student.
Now, let us look at Scenario 2.

Scenario 2:
Ss : Excuse me Mr Singh. Can I have a word with you?
Mr S : Sure, take a seat. What can I do for you?
Ss : I am just upset with my grades for the English paper.
Mr S : Oh, yes. You got an E for this paper. Why are you upset?
Ss : I am not a stupid girl you know. Its just that I could not focus
during the test.
Mr S : Why were you not able to focus? Is something bothering you?
Ss : I could not get enough sleep. That is the reason I lost my focus.
Mr S : Why couldnt you get enough sleep?
Ss : I always worry about my grades and could not concentrate on my
studies. I am not as good as my other friends who score better
grades than me. Maybe, something is wrong with the way I study.
Mr S : When do you normally revise your homework?
Ss : Mostly at night. I get distracted by the loud noises my neighbours
make. My parents cannot help either. They are not good in English
therefore they are not able to guide me.
Mr S : What about your friends? Did you ask for their help?
Ss : I am actually quite shy to ask for their help. I am worried if they
think I am a nerd.
Mr S : Why do you think as such?
Ss : I do not know. Just my feelings.
Mr S : You will never know how they feel unless you try asking them.
Ss : I do not know. I always have a problem starting a conversation. I
would rather keep quiet than make stupid remarks.
Mr S : How would you feel if I pair the students in your class so that you
will end up with someone to work on the next assignment?
Ss : That would be okay I guess.
Mr S : Do you think you will be able to talk to your partner about the
assignment?
Ss : I think I can work on that but promise me that you will not tell
anyone about my problem.

The scenario above illustrates how Mr Singh helped one of his students to
uncover the emotions underlying a problem. This is achieved through the
students expression of his feelings. Mr Singh manages to allow the student to
direct the flow of thoughts and feelings. Joyce et al. (2009) claims that if the
students express themselves freely, the problems and their underlying emotions
will emerge. This process is facilitated by reflecting the students feelings thereby
bringing them into awareness and sharper focus.
There are five phases in the non-directive teaching model that one can follow.
These are shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Phases in the Non-directive Teaching Model
Phase Process Explanation

1 Defining the helping situation Teacher encourages free expression of
feelings
2 Exploring the problem Student is encouraged to define problem.
Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings.
3 Developing insight Student discusses problem.
Teacher supports student.
4 Planning and decision- Student plans initial decision-making.
making Teacher clarifies possible decisions.
5 Integration Student gains further insight and
develops actions that are more positive.
Teacher is supportive.
Action outside the interview Student initiates positive actions
Now let us look into each phase.
(a)" Phase 1
In this phase, the student is allowed the freedom to express herself/himself
freely. In the beginning, the teacher lays out the freedom for the student to
explore feelings, an agreement on the general focus of the interview, an
initial problem statement, some discussion of the relationship if it is on-
going, and the establishment of procedures for meeting. The teacher does
not make interpretation, evaluation or provide advice but he reflects,
clarifies, considers, explains and demonstrates understanding.

(b)" Phase 2
In this phase, the teacher plays an important role in encouraging the
student to express either the negative or the positive feelings. The teacher
should probe further to explore the problem expressed by the student.
What is important is for the teacher to accept the responses provided by the
student.
(c)" Phase 3
This phase allows the student to develop insights of the problem. This is
achieved through discussion of the problem and exploring the feelings of
the student. Here, the teacher further supports the student in developing
insights leading to creating innovative ideas.
(d)" Phase 4
This phase allows the student to move ahead and make decisions on how to
overcome the problem. Here, the teacher merely clarifies the alternatives
but the student makes the final decision.
(e)" Phase 5
In phase 5, the student develops actions that are more positive and plans
more integrated and positive actions to solve the existing problem. Student
will be able to provide a solution and the teacher supports the decision.
9.1.5 Characteristics of an Open Classroom

Siddiqui (2013) identifies several characteristics of an open classroom under the
non-directive teaching model. They are:
(a)" Objectives of school are grounded in the effective development, growth of
students self-concept, and student determination of learning needs;
(b)" Methods of teaching are based on students flexibility of learning and group
work;
(c)" The role of the teacher is more of a facilitator, resource person, guide and
advisor;
(d)" The students determine what is important to learn;
(e)" More emphasis is given to self-evaluation rather than teacher evaluation;
and
(f)" Progress is measured qualitatively rather than quantitatively.

9.1.6 Advantages of Non-directive Teaching Model

There are several advantages of the non-directive teaching model. Among them are:
(a)" Teacher helps students to explore new ideas;
(b)" Students have freedom to make decisions and choices;
(c)" Teacher and student are partners in learning;
(d)" Teacher nurtures and moulds students to be the way they are; and
(e)" Teacher encourages students to think and reflect their uncertain feelings
and become better and be positive.
9.2 OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPING POSITIVE

SELF-CONCEPTS
This section will introduce to you a pertinent concept, which is developing
positive self-concepts, that is related to personal family of models. Developing
positive self-concepts is important in learning as this allows learners to take
responsibility for their own learning. It becomes an integral link to the personal
family as it helps learners to develop and enhance their personal skills.
9.2.1 Developing Positive Self-Concepts

The importance of Developing Positive Self Concepts is based on the results of a
study conducted by Bruce Joyce. This study was carried out on 2,300 teachers,
with the focus on their level of interaction with their environments. The findings
of this study indicated that teachers attitudes could influence climate in the
classrooms. Joyce (2009) states that this aspect focuses on positive self-concepts of
learners based on the following:
(a)" Students are capable of responding to a great variety of teaching and
learning environment;
(b)" Students are able to master skills and strategies as they develop skills in
learning how to learn; and
(c)" The school climate has a strong influence on students performance.
Positive self-concepts highlight that all learners are capable of learning provided
they are given the opportunity and supported by the environment in school and
classroom. One of the factors leading to positive self-concept is states of growth.

9.2.2 States of Growth

States of growth refers to how the environment plays a role in satisfying learners
development. Now let us see how the environment provides opportunity for
educational growth.
Based on Joyces study, the environment plays an important role in developing

positive self-concepts. Active people are said to view the environment as a set of
possibilities for satisfying interaction. They are also seen as proactive. On the
other hand, less active people are less aware of the possibilities while the least
active people expend energy protecting them from what they see as a threatening
or unpleasant environment (Joyce et al., 2009).
The social climate of the workplace also plays an important role towards growth.
A positive social climate with active colleagues is said to promote greater
activity.
Developing positive self-concepts are important and vital in the teaching process.
Teachers should aim towards developing students self-concepts to enhance their
personal growth. Joyce et al. (2009) provided clear distinctions on the personality
types of learners. They are:
(a)" Gourmet Omnivore

The first personality type refers to individuals who not only reach out for
opportunities in their environments but who generate or initiate those
opportunities for themselves and others. They are people who are active
and able to use the environment positively. They are aware of the
possibilities for growth, identify high-probability events and work hard at
squeezing them for their growth potential(Joyce et al., 2009). They are also
capable of initiating ideas, easily adapt and adopt to new form of learning
or changes taking place. They are also capable of balancing their personal
and professional lives. They bring ideas they gain in their personal lives
into the classroom. Students of this nature are active participants and
energetic learners. They will enrich the social environment of the classroom
with their passion and curiosity.
(b)" Passive Consumer

This type of personality is characterised as amiable, conforming and highly
dependent on their immediate social context. Passive consumers are people
who are generally inactive. They are very much dependent on others. If
they are with active consumers, they tend to be active as well. On the other
hand, if they are with passive consumers, they tend to be passive. Students

of this nature will strive in environments that push them to explore and
interact with the surroundings.
(c)" Reticent Consumer

This category involves learners who are reluctant to interact positively with
their cultural environment. They push away opportunities for growth and
are very reluctant people. They reject opportunities for involvement in
decision-making. Students of this nature are likely to withhold from
participating in classroom activities. They have a tendency to blame their
environment the rest of the school depresses them professionally; their
neighbourhood and home depress them personally (Joyce & Calhoun,
2010). Individuals with positive self-concepts are said to evaluate
themselves positively, and are likely to make favourable inferences about
themselves and be accepting of their identity (Judge, Erez and Bono, 1998).
These personalities help teachers to plan and execute a conducive learning
environment to cater to the needs of the different types of learners. Joyce et
al. (2009) strongly feel the need to build a learning community that can
benefit all the different types of personality.
The three personality types discussed above reveal that there will always be a
mix of behaviours in the classroom. How does this impact the teachers ability to
foster positive self-concepts in all students? Joyce et al. (2009) mentions that the
Omnivores are self-actualising, the Passive-Consumers feel competent but
dependent and the Reticent-Consumers feel that they live in a threatening world.
Thus, it would appear that the Omnivores are the only ones who will develop
positive self-concepts.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Describe the three personality types mentioned by Joyce et al. (2009).
In order to build a conducive environment to cater to the needs of varying

behaviours of learners, teachers can develop a learning community that benefits
all personality types. The learning community plays an important role since it
influences the way students feel about themselves and the way they interact and
learn. Therefore, the learning environment should be flexible enough for learners
to foster growth. Among the ways of achieving this are for the teacher to:
(a)" Have high expectations for all students and push all towards excellence;
(b)" Have model activity and openness and encourage students to reach out to
the world;
(c)" Create a cooperative learning environment where students work in groups

to share ideas, discover knowledge, and actively gather and interpret
information;
(d)" Incorporate student interests into learning activities; and
(e)" Provide continuous and positive feedback to students.
Two important developmental theories are closely linked to the development of

states of growth. They are conceptual development and self-concept.
(a)" Conceptual Development

Conceptual development refers to the ways one perceives and describes the
world around them using concepts. Look at the scenario below and
compare traveller A and traveller B who have recently visited a foreign
country together.
Traveller A
Jaimie : How was your trip? Did you enjoy yourself?
A : You are not going to believe the type of people I met there.
Jaimie : What do you mean?
A : It was horrible. The people were unfriendly, the streets
were dirty and the way they prepared their food was...
Traveller B
Jaimie : How was your trip? Did you enjoy yourself?
B : I had a fantastic time over there. The view was beautiful
and the food was rather interesting. I even managed to
learn how to cook a few local dishes.
Traveller A did not enjoy his trip to the foreign country. He could not get
along with the foreign culture and found fault with it. On the other hand,
traveller B enjoyed himself and took the trouble to learn how to cook a few
local dishes. He had wonderful things to say about the country compared to
traveller A. Traveller A has a low conceptual level while traveller B has a
higher conceptual level.
Joyce et al. (2009) claim people characterised under the low conceptual level
are suspicious of the different environment and tend to find fault in it while
the new sights, sounds and smells fascinate those from the high conceptual

level. They are open to new experiences and are capable of dealing with
those experiences, which will lead to their personal growth.
(b)" Self-concept
Self-concept is closely linked to Maslows theory of personal growth. He
believes that self-concepts are accompanied by self-actualising behaviour.
This refers to the capability of a person to interact productively with the
environment. Joyce et al. (2009) believes that strong self-concepts are linked
to self-actualising behaviour. Some of the characteristics of self-
actualisers are:
(i)" Acceptance and Realism
Self-actualised people have realistic perceptions of themselves, others
and the world around them.
(ii)" Problem-centring
Self-actualised individuals are concerned with solving problems
outside of themselves, including helping others and finding solutions
to problems in the external world. These people are often motivated
by a sense of personal responsibility and ethics.
(iii)" Spontaneity
Self-actualised people are spontaneous in their internal thoughts and
outward behaviour. While they can conform to rules and social
expectations, they also tend to be open and unconventional.
(iv)" Autonomy and Solitude
Another characteristic of self-actualised people is the need for
independence and privacy. While they enjoy the company of others,
these individuals need time to focus on developing their own
individual potential.
(v)" Continued Freshness of Appreciation
Self-actualised people tend to view the world with a continual sense
of appreciation, wonder and awe. Even simple experiences continue
to be a source of inspiration and pleasure.
(vi)" Peak Experiences
Individuals who are self-actualised often have what Maslow termed
peak experiences, or moments of intense joy, wonder, awe and
ecstasy. After these experiences, people feel inspired, strengthened,
renewed or transformed.

9.2.3 Self-concept and States of Growth

Developing Positive Self-concept focuses heavily on both self-concept and states
of growth in developing students learning potential. Studies by Joyce et al.
(2009) have indicated the correlation between self-concepts and states of growth.
This is seen as a strong tool to develop a cooperative learning community, which
will allow learners to reach out and learn to the maximum of their capacity.
The need to understand both self-concept and conceptual growth is evident to

allow teachers to find the best possible method of teaching their students. This
will lead teachers to create productive environment and to prevent students from
being deprived of the opportunities to learn.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
How can a teacher decide which method is the best choice for a given
topic?
9.3 CONCLUSION
The personal family of models allows learners to take charge of their own
learning. The activities catered for the learners are student centred. The
opportunity and ability to learn is very much dependent on the learning
community that provides the opportunity for learning to take place. This will
allow learners to be able to acquire a greater range of skills and strategies for
their own personal growth.
" The personal family of models focuses on empathic reactions of learners.
" Learners have the authority to build their own learning.
" Teachers play the role of a facilitator to guide students learning.

" Non-directive teaching model emphasises positive human relations in the

learning process.
" Positive self-concepts are essential in developing the personal growth of a

learner.
Conceptual development Passive consumer

Empathic Personal growth
Facilitator Reticent consumer
Gourmet Omnivore Self-concept
Non-directive teaching States of growth
Pearson Education.
Judge, T. A., Erez, A., Bono, J. E. (1998). The power of being positive: The
relation between positive self-concept and job performance. Human
Performance, 11(2/3), 167-187.
Mujibul Hasan Siddiqui. (2013). Nondirective teaching model: An effective way

of counseling. Gra-Global Research Analysis, 2(4), 51-53.
Devi, K. R. (2010). Chapter 3: Theoretical constructions of models of teaching.

Retrieved from shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/418/8/
08_chapter3.pdf

Topic Assessing
10 Learning
Outcomes
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Explore the types of assessment for each family model;
2." Identify the learning outcomes is;
3." Explain how to assess the learning outcomes based on the
selected teaching models; and
4." Examine key aspects pertaining to designing and implementing
assessment tasks.
" INTRODUCTION
This topic will guide you in exploring the various ways one can assess the
learning outcomes in relation to the different types of teaching models learned in
this course. Two important elements are seen pertinent for evaluation to take
place in the teaching and learning process. They are learning outcomes and
assessment. Learning outcomes refer to the descriptions of what the learner is
expected to learn in a period of learning defined. Assessment is the evaluation of
the learning outcomes. Assessment tasks are developed for various reasons.
Among them are to provide feedback to the learners and to gauge the teaching
process of the teacher. Assessment criteria may be developed from the learning
outcomes or from the assessment tasks. Now let us look at each family of models
mentioned in the earlier topics and examine how one can assess the learning
outcomes in relation to these.

172 TOPIC 10 ASSESSING LEARNING OUTCOMES
10.1 THE INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY

OF MODELS
This family of models focuses on the areas of knowledge and cognitive skills. The
cognitive perspective emphasises meaningful learning which is reflective,
constructive and self-regulated (Dietel, Herman & Knuth, 1991). With the
emergence of globalisation, the learning capacity of learners is highly challenged
and the focus now is on assessing higher-level cognitive skills and information
processing. Bloom et al., and Anderson and Krathwohl have provided some
suggestions on how this can be achieved (as cited in Huitt, 2004).
ACTIVITY 10.1
With reference to Table 10.1, examine the similarities and differences
between Blooms taxonomy and its revised version by Anderson et al.
(2001).
Table 10.1 presents the taxonomies related to the cognitive domain. Blooms
Taxonomy is based on the six levels of processing, understanding as well as
applying knowledge in the learning process. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
further refined the taxonomy based on Blooms levels of cognitive domain. The
levels as stipulated by both versions begin from an elementary level (such as,
knowledge based or mere remembering or retrieval) to more advanced levels
such as evaluating and creating. These taxonomies are relevant to the models of
teaching and learning as they explore the various levels of processing
information.

TOPIC 10 ASSESSING LEARNING OUTCOMES 173
Table 10.1: Taxonomies of the Cognitive Domain
Anderson and Krathwohl's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy 1956
2000
Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving Remembering: Retrieving, recalling or
previously learned material. Examples of verbs recognising knowledge from memory.
that relate to this function are: Remembering is when memory is used
to produce definitions, facts, or lists, or
know define record recite or retrieve material.
identify recall name
relate memorise recognise
list repeat acquire
Comprehension: Grasping or constructing Understanding: Constructing meaning
meaning from material. Examples of verbs that from different types of functions be they
relate to this function are: written or graphic messages, activities like
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
restate identify illustrate summarising, inferring, comparing and
locate discuss interpret explaining.
report describe draw
recognise review represent
explain infer differentiate
express conclude
Application: Using learned material, or Applying: Carrying out or using a

implementing material in new and concrete procedure through executing or
situations. Examples of verbs that relate to this implementing.
function are:
apply organise practice Applying related and refers to situations

relate employ calculate where learned material is used through
develop restructure show products like models, presentations,
translate interpret exhibit interviews or simulations.
use demonstrate dramatise
operate illustrate

Analysis: Breaking down or distinguishing the Analysing: Breaking material or

parts of material into its components so that its concepts into parts, determining how
organisational structure may be better the parts relate or interrelate to one
understood. Examples of verbs that relate to another or to an overall structure or
this function are: purpose. Mental actions included in
this function are differentiating,
analyse differentiate experiment organising and attributing, as well as
compare contrast scrutinise being able to distinguish between the
probe investigate discover components or parts. When one is
inquire detect inspect analysing he/she can illustrate this
examine survey dissect mental function by creating
contrast classify discriminate spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or
categorise deduce separate diagrams or graphic representations.
Synthesis: Forming parts together to create a Evaluating: Making judgments based

coherent or unique new whole. Examples of on criteria and standards through
verbs that relate to this function are: checking and critiquing. Critiques,
recommendations, and reports are
compose plan propose some of the products that can be
produce invent develop created to demonstrate the processes of
design formulate arrange evaluation. In the newer taxonomy,
assemble collect construct evaluation comes before creating as it
create set up organise is often a necessary part of the
prepare generalise originate precursory behaviour before creating
predict document derive something.
modify combine write
tell relate propose
Evaluation: Judging, checking and even Creating: Putting elements together to

critiquing the value of material for a given form a coherent or functional whole;
purpose. Examples of verbs that relate to this reorganising elements into a new pattern
function are: or structure through generating, planning
or producing. Creating requires users to
judge argue validate put parts together in a new way or
assess decide consider synthesize parts into something new and
compare choose appraise different a new form or product. This
evaluate rate value process is the most difficult mental
conclude select criticise function in the new taxonomy.
measure estimate infer
deduce
Source: Anderson et al. (2001)
Table 10.1 exemplifies the use of the taxonomies in enabling teachers or

practitioners to assess learning outcomes in a more organised and systematic
manner.The taxonomies can be incorporated with the models of teaching and
learning and eventually help the teacher to establish congruence between
curriculum, instructional methods and assessment techniques in a particular

learning condition.
The revised taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl (2000), further illustrates the
components of knowledge and cognitive processes of the learners.
According to Krathwohl (2002), the revised taxonomy has four main knowledge
dimensions: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge
and metacognitive knowledge.
(a)" Factual knowledge consists of basic elements that the students must know
in order to understand the learning item. This includes knowledge of
terminology as well as specific details and information related to the
learning item.
(b)" The conceptual knowledge explores the interrelationships between the
basic elements and the overall idea. This includes knowledge of categories,
principles, generalisations, theories and models. Basically, the learner who
is able to achieve conceptual knowledge is able to establish good overall
understanding of the main components pertaining to the learning item. The
learner is also able to link and seek out associations between the key
components resulting in more in-depth understanding of the learning item.
(c)" The procedural knowledge highlights the application of the knowledge
learnt. This is seen through how the learners apply their theoretical
knowledge into practice. This domain examines the knowledge of subject
related skills, use of techniques or methods and appropriate use of
procedures.
(d)" The metacognitive knowledge explores the awareness of learners in terms
of their cognitive abilities. The metacognitive knowledge unravels the
thought processes of the learners during the process of the learning,
resulting in the learner becoming more sensitive to their learning styles,
preferences and inclinations. Through metacognitive knowledge, learners
possess knowledge in terms of using appropriate contextual and
conditional knowledge.
Table 10.2 presents the knowledge dimension based on Krathwohl's (2002)

revised taxonomy.

Table 10.2: The Knowledge Dimension
The knowledge
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Dimension
Factual Knowledge
Conceptual
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
knowledge
Source: Krathwohl (2002)
The earlier taxonomy table can be used to illustrate and categorise the
instructional and teaching-learning activities implemented in the class to meet
the lesson objectives. The taxonomy could also be used to classify assessments
used to evaluate student learning.
Below is an example of how a teacher could use the table above when planning
and implementing a lesson in class.
In Mrs. Wongs history class, her students are required to:

(a)" Identify parts of the Roman town;
(b)" Explain how good roads and better ships help a trader during the Roman
times; and
(c)" Analyse and write a short paragraph about home life during the Roman
times and how it is different from today.

The knowledge
1. Remember 2. Understand 3. Apply 4. Analyse 5. Evaluate 6. Create
Dimension
A." Factual Objective one
Knowledge
B." Conceptual Objective two Objective

Knowledge two
C." Procedural
Knowledge
D." Metacognitive Objective Objective

knowledge three three
The first objective is placed in Cell A1 as it requires the learners to remember

(identify) the parts of the Roman town. It merely refers to the factual knowledge
domain where learners can be assessed on their ability to recall and list down the
parts of the Roman town. As for the second objective, it is placed at Cell B2 as
learners would need to conceptualise the interrelationship between good roads
and better ships in order to develop trade. This objective assesses learners ability
to seek links and explain the impact of trade development. Hence, learners
would need to understand the key concepts (good road, better ships) and analyse
how these concepts help in trade matters.
The third objective looks into metacognitive knowledge where learners would
need to possess the knowledge of home life during the Roman times and analyse
how it is different in todays world.
Now read the scenario of a lesson below and identify the strategies adopted by
the teacher in the classroom. Note the assessment that is incorporated into the
lesson.

CONCEPT ATTAINMENT LESSON PLAN
Subject Area: Mathematics Specific Content: Prime and composite

numbers
Grade Level: 5th Length of Lesson: 35 to 40 minutes
Instructional Objective(s): The learner will state the critical attributes of prime
and composite numbers.
State Content Standard / Benchmark / Grade Level Expectation:The learner

will find the prime factorisation for any number between 1 and 50 and express
in exponential notation.
Prerequisite Knowledge or Behaviours Needed:

Skills: Experience with Concept Attainment
Concepts Basic multiplication and division facts
Prior exposure to prime and composite numbers
Critical attribute
Behaviours: Raising hands to contribute to the lesson
Working with partners and in table groups
Why is the Content of Todays Lesson Relevant for Your Students?

Understanding the distinction between prime and composite numbers
provides the background knowledge for advanced mathematics.
Materials: List of YES/NO examples

YES NO
2" 4
3" 6
4" 8
7" 9
11" 10
12" 12
17" 14
19 15
23
29

Model of Teaching: Concept Attainment
Procedures
Stage One: Presentation of Data and Identification of Concept

1." Get learners to scrutinise the list.
2." Get them to compare and contrast the positive and negative exemplars.
3." Get learners to make notes based on the commonalities within the
positive exemplars.
4." Learners generate and test hypotheses.
5." Learners state the definition according to the essential attributes.
Stage Two: Testing Attainment of Concept

1." Provide more sets of exemplars and get the learners to assess if the
exemplars belong to positive exemplars.
2." Learners share their views and ideas pertaining to the sets of positive
exemplars.
3." Explore their thinking further by asking questions pertaining to what
they find common in the positive exemplars.
4." Proceed with more sets until the learners arrive at a preliminary
agreement on the characteristic or feature of the positive exemplars.
5." Teacher then provides the concept and discusses the concept with the
learners.
Stage Three: Analysis of the Thinking Strategies

1." Learners describe their thinking process as to how they arrived at the
concept.
2." Learners discuss the hypotheses generated.
How did you address student-learning styles during this lesson? Describe all
that apply.
Visual Recording examples on board
Auditory Verbal discussion and presentation
Kinaesthetic Scratch paper available if they wanted to experiment
with numbers at their tables

Assessment Criteria:
What tangible evidence will demonstrate your students learning today?

Students will write down their recounting of the lesson as it unfolded.
How did the class go through their own assessment of the ideas that
emerged?
As homework, they will use the YES/NO examples used in class and
add 5 to 6 more.
What will be considered quality work?

Accurate recounting of todays class process. Correct responses for
homework in each column.
Source: http://www.sagepub.com/delloliostudy/case_study_lesson_plans/
CaseStudyLP5.2.doc
The above scenario depicts how a teacher uses the concept attainment model in
the information-processing model in a Mathematics class. Now let us look at each
stage carefully.
The first stage explores the factual knowledge capacity of the learners. In order to
seek the commonalities or differences between the sets of exemplars, the learners
would need to present and apply their understanding pertaining to the attributes
of the given numbers. In addition, when they are comparing and contrasting the
sets of exemplars, they would need to apply their conceptual knowledge as well.
The conceptual knowledge would be at a preliminary form in which the learners
would merely look at general attributes between the two sets of exemplars.
During stage two, learners are given the opportunity to put into practice their
new knowledge by getting them to categorise exemplars accordingly. This
develops their procedural knowledge when they are able to use their knowledge
of criteria or attributes in applying to the given sets. The final stage explores their
metacognitive knowledge when the learners explore their own thinking process
as they arrive at the definition and concept.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Identify the specific learning objectives in the above lesson. Using

Krathwohl's (2002) revised taxonomy, categorise the learning objectives.

10.2 Social Family Models: Role-Play

Role-play is one of the models under the social family of models. The main
purpose of the social family model is to develop the learners interpersonal skills
through the exploration of a particular learning issue. Role-play is one of the
models in the social family models which is able to provide opportunities for
learners to practise their interpersonal skills through sharing and discussing
problem stories.
One example of a lesson plan is shown below.
Specific Content: Bullying

Length of Lesson: 30 minutes
Instructional Objective(s): The learner will be able to:

(a)" Participate in role-plays that illustrate effective ways to deal with
bullying;
(b)" Express opinions pertaining to bullying;
(c)" State the causes and repercussions of bullying;
(d)" Provide plausible suggestions to overcome bullying incidents in the
school; and
(e)" Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication, and identify
and practise elements of effective listening and speaking. Examples
include recognising the impact of variations of facial expression, posture
and volume on oral communication.
Long-Term Unit Objective: The learner will participate in collaborative

problem solving using discussion, compromise and consensus rather than face
stress due to bullying.
Previous Lesson: The previous lesson explored student discipline concerns

such as tardiness, smoking and drug abuse in school. Students have discussed
and explored these issues at length.
Following Lesson: After this lesson, students should have some time to think
about and practise what they learned from role-playing. A discussion should
occur the next day about their role-playing and what they learned about
bullying.

Prerequisite Knowledge or Behaviours Needed:
Concepts:
Role-Playing The students will need to know the rules and aims of the role-
playing activity.
Bullying In order to role-play and have a proper discussion about bullying,
students will need to know the causes and consequences of bullying.
Behaviours:
Listening to others This lesson includes dialogue and discussion, so the
students will need to be able to listen to each other.
Taking turns This lesson requires student participation through both
discussion and role-playing and students will have to be able to take turns and
understand that not everyone can talk or role-play at the same time.
Materials: White board marker pens, newspaper article on bullying
Model of Teaching: Role-Playing
Procedures
1." Warming Up the Class
Show to the class a newspaper report on a bullying case in school.
Discuss with students the details of the incident, its causes and
repercussions. Let the class brainstorm episodes of bullying that they
have experienced for a few minutes and write responses on the board.
2." Choosing the First Set of Participants
After a few minutes of brainstorming, choose one episode of bullying that
you feel is best to role-play first. Pick the first set of volunteers and have
them come up to the front of the room.
3." Establishing the Problem, Characters and Setting
Before the players can begin role-playing, the characters and setting need
to be described and explained to the students. Review the characters and
setting with the class and make sure they know who is in the scene and
when and where it is taking place.
(a)" Who are our characters?
(b)" Where is this scene taking place?
(c)" When is this scene taking place?

10." Preparing the Observers

Set the expectations for the students observing and explain what you
want them to look for during the role-play.
Teacher says: As we watch the role-play, remember to look at
how they choose to handle the situation and deal with bullying.
Remember not to call out or interrupt during the role-play. We
will have a chance to talk about what we saw when the scene
ends and I call, Cut!
11." Role-Playing the First Scene

Once the scene is set up and the characters and setting are described, let
the chosen participants improvise and role-play the situation. Remind
the students that the scene should reflect how they would normally react
when someone is being bullied or is bullying.
Teacher says: Ok, our first two players are ready to role-play. I
will tell you when to stop the scene. Right now, just do and say
what you might under these circumstances. Here we go.
Let the students role-play for a few minutes until the first solution has
been illustrated.
12." Stopping Action for Discussion and Evaluation

After the first solution has been acted out, stop the action to discuss
what the students heard and saw in the role-play. Lead the discussion
by asking the students thought-provoking questions.
(a)" Did our players set up this problem well?
(b)" Did they leave anything out?
(c)" What do I usually say when someone is bullying?
(d)" What do I say when someone is being bullied?
(e)" How else could this problem have been handled?
Let the students talk for a while about what they saw and heard as the
scene played out. Encourage the students to think of alternative
solutions to deal with bullying.
13." Revising Scene with New Players

After the students have discussed for awhile and brainstormed
alternative solutions, choose different students who have proposed new
solutions to come up and role-play the scene. Encourage students to
think about ways that they could solve the problem before someone
bullies.

The scene will need to be set for these new players by reviewing the
characters and setting.
(a)" Where are you?
(b)" What are you doing as the scene begins?
(c)" What will you need to say to show how your solution works?
(d)" What will you need to do to show how your solution works?
Let the new players role-play the situation until the revised solution has
been illustrated.
14." Stopping Action Again for Discussion and Evaluation

Once the second solution has been acted out, stop the action to discuss
what the students heard and saw in this role-play.
(a)" What was different about how the players handled it this time?
(b)" Do you think what the players did this time helped?
(c)" Do you think that this solution worked better?
(d)" Are there any other ideas?
Encourage students to continue brainstorming new ideas and solutions

and then have the students role-play the new solutions and discuss
them. Depending on the time available, this cycle may be done several
times with alternative solutions.
15." Generalising About the Experiences

Once the students have exhausted all the solutions, guide the students
in deciding what they learned as a result of the role-play by asking the
following questions:
(a)" Which of the solutions to this problem do you think is best?
(b)" Why is this best?
(c)" For whom is it best?
(d)" Who will be unhappy with this solution?
(e)" How do you choose if you cannot make everybody happy?
(f)" If you were _____ (a person in the scene), how would you choose?
(g)" If you were _____ (another person in the scene), how would you
choose?

Closure: To end this lesson, tell the students that they all did an excellent job
today during the lesson. Briefly recap what happened during the lesson, By
role-playing, we found many solutions that worked out well, and the
observers paid careful attention to what was happening in each scene.
Remind the students that you will expect them to use what they learned today
and be more aware of the consequences of bullying.
Source: http://www.sagepub.com/delloliostudy/case_study_lesson_plans/
CaseStudyLP10.2.doc.
The lesson above presents opportunities for the students to examine and explore
various angles and perspectives to a common school issue, which is bullying. The
discussion and exchange of ideas that the students gather throughout the activity
will help them be aware of the social issues such as bullying as well as develop
their interpersonal skills.
To assess student-learning outcomes, one needs to consider the objectives of the

lesson. The aims of the lesson and suggested assessment techniques are as
follows:
(a)" Objective: Participate in role-plays that illustrate effective ways to deal with
bullying. Teacher can involve the observers to take note on the players
responses and reaction during the role-play. Teacher too can observe and
make notes as the players act out the scenes.
(b)" Objective: Express opinions pertaining to bullying. Teacher can evaluate
learners logical and reasoning skills by assessing the opinions given. A
holistic rubric or banding scheme on expression of ideas can guide the
teacher.
(c)" Objective: State the causes and repercussions of bullying. Teacher can
examine the number of plausible causes and repercussions generated by the
students. By examining the ideas given by the students, teacher would be
able to ascertain the level of student knowledge and understanding on the
topic concerned.
(d)" Objective: Provide plausible suggestions to overcome bullying incidents in
the school. Teacher can assess studentscritical and creative thinking by
examining the quality of suggestions put forth by the students.
(e)" Objective: Distinguish between verbal and nonverbal communication, and
identify and practise elements of effective listening and speaking. Examples
include recognising the impact of variations of facial expression, posture
and volume on oral communication. Teacher can refer to a checklist

consisting on the aspects mentioned and make brief commentary to help

students on the areas concerned.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Can you think of other ways in which the teacher can assess students in
a role-play activity? Discuss with your partner.
10.3 THE BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF

MODELS: MASTERY LEARNING
The mastery learning model emphasises the mastery of content and skills. As
such, it is only obvious that assessment would play an integral role in the
teaching-learning process using the mastery learning approach. The lesson plan
below is based on the mastery-learning model. The lesson plan is designed for a
group of young learners where English is learnt as a second language.
Lesson Topic: Similes!

Strategy: Mastery Learning
Subject Area: Language Arts
Common Standard/State Standard:

" Identify letters, words, and sentences.
" Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (for
example, conventions, style and vocabulary) to communicate effectively
with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
" Students employ a wide range of strategies such as similes as they write
and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate
with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
Instructional Materials:
1." Pencils
2." Markers
3." White paper/construction paper
4." Dictionary
Lesson Length: 30 minutes

Preparation:
(a)" Get visuals of objects, animals and so on (for example, tree, fox and
flower).
(b)" Choose sample simile poem to read with the class. For example,
Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star.
(c)" Get information or reading material on the concept of simile.
Behavioural Objective (DO):

" Students will brainstorm words that relate to a given picture or visual.
" Students will fill in the blanks in the poem (for example, school is like a
circus).
" Students work together to write poem, using similes.
" Students will understand where punctuation goes in a poem.
" All words must be spelt correctly in poem.
Motivation (Teacher-created):
" Points may be rewarded to students who are working well together and on
task.
" Students may get stickers for good behaviour.
Model (demo)
1." Teacher will demonstrate examples on the board with own name.
2." Will explain similes and proper punctuation on board.
3." Will write simile poem together with the students.
Guided Practice (Checking for understanding group) Learning Tasks

(Activities):
1." Teacher will walk around room to assist students in writing poems and
monitor students when they walk around room.
2." Students will work together to help correct punctuation, spelling and so
on.
3." Students will come up to the board and read the poems.
4." Students will have to write simile poem for post test.
Independent Practice (Monitor/adjust individual) :

1." Independent simile poem will be assigned for homework assignment.
2." Teacher provides feedback and scaffolding when necessary.

DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
Disabilities:
" Edit length of poem
" Edit subject matter of poem
Gifted:
" Simile poems based on nature, school and family
" Make longer poem (two stanzas)
ASSESSMENT
Informal:
" Observe what the students wrote for poems
" Observe all similes are used appropriately in poem
" Observe cooperative learning and teamwork
Formal:
" Homework assignment
CLOSURE:
" Students will have option to present poems to the class
" Teacher will ask students what they learned and collect poem
" Make sure students understand concepts
" Assign homework assignment
Source: http://sarahperkinsclassroom.weebly.com/mastery-learning.html
The above lesson plan is designed to help learners gain knowledge on similes as
well as to apply similes in a poem. The lesson plan utilises the principles of
mastery learning in terms of providing students with guided to independent
practices as well as differentiated tasks to help learners of different competency
levels.
The assessment tasks are mostly informal, conducted by the teacher to assess
students involvement and participation in the learning tasks. Most importantly,
as the students progress to the next level, the teacher provides feedback to help
the students.
In mastery learning, assessment plays an important role in determining the

achievement of the learning objectives. In the informal assessment mode, the

teacher observes the students completing the tasks. Students are required to
work self-paced based on their abilities. This is a crucial point as the students
must be trained to be independent and accountable for their learning. As the
teacher facilitates the group work and individual work, the teacher will, at the
same time, assess students progress in their learning.
The formal assessment task functions as another form of student learning

measure. It can be regarded as reinforcement for the students to enable them to
enhance their understanding of the subject matter.
ACTIVITY 10.4
1." Suggest ways in which a teacher can assess students participation and
involvement during team work using a specific assessment tool.
2." Discuss the cognitive domains of the learning outcomes stated in the
lesson plan above.
10.4 THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS:

NON-DIRECTIVE TEACHING
The personal family of models focus on ones self (the student) and the role of a
teacher is to guide students to self-awareness and self-understanding. As such,
students needs are given importance to achieve better learning. To further
understand how to conduct non-directive teaching in the classroom, read the
following scenario.
Lesson Topic: Reading a short novel

Strategy: Non-directive teaching
Learning Outcome: To read and understand the plot of the novel.
Mr Atkinson entered his class and addressed all twenty fifteen-year-old

students with a question.
As you are well aware, you have to complete reading this novel and I know
that all of you hate reading long texts. Why is that? Maybe I can help you.
The students then gave their reasons. Among their reasons were the text was
too long, they had no time to read and they felt the text was too difficult.

Mr Atkinson then asked, What do you think is the best way of reading this
book?
The students thought for a while and one of them suggested this:
Why dont we work in groups? That way, we can divide the chapters and
then share what we have read. We will be able to save time.
Mr Atkinson smiled and said, That is a good idea. Is there anyone who
disagrees with the suggestion?
All the students agreed and they started to divide themselves into groups of
four. The class monitor allocated the chapters to each group and everyone
started to read their respective chapters quietly. After a while, one student
asked her friends on how to present the chapters they have read. A few
suggestions were raised and finally everyone agreed to do their presentation
using the mind map. Mr Atkinson showed them how to create a mind map.
Mr Atkinson went around monitoring each group and from time to time,
discussions occurred between the students and the teacher where clarification
was needed.
As the students presented the chapters using mind maps, Mr Atkinson

provided feedback to help them further understand the text.
The above scenario indicates one way how the personal family of model is used
in the classroom. The method of teaching is based on students flexibility of
learning and group work. Mr Atkinson plays the role of a facilitator and guides
his students when needed.
ACTIVITY 10.5
In your opinion what would be the best method of assessing
Mr Atkinsons students?
Mr Atkinson uses the non-directive teaching model to help his students to read
the novel. Since the students are not keen in reading, Mr Atkinson let his
students make the decision on the best method of achieving the learning
objective. Most of the decisions are made by the students; namely on how to read
(group work) and dividing the tasks (allocating the chapters for reading). The
students also make decisions on the ways of presenting the plot of the story,
which is through the use of graphic organisers. Mr Atkinson plays the role of a
facilitator where scaffolding is provided when needed. Despite having his
students taking the lead in the learning process, Mr Atkinson needs to find out if
the learning outcome is achieved. This is done through several ways.
The best method of assessing the non-directive model is through self-evaluation.

The students are evaluated based on the progress through their completion of the
task, that is, through questions and answers that demonstrate their
understanding and through their success at overcoming obstacles related to the
reading task. These forms of assessment are qualitative in nature.
As the students identify the problems and seek solutions to overcome the
problem, they are already on the way to meaningful learning. The teacher
observes and facilitates and through this process, the teacher is able to ascertain
the level of students achievement of the task. The assessment is ongoing, as the
teacher needs to observe the personal development of the students in facing the
situation and seeking ways to overcome the situation. However, for the purpose
of evaluation, the teacher can regard their final product, which is the mind map
presentation, as the culmination of their learning experiences. What is most
crucial here would be the students post learning experience. After generating a
solution for their reading problem, the students should be able to be more
positive and responsive in future reading tasks.
10.5 POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN DESIGNING

AND IMPLEMENTING ASSESSMENT
TASKS
The main aim of teaching is to ensure that the students experience optimum
learning and achieve the learning goals. As such, it is crucial that the assessment
tasks given during or at the end of the learning session provide valuable data or
information for teachers and learners to meet the requirements of the educational
goals. Hence, there are some points to consider when designing and
implementing assessment tasks to help create a meaningful learning climate.
Since teaching aims to assess students learning outcomes, assessment design and
implementation must consider certain factors. Among them are student factors
such as proficiency levels, age, learning styles and their familiarity with the
assessment structure. The validity and reliability of assessment should also be
considered. For example, the learning outcomes should be in accordance with the
syntax or features of the teaching learning model. Besides, one should also look
into the types of assessment (for example, summative or formative) to create a
meaningful assessment for learning and of learning.

Assessment should function as a tool to help provide data to help learner

progress to the next level. As such, assessment should not merely be an
instrument to assess learning but also function as a tool for learning. Finally, one
needs to consider quality-based feedback to enable meaningful assessment to
take place. Corrective and comprehensive feedback will help make sense of the
assessment data to the learners. The learners will not regard the assessment score
or grade as just an end outcome of their learning. In fact, through this corrective
and comprehensive feedback, learners will be able to reflect on their learning and
work towards improving their areas of weakness.
10.6 CONCLUSION
This topic has highlighted some of the ways different models of teaching can be
applied in the classroom and the ways of assessing learning that occurs. One
point you must take note is that the teaching models can be used in various
ways, namely through incorporation of different models within one family of
models or through incorporation of various families of models. You also need to
be aware that several models can achieve the same objectives (Joyce et al., 2009).
The challenge for an educator is to find the best possible strategies to help in the
learning process of his or her learners.
" Teaching models can be assessed based on their specific principles and
guiding concepts.
" Teachers should be flexible in providing alternative assessments to students

to enable them to achieve optimum and meaningful learning.
" The assessment techniques or approaches must be in accordance with the

learning outcomes or learning objectives of the lesson.
" Several teaching models can achieve the same learning objectives.
" The teaching strategies should be aligned to the assessment process.

Assessment Models of teaching

Knowledge dimensions Non-directive teaching
Learning objectives The behavioural systems family of models
Learning outcomes The information-processing family of models
Lesson plan The personal family of models
Mastery learning The social family of models
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R.

E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for
learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Dellolio, J. M., & Donk, T(2007). Case study lesson plans. Retrived from
http://www.sagepub.com/delloliostudy/case_study_lesson_plans/CaseSt
udyLP5.2.doc
Dietel, R., Herman, J., & Knuth, R. (1991).What does research say about
assessment? Naperville, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory
(NCREL). Retrieved from http://methodenpool.uni-koeln.de/portfolio/
What%20Does%20Research%20Say% 20About%20Assessment.htm
Huitt, W. (2004). Bloom et al.'s taxonomy of the cognitive domain. Educational

Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
Pearson Education.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Blooms taxonomy: An overview. Theory

Into Practice, 41(4), 212-218.
Winking, D (1997). Critical issue: Ensuring equity with alternative assessments.

Retrieved from www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/
as8refer.htm.

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Dr Sharmini Ghanaguru

Moderator: Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek

Reviewed by: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kwan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, April 2015August 2013

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Teaching and Learning 1

Topic 2 Social Learning I: Partners in Learning 20

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Topic 3 Social Learning II: The Role-playing Model and Jurisprudential 37

Topic 4 Information Processing I: Concept Attainment Model and 61

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Topic 5 Information Processing II: Advance Organisers and Memorisation 80

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Topic 8 Mastery Learning 144

Topic 9 The Personal Family of Models 156

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Topic 10 Assessing Learning Outcomes 171

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

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Topic 5 further elaborates on the information processing family of models by

Topic 8 elaborates on mastery learning and concepts of learning in the

Topic 9 analyses the personal family of models while highlighting pertinent

Topic 10 discusses the assessment of learning outcomes based on the family of

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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1.1 DEFINING TEACHING AND LEARNING

1.1.1 Styles of Teaching

Table 1.1: Four Variances of Personalities

Source: Joyce et al. (2009)

Table 1.2: Four Approaches to Teaching Styles

Source: Grasha (1996)

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1.1.2 Types of Learners

Table 1.3: Four Types of Learners

Source: McCarthy (1997)

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1.1.3 What is Teaching and Learning?

Figure 1.1: Four basic elements in teaching and learning

Teaching involves planning and implementation of instructional activities

How about learning?