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Slides EDBook2003 PDF
Slides EDBook2003 PDF
Slides EDBook2003 PDF
input command
(speed / position)
Typical Applications
Factors for Growth
Process Industry - agitators, pumps, fans, compressors
Machining - planers, winches, calendars, chippers, drill presses,
Technical Advances in sanders, extruders, grinders, mills, presses
Heating and Air Conditioning - blowers, compressors
Linear ICs and Digital Signal Processors
Paper and Steel Industry - hoists, rollers
Power devices Transportation - elevators, trains, automobiles
Textile - looms
Packaging - shears
Market Needs
Food - conveyors, fans
$20 Billion market in 1997 Oil, Gas , Mining - compressors, pumps, cranes, shovels
Residential - heat pumps, freezers, washing machines
25% Growth rate
Electric drive
20
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30
% Flow Rate
IC Continuously
Variable Electric
Engine Transmission Control
Sensors Drives Theory
Electric
Motor Mechanical Real-time
system
modelling DSP control
80
60
Size (volum e) 100
Com ponents
rate in the process industry?
%
Functions
Weight
40
20
50
What are the major disadvantages which can be overcome
0
0
by using adjustable speed drives?
1968
1983
1988
1993
1998
ASD Load
Figure on left includes load force, f L , that must be overcome
L
Figure on right shows only the force, f M , available to accelerate
the mass, M
L ( rad / sec )
desired speed profile Accelaration Power Input Kinetic energy
100 fe f L f M 1
a= = Pe (t ) = f e u = f M u + f L u WM = Mu 2
M M 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t ( sec )
M
r
torque
Mg
Tem electromagnetic torque produced by motor
Tem is opposed by load torque, TL
Torque = force radius The difference, Tem TL = TJ , will accelerate the system
[ Nm ] [N ] [m] d Tem TL TJ
= =
dt J J
Example: what torque is needed to hold M motionless
where J is the moment of inertia
Torsional Resonances
m L
Mechanical - Electrical Analogy
TL Load
Motor Tem
Tshaft
JL
Jm Torque Current
d m
Finite shaft stiffness Infinite shaft stiffness Rack and pinion or a lead-screw type of arrangement
Gear mechanisms
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 29 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 30
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d m d
L
Tem = Jm + r2 M + r fL T1 T2
dt
dt
Geared up: speed increased, torque decreased L > M ; T2 < T1 ; r2 < r1
required to accelerate due to load Geared down: speed decreased, torque increased
motor L < M ; T2 > T1 ; r2 > r1
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 31 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 32
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Gears (contd) Types of Loads
Equivalent Inertia
Centrifugal loads
d m L
2
Tem = Jm + JL L + TL
m dt m
Fan
J eq
2 2
r
J eq = J m + J L L = Jm + J L 1
m r2
2
r r1 Jm
Jm = 1 J L r =
r2 opt. 2 opt. JL
Hoist
d m r d L
and (Tem )opt. = 2 J m = 2J m 2
dt r1 opt. dt
m = + m = +
Compressor
Tem = Tem = +
Tem
m p= p=+
Tem
Load
Motor m = m =
Constant power loads
Power Tem = Tem = +
p=+ p=
(3) (4)
Winder
What are the MKS units for force, torque, linear velocity,
How the operating point changes with time
angular velocity, speed, and power?
Important for High Performance Drives What is the relationship between force, torque, and power?
Show that torque is the fundamental variable in controlling
Speed change: rapid and without any oscillations
speed and position.
Requires good controller design What is the kinetic energy stored in a moving mass and a
rotating inertia?
Summary
i( t ) Im jX L
j L = j X L jX c
+
V =V 0
+ L R
Z
v( t )
1
=V cos( t ) j = j XC R Re
R C 0
C
Z = R + j X L j X C = Z
1
2 1
2
1
L C
Z = R + L ; = tan
di (t ) 1 C R
Ri (t ) + L + i (t ) dt = V cos( t )
dt C
V V V
i (t ) = cos( t ) I= =
Z Z Z
0 t 0 t
Reactive Power v i Re
v(t )
i (t ) i (t )
Q = V I sin [VAR ] I = I i
Apparent Power
v and i in phase (v = i ) v and i out of phase (v i ) Im
power flows in one direction power flow reverses periodically S = P 2 + Q 2 = VI [VA] S Q
Feeder
Load
Ic Ic
Vbc
Vab =Va Vb = 3Vs 30 o 1 I ca
I = Il 30 o
Vbc =Vb Vc = 3Vs 90 o 3 I ab
VLL = 3V ph 30 o 30 o " I ca "
Vca =Vc Va = 3Vs 210 o Ib
Ibc Ia
Summary
How is the current flowing through impedance Z
related to the voltage across it, in magnitude and phase?
What are real and reactive powers? What are the Chapter 4
expressions for these in terms of rms values of voltage
and current and the phase difference between the two?
What is complex power S? How are real and reactive Basic Understanding of
powers related to it? What are the expressions for S, P, Power Processing in
and Q, in terms of the current and voltage phasors?
What is the power triangle? What is the polarity of the
Electric Drives
reactive power drawn by an inductive/capacitive circuit?
What are balanced three-phase systems? How can their
analyses be simplified? What is the relation between
line-to-line and phase voltages in terms of magnitude
and phase? What are wye and delta connections?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 55 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 56
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Power Processing Unit (PPU) Switch-Mode Converters for
Efficient conversion of power from line frequency AC to
dc- and ac-motor drives
appropriate form required by the motor
Sub-blocks of PPUs ia
ia A
A
utility
+ +
+ B
Vd M Vd M Vd M
B
Rectifier switch - mode C
converter
controller
idA (t )
iA (t ) v AN always positive +
voltage
i A (t ) La Ra
Vd
+ + + A
v AN (t ) = d A (t )Vd iA can reverse port
current
+
Vd v AN port Ea
1 d A (t )
i A > 0 if v AN > Ea N
idA (t ) = d A (t ) iA (t ) v AN (t )
power Vd Ea q A (t )
Buck Mode IA Ra
vc, A (t ) 1 +
2Vtri
i A < 0 if v AN < Ea + +
+ 1/ 2 Vd 1 dA +
VAN = d AVd Ea
power Ea Vd
Transformer turns-ratio is adjustable via Pulse Width Modulation
This Transformer can pass AC and DC currents but only unipolar Boost Mode
vc, A (t ) 1 +
voltages
2Vtri +
1/ 2
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 63 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 64
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Calculation of Ripple Current Implementation of Bi-Positional Switches
Ra i A (t ) La IA iripple La
Ra Buck Boost
+ + + + +
iC
v AN (t ) Ea = V AN Ea + vripple (t )
+
iA ON
vripple (t ) Vd approx switching
Vd V AN
trajectory
0 t
i A (t ) = I A + iripple (t ) dTs
V AN
Ts 0 Von OFF VCE
v AN (t ) = V AN + vripple (t ) iripple (t ) q+ switching power loss
vc, A A q A for a very short time
0 t vtri q A (t )
V Ea
I A = AN i A (t )
Ra
IA
Switching frequency 6kHz to 50kHz
iripple (t ) = sawtooth with zero DC Switching power loss: kept low by fast switching devices
average 0
t
Conduction loss: kept low by having switches fully ON or
volt seconds (V VAN ) dTs V (1 d )Ts
i A = = d , or AN fully OFF
La La La
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 65 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 66
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G
VDS
Voltage rating up to 9kV G
+
VGS S
S
Current rating ~ kA
iD
VGS = 7V
Switching items ~ 0.1 s 6V
on state 5V
Insulated gate for low 4V
On-State voltage drop 1V to 3V
gate requirements
VDS
Cost Built-in diode
rds increases exponentially with voltage rating
Good for low voltage, high frequency
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 71 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 72
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IGBT - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor Smart Power Modules
C
iC Gate Driver ICs
+
Power Modules with Gate drivers
G VCE VGE
+
VGE
VCE
E
Summary Summary
What is the function of PPUs? How is the pole output voltage made linearly proportional
What are the sub-blocks of PPUs? to the input control signal?
What are the roles of the rectifier and the filter-capacitor What is the physical significance of the duty-ratio, for
sub-blocks? example d A (t ) ?
Qualitatively, how does a switch-mode amplifier differ How is pulse-width-modulation (PWM) achieved and what
from a linear amplifier? is its function?
Why does operating transistors as switches result in much Instantaneous quantities on the two sides of the converter
smaller losses compared to operating them in their linear pole, for example pole-A, are related by the switching signal
region? q A (t ) . What relates the average quantities on the two sides?
How is a bi-positional switch realized in a converter pole? What is the equivalent model of a switch-mode pole in
What is the gain of each converter pole? terms of its average quantities?
How does a switch-mode converter pole approach the output How is a switch-mode dc-dc converter which can achieve an
of a linear amplifier? output voltage of either polarity and an output current flowing
What is the meaning of v AN (t ) ? in either direction realized?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 75 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 76
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Summary Summary
What is the frequency content of the output voltage
How are three-phase, sinusoidal ac output voltages
waveform in dc-dc converters? synthesized from a dc voltage input?
In a dc-drive converter, how is it possible to keep the ripple
What are the voltage and current ratings and the switching
in the output current small, despite the output voltage speeds of various power semiconductor devices?
pulsating between 0 and Vd , or 0 and Vd , during each
switching cycle?
What is the frequency content of the input dc current?
Where does the pulsating ripple component of the dc-side
current flow through?
How is bi-directional power flow achieved through a
converter pole?
What makes the average of the dc-side current in a
converter pole related to the average of the output current
by its duty-ratio?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 77 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 78
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Magnetic Field
Magnetic field, H, produced by current carrying conductor
Chapter 5
Magnetic Circuits
Amperes Law dl
H i3
i1
v H dA = i i2
closed path
ID ID o
OD OD Hm Hm
1 ID + OD
Mean radius, rm =
2 2
lm = 2 rm Linear approximation Bm = m H m
Ni Ni
Ampere's Law H m = = Bsat ~ 1.6 - 1.8 Tesla
2 rm lm
In saturation m approaches o
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 81 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 82
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m g
Flux Linkage m = Nm
F
m =
MMF F = Ni
N N2 N2
Lm = m = m Am N = =
i lm lm Lenzs law: Polarity of induced voltage
A
m m When current and flux directions are consistent (a current
For linear magnetic conditions inductance depends only on magnetic circuit as indicated would create a flux as indicated), then the
1 1 voltage should be labeled positive where the current enters
Energy stored in magnetic circuits W = Li 2 = Bm2 Amlm
2 2 m N the coil.
volume
W 1
Energy density w= = Bm2
volume 2 m
Given e +
e l e(t ) em (t ) Lm
( t ) = sin t +
e(t ) N
t
d
e (t ) = N = N cos t
dt
Relating e(t ), (t ), and i (t ) = m + A = N = N
N m + N A
N
m A m
N m A Ll i (t )
L= = = + Lself = Lm + LA R
i i i i i + + el (t ) +
v(t ) e(t ) em (t )
N
i (t ) = (t ) = Lself i = Lm i + LA i
L di (t )
e(t ) = L
d(t) dt di di di
& e(t) = N e = Lm + LA = em + LA
dt N dt N dt dt
em eA
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 87 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 88
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Transformers - Development
Transformers Single coil +
m
m
Two coils +
d m d m e1
e2 (t ) = N 2 & e1 (t ) = N1
N1
dt dt
N2
e1 (t ) N1
=
e2 (t ) N2 +
e2
Ideal N1 i2 = N 2 i2
Transformer
i1 (t ) i2 '(t ) i2 (t )
i2 N 2
= + +
Dot polarity i2 N1
im
e1
Magnetizing inductance i1 (t ) = i2 '(t ) + im (t )
Lm e2
relflected magnetizing N1 N 2
load current
current Ideal
Transformer
- hysteresis
- eddy currents N1 N 2 Real
N1 N 2
Ideal
Transformer Ideal
Transformer
Transformer
1.0
What is Ampere's Law and what quantity is usually
-F
e -B
Co 0.8 calculated by using it?
Nd Sm
0.6 What is the definition of the mmf F?
Alnico
Ferrite
0.4
What is meant by "magnetic saturation"?
|
1000
|
800 500
| |
200 What is the relationship between and B?
How can magnetic reluctance be calculated? What
H m ( kA / m )
Summary Summary
In magnetic circuits with an air gap, what usually dominates
the total reluctance in the flux path: the air gap or the rest What is leakage inductance? How can the voltage drop
of the magnetic structure? across it be represented separate from the emf induced by
What is the meaning of the flux linkage of a coil? the main flux in the magnetic core?
Which law allows us to calculate the induced emf? In linear magnetic structures, how is energy storage defined?
What is the relationship between the induced voltage and the In magnetic structures with air gaps, where is energy mainly
flux linkage? stored?
How is the polarity of the induced emf established? What is the meaning of "mutual inductance"?
Assuming sinusoidal variations with time at a frequency f, What is the role of transformers? How is an ideal
how are the rms value of the induced emf, the peak of the transformer defined? What parasitic elements must be
flux linking a coil, and the frequency of variation f related? included in the model of an ideal transformer for it to
How does the inductance L of a coil relate Faraday's Law represent a real transformer?
to Ampere's Law? What are the advantages of using permanent magnets?
In a linear magnetic structure, define the inductance of a
coil in terms of its geometry.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 99 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 100
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Electric Drive
Chapter 6
Basic Principles of Electrical Electrical Mechanical
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 101 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 102
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Basic Structure
Production of Magnetic Field
Construction
Stator
Air gap Radial field (H,F,B) in the air gap is (t )
=
Rotor
H positive if away from the center magnetic
axis
Using Amperes law, field r lg
is (t )
Multi-pole structure produced by the stator is, Ns
N sis
S Hs =
2Ag
N
mmf acting on air gap Bs (t )
N S N N S S N s is o
+
Ni stator surface 2l g
N Fs = H s A g = ss
2
S
& Flux density in air gap rotor surface
0
N i
2
ss o
2l g
Bs = o H s
2
2 pole 4 pole salient pole 2
f em = B A i
emf induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field
resultant
subtract add
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 105 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 106
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f em = Bs ( N r I ) l
Magnitude of induced emf
ir
e = B l u fq + and torque on coil I
N
N N Tem = 2 f em r = 2Bs ( N r I ) lr
0 180 o 360 o
[V ] [Wb / m 2 ][ m][ m / s ] B (into paper)
I
er
Polarity of induced emf is given by f q torque remains constant as rotor turns E
and is independent of current flowing u emf induced in coil 0
E
Tem
through the conductor er = 2econd = 2N r Bslr m r
0
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 107 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 108
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Energy conversion Power losses and Energy efficiency
ir
I
I
0 180 o 360 o
Motor losses
Motoring er E Conduction losses, PR Electric Drive
+ m
stator Iron losses, Phe
Mode ir er
Tem magnetic
axis
0
Friction and windage losses, Pfw
E
Electrical Tem Switching losses, Psw P Electrical
system Pin
Stray losses, Ps P Po
Machine
0
Ploss = PR + Phe + Psw + Pfw + Ps U
ir
I
Po Po
mach = =
Pin Po + Ploss
0 180 o 360 o
I
Regenerative er E
PPU losses PPU Motor
+ stator
braking ir er
m Tem magnetic 0 Conduction losses losses losses
axis
Mode E
Switching losses
Electrical Tem
system 0 drive = PPU motor (80 90%)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 109 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 110
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Electric Drive
Chapter 6
Basic Principles of Electrical Electrical Mechanical
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 115 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 116
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Basic Structure
Production of Magnetic Field
Construction
Stator
Air gap Radial field (H,F,B) in the air gap is (t )
=
Rotor
H positive if away from the center magnetic
axis
Using Amperes law, field r lg
is (t )
Multi-pole structure produced by the stator is, Ns
N sis
S Hs =
2Ag
N
mmf acting on air gap Bs (t )
N S N N S S N s is o
+
Ni stator surface 2l g
N Fs = H s A g = ss
2
S
& Flux density in air gap rotor surface
0
N i
2
ss o
2l g
Bs = o H s
2
2 pole 4 pole salient pole 2
Electromagnetic
Basic Principles of Operation Force
external B field
B
Force on a current carrying conductor subjected to an
externally-established magnetic field fem
l fem fem
i
f em = B A i
emf induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field
resultant
subtract add
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 119 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 120
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Induced EMF Application of Basic Principles
Force on positive charges +
Assumptions
fq +
fq = q ( u B ) B (into paper) Uniform Bs , radial in direction
In this example a net positive charge Rotor current of constant magnitude m
u + stator
accumulates at the top and a net but polarity changes with position ir er Tem magnetic
axis
negative charge accumulates at the counter-clockwise torque is positive
bottom fq Electrical
Force acting on the conductor system
f em = Bs ( N r I ) l
Magnitude of induced emf
ir
e = B l u fq + and torque on coil I
N
N N Tem = 2 f em r = 2Bs ( N r I ) lr
0 180 o 360 o
[V ] [Wb / m 2 ][ m][ m / s ] B (into paper)
I
er
Polarity of induced emf is given by f q torque remains constant as rotor turns E
and is independent of current flowing u emf induced in coil 0
E
Tem
through the conductor er = 2econd = 2N r Bslr m r
0
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 121 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 122
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Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 123 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 124
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Motor Ratings Summary
Safe Operating Area What is the role of electric machines? What do the
Speed
motoring-mode and the generating-mode of operations
Continuous mean?
Safe Operating What are the definitions of stator and rotor?
Area
Re duced torque
Why do we use high permeability ferromagnetic materials
100%
due to lack of for stators and rotors in electric machines? Why are these
cooling
constructed by stacking laminations together, rather than
Torque
0 100% as a solid structure?
What is the approximate air gap length in machines with
Rated speed, torque and power Prated = rated Trated less than 10 kW ratings?
Motor temperature rise due to losses What are multi-pole machines? Why can such machines
Expanded safe operating area during transients and be analyzed by considering only one pair of poles?
for intermittent operation
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 125 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 126
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Summary Summary
Assuming the permeability of iron to be infinite, where is
the mmf produced by machine coils "consumed"? What How do electrical machines convert energy from one
law is used to calculate the field quantities, such as flux form to another?
density, for a given current through a coil? Why is it What are various loss mechanisms in electric machines?
important to have a small air gap length? How is electrical efficiency defined and what are typical
What are the two basic principles of operation for electric values of efficiencies for the machines, the power-processing
machines? units, and the overall drives?
What is the expression for force acting on a What is the end-result of power losses in electric machines?
current-carrying conductor in an externally established What is meant by the various ratings on the name-plates
B-field? What is its direction? of machines?
What is slot shielding and why can we choose to ignore it?
How do we express the induced emf in a conductor
"cutting" an externally established B-field? How do we
determine the polarity of the induced emf?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 127 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 128
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Introduction
Cost
PPU PPU
Chapter 7
PPU PPU
DC Motor Drives
1998 Future Future
Demise prematurely predicted,
DC DRIVES
still used
1998in speed
AC DRIVES
control
Merits
Ease of control
Cheaper Power Processing Unit
Drawbacks
mechanical commutator and brushes require maintenance
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 129 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 130
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Permanent Wound
magnet rotor
Switch-mode Line-commutated
converter thyristor converter
f produced by f produced by
permanent magnets stator winding current
Stator
Establishes field flux, f
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 131 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 132
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Structure of DC motors Operating Principles of a DC Motor
Field flux density in the airgap
Rotor
Armature winding back end
Commutator and brushes
1b
N S
=0
N 1 1' S f
Bf
m s1 b2
s2
b1 0
ia
=0
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 133 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 134
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ea = 2 B f A (r m )
1 _ 2
0
e e 4 _
0o 90 o 180 o ea (t ) 270 o 360 o b c c
b 2
Tem (t ) 2 4
_
4 3 3b 3
0V 0V
Tem
( average) S 3
0V
3
0 CCW rotation by 45
0 o 90 o 180 o 270 o 360 o
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 135 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 136
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Four Coil Example (contd) Summary of Operating Principles
N e +I
1 2 +
Ia e
Ia
2
Ia
2
a d
+
2
+ d +3 e 1b
2
+
2
2b
+
e
+
2e
1
+
2 +
ia divides equally between two parallel circuits
+ 4 1 ea 2e
2
Torque produced on each conductor has the same direction
+_ 1 _ ia _
a ea c 1 2
a ea c ia
m
ia 4 _ 3 + 4 3 +
+
+
Direction of ia determines direction of torque
_
1 3 2 2e 2e
_
b
4
e 4b 3b e _
Ia
b Ia _ 4 3 _
+ 2 +
2
e
S 4 3 e
0
( average) rotation.
can be reduced by increasing 0o 45o 90 o 135o 180 o 225o 270 o 315o 360 o
i n
Net Torque, Tem = na B f a lr = a lrB f ia = kT ia
the number of conductors Tem 2 2
4Tcond
na na
& ea = B f l ( m r ) = lrB f m = k E m
2Tcond Tem
( average)
2 2
0 In M.K.S. Units k E = kT
0o 45o 90 o 135o 180 o 225o 270 o 315o 360 o
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 137 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 138
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winding
Increased torque in some conductors Basic equations Steady State
is compensated by decreased torque ea = k E m Tem (= TL )
Ia =
in other conductors di kT
va = ea + Ra ia + La a
dt Va I a Ra
Same reasoning holds for induced emf Tem = kT ia m =
kE
Compensating winding to reduce the d m
=
1
(Tem TL )
dt J eq
effect of armature reaction
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 139 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 140
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Operating Modes
a ia =
Four Quadrant Operation
ia
+ ia = +
Ra
m
+
Regenerative
Braking m
f + va La
Tem + Tem f
va +
+
ea = k E m
m Regenerative Braking in Motoring in Forward direction
Regenerative + m _
Forward direction a
Motoring
braking + TL
in forward Tem f
direction
in forward JM JL
ea = +
f ea = +
direction
a
ia = Tem ia = +
a
Regenerative Braking: Feeding energy back while braking m Tem , m
Tem
current and torque direction reversed Regenerative Braking in
Motoring in Reverse direction
same polarity of induced emf Reverse direction
a
f
Operation in reverse direction: polarity of applied voltage ea =
f
Tem a ea =
reversed ia = ia = +
m
Tem , m
Motoring ia < 0
Regenerative braking ia > 0
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 141 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 142
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ac to dc filter
B f reduced by reducing I f rectifier capacitor
vcontrol
kT and k E changed; kT = kt B f ; k E = ke B f ; kt = ke vtri
PWM-IC
Since I a is limited to its rated value maximum, Tem reduces
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 143 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 144
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Electronically Commutated Motor Drives Rotating Field & Stationary Conductors
(Trapezoidal waveform brush-less dc) coil
S u u
Inside out machines
a' +
ib +
0
u
m B
Electronically commutated c S
b
ecoil
a axis
S B
m
armature ic magnetic
axis of
N ecoil
+ N B
At any instant, only two sets of ea
phase a 0 u B
+
windings carry currents. As the b'
N
c'
+
total induced emf = 2N s B f lr m
b econd
Vd
+ ea
utility
a (when all turns are under common pole)
c
Polarity determined by assuming field to be stationary and
logic
shaft position signals
and the conductor moving in opposite direction
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 145 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 146
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+ a Tem,c
ec
ia Force on conductors f = Bli 0
In flat regions all turns are under same pole Excite two phases simultaneously0 ia
In sloped regions some turns are under N pole while others Total Tem = 2 (2N s B f lr ) I = kT I 0
ib
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 147 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 148
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Equivalent circuit Summary
a
ia What is the breakdown of costs in dc-motor drives relative
a
Vd
+
b + i
to ac-motor drives?
b
Vd
a + What are the two broad categories of dc motors?
Eback emf
b c
What are the two categories of power-processing units?
What is the major drawback of dc motors?
Phase-to-phase back induced emf What are the roles of commutator and brushes?
eback emf = 2e ph = 2 (2N s B f lr ) m = k E m k E = kT What is the relationship between the voltage-constant and
the torque-constant of a dc motor? What are their units?
Hysteresis current control Show the dc-motor equivalent circuit. What does the
IH
i armature current depend on? What does the induced
I desired Position 1: Pole a high, Pole b low back-emf depend on?
IL Position 2: Pole a low, Pole b high
1 2 After 60 o rotor rotation, a new pair What are the various modes of dc-motor operation? Explain
t of poles (a,c) are used these modes in terms of the directions of torque, speed, and
0
power flow.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 149 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 150
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Summary Summary
How does a dc-motor torque-speed characteristic behave
when a dc motor is applied with a constant dc voltage under How can we justify applying the equation in a situation
an open-loop mode of operation? where the conductor is stationary but the flux-density
What additional capability can be achieved by flux distribution is moving?
weakening in wound-field dc machines? How is the current controlled in a switch-mode inverter
What are various types of field windings? supplying ECM?
Show the safe operating area of a dc motor and discuss its What is the reason for torque ripple in ECM drives?
various limits.
Assuming a switch-mode power-processing unit, show the
applied voltage waveform and the induced emf for all four
modes (quadrants) of operation.
What is the structure of trapezoidal-waveform electronically-
commutated motors?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 151 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 152
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Feedback Control Objectives
Chapter 8
error error P Electric output
desired Mech
(reference) + amplifier P Machine Load
signal - U
Electrical
System Mechanical
System
measured output signal
Definitions Example
100
Open loop 50
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 157 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 158
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Va ( s ) = k PWM Vc ( s ) +
Ra + sLa
Tem ( s )
sJ eq
Tem ( s )
m ( s) =
sJ eq kE
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 159 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 160
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PI Controller Controller Design
vc, p ( s )
kp
G (s)
p
Procedure
*
X (s) vc,i ( s ) + X ( s)
ki
+ E ( s) s +
vcontrol ( s )
Design torque loop (fastest) first
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 161 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 162
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Design of the Torque (Current) Loop Design of the Torque (Current) Loop
Simplifying assumptions TL
Selecting Parameters
I a* ( s ) V ( s) 1 / Ra I a (s) Tem 1 m I a* ( s ) kiI s Va ( s ) 1 / Ra I a (s)
k PWM a + + 1+
+ +
PI kT k PWM
1 + s e sJ s kiI / k pI 1 + s e
kE
I a (s) I a (s)
+ 1+ k PWM
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
40
be ignored I a (s)
-89
Frequency (Hz)
0
Frequency (Hz)
kiI s
-89.5
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)
1 / Ra -90 -50
GI ,OL ( s ) = 1 + k
PWM
-90.5
s kiI / k p 1 + s e
PPU
-91 -100
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
motor
PI controller open loop closed loop
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 163 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 164
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Design of the Speed Loop Design of the Position Loop
* *
m ( s) k p
m ( s) m ( s) 1 m ( s)
* I a* ( s ) m ( s) 1
m ( s) I a (s) Tem ( s ) 1 + s
PI 1 kT
+ Js
m ( s)
Assume current loop to be ideal represent by unity Assume speed loop to be ideal
Choose crossover frequency an order of magnitude lower Proportional gain ( k) alone is adequate due to presence of
C P
than pure integrator
CI k
Choose a reasonable phase margin G ,OL = P k P = CP
PM , s
50 0
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
-20
0
20 -40
150
Magnitude (dB)
0
Magnitude (dB)
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)
-60
-50 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -50
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -90
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz) 0
-50 -90.5
Phase (deg)
-91 -100
Phase (deg)
-100 -1 0 1 2 3 4 10
-1 0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-50 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
-150
-200
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-100
10
-1 0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
open loop closed loop
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 165 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 166
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Introduction
Primary AC motor drives
Chapter 9 Induction motors
Permanent Magnet Brushless (Synchronous Motors)
Machines b axis
a axis
2 / 3 ia
ic
c axis
N
2 2
Ba ( ) = o H a ( ) = o s ia cos ( ) Fa , H a , Ba ( )
Total N s = 0 ns ( ) d = 0 ns sin( ) d = 2ns 2A g t1 t3
t2 t4
Ns
ns ( ) =
Ns
sin( ) 0 < < Fa ( ) = A g H a ( ) = ia cos ( )
2 2
Field quantities have different
magnitudes and units but same shape
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 173 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 174
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stator windings
b axis
ib =
b axis JJG
120 o b
Fc (t ) At time t Fs (t ) JJG
ib b
b'
ib 1 Fs (t )
JJG JJG
Ba ( ) 0 Fa (t ) Fc (t )
a axis JJG
Fa (t ) JJG a axis
a axis ia
-1 JJG
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
Fb (t ) ia = + Fb (t )
o a 1
a ' i a 0 ic =
a Bb ( ) 0
c'
ic -1
ic 1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
c axis c axis
c
c
Bc ( ) 0
Bs ( ) stator surface
Example 0
integral/derivative of sine = sine 0 3
2 5 rotor surface
o N sia
-1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
Ba ( ) = cos = 0.628 cos Wb / m 2 Complex number representation 2 2 2
2A g Ns JJG N
( )
Bb ( ) = 0.440 cos 1200 Wb / m 2 Fa ( , t ) =
2
i a ( t ) cos ( ) Fa ( t ) = s i a ( t ) 0 o
JJG 2 JJG
Bc ( ) = 0.188 cos ( 240 ) Wb / m 2
0 Similarly, Fb ( t ) = N s ib ( t ) 120o ; Fc ( t ) = N s ic ( t ) 240o
JJG JJG 2 JJG JJG 2
And Fs = Fa + Fb + Fc = Fs F
Bs ( ) = Ba ( ) + Bb ( ) + Bc ( ) = 0.967 cos ( 13.03 ) s
Similar expressions for B and H
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 175 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 176
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Example Space Vectors Representation of
N
Three-phase, sinusoidally-distributed stator with s = 50 turns
At time t , ia = 10 A, ib = 10 A and ic = 0 A 2 Combined Phase Currents and
Find F
JG Voltages
JG N
(
F ( t ) = s ia 00 + ib1200 + ic 2400
2
) Mathematical concept
= 50 {10 + ( 10 ) [cos 120 + j sin 1200 ] + ( 0 ) [cos 2400 + j sin 2400 ]}
0 b axis
120 o b
JG At time t ib
F ( t ) = 50 17.32 30 o = 866 30 o A turns b'
Fs ( ) at t JG
is (t ) = ia (t )00 + ib (t )1200 + ic (t )2400 a axis
a' a 0 o
ia
phase 'a' magnetic axis = Is (t ) i (t )
s c'
30 o ic
o
30
G c
JG = Vs (t ) vs (t ) 240 o
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 177 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 178
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JG
Physical interpretation of is (t ) Space Vector Components:
N s JG JJG
Finding Phase Currents from Current Space
2
is (t ) =
Ns
2
ia (t )00 +
Ns
2
ib (t )1200 +
Ns
2
ic (t )2400 = Fs (t ) Vector
JJG
JJG
JJ
G
b axis
G 3 120 o
Re is 00 = ia + Re ib1200 + Re ib2400 = ia
at time t
G Fa (t ) Fb (t ) Fc (t ) at time t b
G Fs (t ) Fs (t ) magnetic axis of
2
ib
is (t ) = I s (t ) = hypothetical winding
b'
Ns 2 Ns 2 1 1
with current Is ib ic
2 2 a axis
and is (t ) = Fs (t ) 2 JG o 2 a 0 o
JJG JG a axis ia (t ) = Re(is 0 ) = Is cos is a' ia
Bs (t ) = s o is (t )
2
2l g c axis
1 1 ia + ib + ic = 0
ia ic 240 o
Magnetic filed is produced by 2 2
projection
2
= ic (t )
phase b
2 JG 2 b axis
ib (t ) = Re(is 120 ) = Is cos is 120
o o
combined effect of ia , ib and ic magnetic axis 3
JG
3 3 is (t )
but could equivalently be 30 o
phase a
magnetic axis G 3
produced by hypothetical
JG
Re is 2400 = Re ia 2400 + Re ib 2400 + ic = ic
JJG
is JJG is
JG Bs 2 a axis
winding current is (t ) at is phase c
magnetic axis
1
ia
1
ib
projection
2
3
= ia (t )
2 2
helps in obtaining expression 2 JG 2 projection
2
= ib (t )
ic (t ) = Re(is 240 ) = Is cos is 240
o o 3
for torque 3 3
c axis
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 179 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 180
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Balanced Sinusoidal Steady-State
Excitation (Rotor Open-Circuited) Relation Between Space Vectors and
b 2 @ t =
Phasors
imb ima (t ) imb (t ) imc (t ) @ t = 3
3
ima (t ) imb (t ) imc (t )
ima
Im
t
Time domain Im
@ t = t = 0 0 t
a 0 t
ia (t ) = Im cos ( t )
imc t = 0
5
c 4 t = t = 0
t = @
@
3
Phasor
( ) ( )
3 ref
ima = Im cos t ; imb = Im cos t 1200 ; imc = Im cos t 2400
JJG I a = Im
I ma = Im
ims (t ) = Im cos t00 + cos( t 1200 )1200 + cos( t 2400 )2400
JJG 3 Space Vector @ t =0
ims (t ) = I ms t
where I ms = I m JJG a axis
2 3
JJJG JG ims = Ims ; Ims = Im
Rotating MMF Fms (t ) = N s is (t ) = Fms t where Fms = 3 N s Im = N s Ims t =0 JJJG
2 ims = Ims
2 2 2 2
JJJJG o N s JJG Space Vector phasor
& Flux density Bms (t ) = ims (t ) JJG 3
Ag 2 ims t =0
I ma
2
Constant amplitude
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 181 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 182
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Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 183 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 184
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Summary Summary
How is sinusoidal distribution of conductor density in
Draw the three-phase axis in the motor cross-section. Also, a phase winding approximated in practical machines with
draw the three phasors Va , Vb and Va in a balanced sinusoidal only a few slots available to each phase?
steady state. Why is the phase-b axis ahead of the phase-a How are the three field distributions (F, H, and B) related
axis by 120 degrees, but Vb lags Va by 120 degrees? to each other, assuming that there is no magnetic saturation
Ideally, what should be the field (F, H, and B) distributions in the stator and the rotor iron?
produced by each of the three stator windings? What is the What is the significance of the magnetic axis of any phase
direction of this field in the air gap? What direction is winding?
considered positive and what is considered negative? Mathematically express the field distributions in the air gap
What should the conductor-density distribution in a winding due to ia as a function of . Repeat this for ib and ic .
be in order to achieve the desired field distribution in the air What do the phasors V and I JJG denote? What
JJG are the
gap? Express the conductor-density distribution ns ( ) for meanings of the space vectors Ba (t ) and Bs (t ) at time t,
phase-a. assuming that the rotor circuit is electrically open-circuited?
What is the constraint on the sum of the stator currents?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 185 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 186
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Summary Summary
What are physical interpretations of various stator
winding inductances? With no excitation or currents in the rotor,
JJJGare JJJJ
all Gof the
JJJJG
Why is the per-phase inductance Lm greater than the single space vectors associated with the stator ims (t ), Fms (t ), Bms (t )
-phase inductance Lm,1 phase by a factor of 3/2? collinear (oriented in the same direction)?
JJG JG
What are the characteristics of space vectors which represent In ac machines, a stator space vector vs (t ) or is (t ) consists
the field distributions Fs ( ), H s ( ) and Bs ( ) at a given of a unique set of phase components. What is the condition on
time? What notations are used for these space vectors? which these components are based?
Which axis is used as a reference to express them Express the phase voltage components in terms of the stator
mathematically in this chapter? voltage space vector.
Why does a dc current through a phase winding produce a Under three-phase balanced sinusoidal condition with no
sinusoidal flux-density distribution in the air gap? rotor currents, and neglecting the stator winding resistances
How are the terminal phase voltages and currents combined Rs and the leakage inductance Lls for simplification,
for representation by space vectors? answer the following questions: (a) What is the speed at
What is the physical interpretation of the stator current which all of the space vectors rotate?
JG
space vector is (t ) ?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 187 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 188
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Summary
(b) How is the peak flux density related to the magnetizing
Chapter 10
currents? Does this relationship depend on the frequency f
of the excitation? If the peak flux density is at its rated
value, then what about the peak value of the magnetizing
Sinusoidal Permanent
currents? (c) How do the magnitudes of the applied Magnet
voltages depend on the frequency of excitation, in order to
keep the flux density constant (at its rated value for example)? AC Drives,
What is the relationship between space vectors and phasors Load-Commutated-Inverter
under balanced sinusoidal operating conditions?
Synchronous Motor Drives,
and Synchronous
Generators
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 189 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 190
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m
N m (t )
Control m (t )
Controller a axis
input S ia
a axis
ic
c axis
System level operation similar to DC machines but without
brushes - sometimes called Brush-less DC Drives
Motor essentially a synchronous machine whose field flux Permanent Magnet rotor
is provided by permanent magnets Sinusoidally distributed stator windings
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 191 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 192
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Principle of Operation Torque Calculation
JG
is
d
Magnets shaped to produce sinusoidal b axis
JJG
Br
flux density distribution JG
is ib Using f em = Bli
JJG a'
m JJG
Br (t ) = B r m (t ) = 90 oN
S N Br
Is
ia a axis
Ns
dTem ( ) = r B r cos A I cos d
Controlled stator currents S
s 2
ic flux density at cond .length
G a
diff no. of cond . at
is (t ) controlled by PPU c axis
= / 2
(controlling ia (t ), ib (t ), and ic (t ) ) such that Ns / 2 N
G JJG Tem = 2 dTem ( ) = 2 rABr I s cos 2 d = s r AB r Is
is (t ) = Is (t ) is (t ), where Is Br
= / 2 2 / 2 2
JG
0 is
is (t ) = m (t ) + 90 m N
N Tem = k Is , where the machine torque constant, kT = s r A B r
2
T
= 90 maximizes torque/ampere
o
a axis
Tem
m
f = 90 o JJG Motor Load
N S S N Br
(stationary)
TL
a
(stationary)
d m Tem TL
DC motor Brush-Less DC motor drive m = =
JJG dt J eq
Stationary f produced Br produced by rotor magnets
by stator windings and
JG rotates with the rotor m (t ) = m (0 ) + ot m ( ) d
a produced by rotating rotor is produced by stator winding
windings and is made currents and is made to rotate m (t ) = m (0 ) + ot m ( ) d
stationary by commutator at rotor speed by the action of
action the PPU
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 195 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 196
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Calculation of the Reference Example
Values: ia* , ib* and ic*
kT = 0.5 Nm/A b axis JJG
Br
Reference values are generated by the controller based on To produce a counter clockwise ib
desired torque output and rotor position holding torque of 5 Nm at m = 45 JG
is
45o
Reference values tell the PPU what stator currents to deliver T
135o
N
Is = em = 10 A
Starting with the desired torque and known rotor position, the kT a axis
ia
desired stator currents are found as follows: 0
is = m + 90 = 135 0
S
*
JG ic
(Tem , m ) (is ) (ia* , ib* , ic* ) G
is = Is is = 10 1350
c axis
*
T (t ) 2 G 2
Is* (t ) = em ia* (t ) = Re is* (t ) = Is* (t )cos i*s (t ) ia =
2
I s cos is = 4.71 A ib =
2
I s cos( is 1200 ) = 6.44 A
3 3
kT 3 3
2 G 2
ib* (t ) = Re is* (t ) 1200 = Is* (t )cos( i*s (t ) 1200 )
i*s (t ) = m (t ) + 900 3 3
ic =
2
I s cos( is 2400 ) = 1.73 A
G 2 G 2 3
is* (t ) = Is* (t ) i*s (t ) ic* (t ) = Re is* (t ) 2400 = Is* (t )cos( i*s (t ) 2400 )
3 3 Stator currents are dc in this example.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 197 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 198
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m
JG Voltage Constant:
2. The rotating flux-density distribution due to rotating is (t )
space vector induces an emf in the stator windings. V Nm N
kE = kT = r A s B r
rad / s A 2
JJJG 3 3 o
ems , JJ
G
Br (t ) = j 2 k E m m (t ) = 2 k E m ( m (t ) + 90 )
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 199 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 200
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Net induced EMF in the stator
Induced EMF in the
JG Stator
JJJG Windings due windings JJJG
to Rotating is (ems ,iJG )
s m
JJJG
ems
( ems (t ) )
t =0
JJJJJJG
ems, iJG
JJJG JJJG s
es ,iJG (t ) = j m Lm is (t ) JJG
s N
Br
Space vector diagram Phasor diagram for phase-a
= m Lm Is ( m (t ) + 90 o + 90 o ) m
JJG
Br JJJG JJJG JJJG
is (t ) ems (t ) = ems , JJG
B
(t ) + ems ,iJG (t )
r s
JJJG 3 JG
Lm : Magnetizing inductance ems (t ) = k E m( m (t ) + 90 o ) + j m Lm is (t )
2
2
Ema = k E m( m (t ) + 90 o ) + j m Lm I a
3
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 201 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 202
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Ia ref axis
2
E a,BG = E ms ,BG =k E m = E fa Control
Controller
m (t )
r 3 r input
Lm : Magnetizing inductance
Ls = LAs + Lm
Lls : Stator leakage inductance
Controller determines desired phase currents based on
Va = E fa + j m Ls I a + Rs I a
desired torque and motor position
Rs can often be ignored
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 203 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 204
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Load-Commutated-Inverter (LCI)
Hysterisis current control Supplied Synchronous Motor Drives
Id
If
Ld
ac line
actual current input
reference current
+ phase a Synchronous
Vd Line-commutated Load-commutated
t motor
0 converter inverter
3 E f V
Angle between rotor flux and stator flux not necessarily 90o Pem = sin
2 Xs
allowing generator to sink or source VARS For angles between -90o and +90o rotor speed remains locked to
line frequency
When the machine is asked to either supply or absorb to much power
the angle will move outside the 90 o range. In this situation the rotor
will no longer be synchronized to the line and will either speed up out
of control or slow down. In either case excessive currents should trip the
circuit breakers.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 207 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 208
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Adjusting Reactive Power and Power Summary
Factor List various names associated with the PMAC drives and the
E fa E fa
jX s I a
E fa
90 o
jX s I a reasons behind them.
jX s I a
Va I a ,q { Ia
Draw the overall block diagram of a PMAC drive. Why
Ia Va
I a ,q Ia
Va must they operate in a closed-loop?
90 o How do sinusoidal PMAC drives differ from the ECM
drives described in Chapter 7?
Unity Power Factor Operation
Ideally, what are the flux-density distributions produced
For every operating condition there is one value of field current that will
cause the generator to deliver only real power.
by the rotor and the stator phase windings?
What does the space vector represent?
Over-excitation In PMAC drives, why at all times is the space vector
Increasing field current causes generator to supply more reactive power. placed 90 degrees ahead of the space vector in the intended
Under-excitation direction of rotation?
When field current is decreased below the value for Unity Power Factor Why do we need to measure the rotor position in PMAC
operation, the generator will absorb reactive power. drives?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 209 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 210
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Summary Summary
What does the electromagnetic torque produced by a Does in the per-phase equivalent circuit of a PMAC machine
PMAC drive depend on? have the same expression as in Chapter 9? Describe the
How can regenerative braking be accomplished in PMAC differences, if any.
drives? Draw the per-phase equivalent circuit and describe its
Why are PMAC drives called self-synchronous? How is the various elements in PMAC drives.
frequency of the applied voltages and currents determined? Draw the controller block diagram and describe the hysteresis
Are they related to the rotational speed of the shaft? control of PMAC drives.
In a p-pole PMAC machine, what is the angle of the space What is an LCI-synchronous motor drive? Describe it briefly.
vector in relation to the phase-a axis, for a given ? For what purpose are line-connected synchronous generators
What is the frequency of currents and voltages in the stator used?
circuit needed to produce a holding torque in a PMAC drive? Why are there problems of stability and loss of synchronism
In calculating the voltages induced in the stator windings associated with line-connected synchronous machines?
of a PMAC motor, what are the two components that are How can the power factor associated with synchronous
superimposed? Describe the procedure and the expressions. generators be made to be leading or lagging?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 211 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 212
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Induction Motors
Chapter 11
Adjustable speed drives
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 213 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 214
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ib
2 / 3
Structure 2 / 3
2 / 3 ia
a axis
ic
Principle of operation
c axis
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 215 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 216
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Electrically Open-circuited
Stator Representation Rotor
Vc Vc
va va
+ + + + I mc
vb vb I mb
vb ib ia ib ia
vb
+ +
Va
n va + Va n va +
vc vc vc vc
+ +
+ ic + ic Vb I ma
Vb
Assumptions : Rs, Ls,leakage = 0 Only magnetizing currents are present because rotor is inert
va (t ) = 2 E cos(2 ft )
Magnetizing currents set up rotating flux
2
vb (t ) = 2 E cos(2 ft -
) V G 3
3 Im = ims (t ) = Im ( t - )
4 Lm 2 2
vc (t ) = 2 E cos(2 ft - )
3 3
syn = = 2 f (for a 2-pole machine) ima (t ) = Im cos( t - / 2), etc. Ims = Im
2
2 2 G 3 3
syn = = (2 f ) (for a p-pole machine) vs (t ) = V t Vs = V
p p 2 2
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 217 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 218
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syn
I ma
Transformer Analogy
phase Va + m
90 o
G a axis
vs j Lm im + i2 i2
Va
+
I ma v1 N1 N2 Load
syn
JJJJG JJJG
Bms , ims
JJJJG
Bms is a constant magnitude, rotating flux
G 3 Assuming no resistances or leakage inductance in the
ims (t ) = Im ( t - / 2) = Ims ( t - / 2)
2 stator windings, the stator voltages completely determine
G
G N s ims the motor flux regardless of any rotor currents
H ms (t ) =
2A g
G G G N Flux m is unaffected by the load
Bms (t ) = 0 H m (t ) Bms (t ) = 0 s Ims ( t - / 2)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 2A g 219 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 220
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Induced Voltages on Rotor Induced Currents in Rotor
at t = 0
ebar
+
at t = 0 syn
m +
JJG a axis + Rbar
+ + vs +
+ + +
m syn
JJG a axis +
+ + vs + ibar ( )
+ +
+ syn +
+
JJJJG front + back end-ring
Bms
syn end-ring
JJJJG
Bms
syn
Bms
r i ms slip slip
f slip = f = sf
JJJJG
Bms syn
G slip + m = syn
GFr produced by rotor currents
Fr produced by additional stator currents to keep total flux
unchanged (transformer analogy) G
These currents are viewed as a current space vector ir Slip is rotor speed normalized to synchronous speed
Total stator current is magnetizing current plus this reflected Slip generally small (< 3%), therefore rotor current
rotor current frequency is very low
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 223 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 224
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Electromagnetic Torque Torque Speed Characteristics
Production (slip small ; m near syn)
A
m
at t = 0
Tem, rated
syn,rated
slip,rated
0
Tem
N syn , ratedm
Tem,rated 0
m,rated slip,rated
JJJJG
Bms
G G Linear relationship
Current ir , in field Bms , produces torque Tem These curves are valid up to rated torque
N
Tem = s r A B ms Ir = ke B ms
2
slip
2
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 225 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 226
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at t = 0 A r
m
JJG
JJJG JJG Fr syn
Fr ' Fr a axis r a axis JJG
JJG Fr r a axis
JJJG vs (t ) JJG
F '
r
r vs
r JJJJG JJJG
ims JJG Fr '
ir '
syn
JJJJG JJJG
Bms ims
syn
For generation or for braking in either case rotor speed exceeds JJJJG
Bms JJJJG syn
is
when motor is operating near synchronous Space Vectors Equivalent Circuit Phasor Diagram
speed (below the rated torque)
+
I ra +
I ra
syn Rr ' Pr , loss Ia I ra '
Va j Lm syn Rs
Rr ' Va
slip Va j Lm Rr '
slip m j Lls j Llr ' j Lls I a
Rr ' Pem +
+
slip syn
Ema Rs I a
Va I ma I ma
Ema Rr ' I ra
(at ) slip Ia
j Lm
Power in resistor is power into the rotor circuit Resistor split to indicate rotor loss and
mechanical power
No Load Test ( Lm )
j Lm
Blocked Rotor Test ( Rr , Lls , Llr )
Approximate Circuit
( Lm >> Ll ) (Rs negligible)
20 4.0 Tem
Tem
3.0
10
2.0 I ma
0 25 50 75 100 125 1.0
Load (%) m TL
0 m
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 syn
slip ,rated
slip steady state speed
Typical for design B 10 kW, 4 pole, three-phase induction motor
Current vs. Speed Accelerating Torque
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 237 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 238
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Summary/Review Summary/Review
What makes an induction machine go into the regenerative-
What is the definition of slip s, and how does it relate the
braking mode? Draw the space vectors and the corresponding
frequency of voltages and currents in the stator circuit to that in
phasors under the regenerative-braking condition.
the rotor circuit?
Can an induction machine be operated as a generator that feeds
What is the speed of rotation of the mmf distribution produced
into a passive load, for example a bank of three-phase
by the rotor bar currents: (a) with respect to the rotor? (b) in the
resistors?
air gap with respect to a stationary observer?
How is it possible to reverse the direction of rotation of an
Assuming Llr to be zero, what is the expression for the torque
? induction machine?
Tem produced? How and why does it depend on slip and B ms
Explain the effect of including the rotor leakage flux by means
Draw the torque-speed characteristic.
of a space vector diagram.
Assuming Llr to be zero, explain how induction motors meet
How do we derive the torque expression, including the effect
load-torque demand.
of Llr ?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 243 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 244
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Summary/Review Summary/Review
G G G
What is Br (t ) and howG does it differ from Bms (t ) ? Is Br (t ) Is the torque expression in Eq. 11-41 valid in the presence of the
perpendicular to the Fr (t ) space vector? rotor leakage inductance and the stator leakage impedance?
Including the rotor leakage flux, which rotor bars have the highest When producing a desired torque Tem, what is the power loss in
currents at any instant of time? the rotor circuit proportional to?
What clue do we have for the vector control of induction Draw the per-phase equivalent circuit, including the stator
machines, to emulate the performance of brush-type and brush- leakage impedance.
less dc motors discussed in Chapters 7 and 10? Describe the tests and the procedure to obtain the parameters of
Describe how to obtain the per-phase equivalent circuit, including the per-phase equivalent circuit.
the effect of the rotor leakage flux. In steady state, how is the mechanical torque at the shaft
What is the difference between Ira in Fig. 11-18c and in Fig. 11- different than the electromechanical torque Tem developed by the
19c, in terms of its frequency, magnitude, and phase angle? machine?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 245 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 246
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Summary/Review
Do induction machines have voltage and torque constants similar
to other machines that we have studied so far? If so, write their
expressions. Chapter 12
Plot the torque-speed characteristic of an induction motor for
applied rated voltages. Describe various portions of this
characteristic.
What are the various classes of induction machines? Briefly
Induction Motor Drives:
describe their differences. Speed Control
What are the problems associated with the line-starting of
induction motors? Why is the starting currents so high?
Why is reduced-voltage starting used? Show the circuit
implementation and discuss the pros and cons of using it to save
energy.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 247 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 248
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Induction Motor Drives :
Speed Control Rotor Losses
PPU
Induction
Load Sensors Power crossing air gap to rotor:
motor
Pr = Tem syn
Tem
TL
If flux is kept constant, slope will be the same at
Large flux density allows low slip every frequency
as large as possible maintain at B
Keep B Load torque and speed are met by adjusting
ms ms,rated
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 251
frequency
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 252
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Maintaining B Over Operating ms,rated
Over Operating
Maintaining B ms,rated
{
Va,rated
Va at rated torque
k=
f rated slip,start
inertia
fstart
voltage Va Va,rated
boost = constant =
f frated
0 50% 100%
t
{
V at zeroTem
slope a
Rs I
I 'ra
ra,rated
0 frated f ( Hz) Tem
, (%)
For large torques, considerable voltage boost is Tem ,rated I ra ,rated
Copyright needed
Ned Mohanat low frequencies. This is the R s Ira term.
2003 255 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 256
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Capability Below and Above Braking in Induction Motor Drives
Rated Speed speed of airgap
field syn
P
m m m > syn
P
m , rated U slip = negative
Rated power
capability
Tem
1 .0 Tem
= constant
B ms
f0 Tem0
Rated torque Motoring
capability mod e
f1
0
m
0 1 .0 Tem R r Generation syn1
m syn 0 m
Tem , rated mod e
Tem1 < 0
At harmonic frequencies R e q Rr
PPU with switching frequency of 800 Hz generating a fundamental Magnetizing inductance can be ignored
sine wave of 50 Hz Harmonic currents controlled by leakage inductance
Frequency spectrum shows large 50 Hz component and smaller
V
components at higher frequencies due to switching I ah
Xlr,h )
ah
Copyright
TheseNed higher
Mohan frequency
2003 components add to the losses in the motor
261 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003
(X ls,h + 262
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Lm
+
losses), why is it most efficient to keep the flux-density peak in
Lls (t ) Llr ,1 (t )
vbr
the air gap at the rated value?
ib (t ) Rs irb Rr
Lm
+
Since an induction motor is operated at different values of
,1 (t )
vcr
frequency, hence different values of synchronous speed, how is
ic (t ) R Lls (t )
irc Llr
s Rr +
the slip speed defined?
Lm
Supplying a load that demands a constant torque independent of
Fundamental frequency drop across resistor replaced with speed, what is the slip speed at various values of the frequency f
AC voltage source of the applied voltages?
Harmonic currents produce voltage across R r
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 263 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 264
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Summary/Review
To keep the flux density peak in the air gap at the rated value,
why do the voltage magnitudes, at a given frequency of Chapter 13
operation, depend on the torque supplied by the motor?
At start-up, why should small-frequency voltages be applied
initially? What determines the rate at which the frequency can
be ramped up?
Vector Control of Induction-
At speeds below the rated value, what is the limit on the torque Motor Drives: A Qualitative
that can be delivered, and why?
At speeds above the rated values, what is the limit on the power Examination
that can be delivered, and why? What does it mean for the
torque that can be delivered above the rated speed?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 265 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 266
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JG
is (t ) Is
ia JJG
Sa
ia Br (t )
+ 0 t
La 90 o
N m
N S f P 0 t Tem = kT Is
P va Ra S a axis Tem
Tem
U + Tem = kT ia
Na ea Tem
0
t
a
0
t
Tem = kT IS
Tem = kT ia
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 267 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 268
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Vector-Controlled Induction Analogy to a Current-
Motor Drive Excited Transformer
With a Shorted
JJG
Fr (t )
JJG
Secondary
r vs (t ) IM
P m,i2 m,i1
JJG a axis P Tacho
ir '(t ) JJJG U
r Fr '(t ) R2 shown explicitly
JJG i2
Br (t ) current
i1
feedback R2 v2 = 0
JJJJG speed feedback i1 l 2 short
Bms (t ) t
JJJG 0
Blr (t )
net = 0
N:N
G G G 2 (0+ ) = 2 (0- ) = 0
Br (t ) perpendicuar to Fr(t ) and Fr (t )
m,i (0+ ) = m,i (0+ ) + A 2 (0+ )
Tem = kT Ir' (keeping B r constant) 1 2
Lm
+
i 2 (0 ) = i1 (0+ )
L2
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 269 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 270
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isq = 0 t = 0
2 G m,isd
isd = the projection of is (t) vector along the d-axis
3 JG
is d axis
JJG
2 G Br
isd isd
isq = the projection of is (t) vector along the q-axis
3 0 t
q axis
1
i a (0- ) = I m,rated and i b (0- ) = i c (0- ) = - I m,rated
b axis b axis at t q axis
at t b axis at t
ib JG
is
isq JG
is
d axis
JG
is 2
d axis
a axis
isd
2 2 3 3
ia a axis
projection
a axis
isd (0- ) = Ims,rated = ( I m,rated ) = I m,rated
3 3 2 2
projection
2
isq = projection 2
ic 3 isd = projection
3
c axis c axis c axis isq = 0
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 271 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 272
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Step Change in Torque at t = 0- Flux Densities at t = 0+
slip
isq
m = 0 t = 0+
isq
m,isq
m,ir
lr slip
JJJJG
JJG
Br
a axis
Bms JJJG t = 0+
isd
isd Blr
net = 0
0 t
a axis
m = 0 JJG
Br
Isd unchanged
Step-change in isq
q,net = 0
m,i (0 ) = m,i (0 ) + Ar (0 )
+ + +
sq r
, Lm i
Tem B r sq
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 Lr Audio TOC
273 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003
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274
R1 Ll1
Ll2 R2 i2
t >0 JJG isd
Br
a axis
i1 u (t ) Lm im v2 = R2 i2 (0 + ) u (t )
net = 0
+
R r , (L m /L r )isq
slip
B r
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 275 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 276
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Vector-Controlled Condition Similarity Between Voltage-Fed
With a Rotor Speed m and Vector-Controlled
Induction Machines in Steady
State
q axis
syn t >0
isq
isq m,isq
m,ir
syn
lr d axis JJG
vs
r at t
JJG isd
Br JJG JJJG
m isd ims JG JJG
a axis
is ir '
net = 0
r JJG
isq
JJG JJJJG
Br Bms
JJJG
Blr
syn = m + slip
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 277 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 278
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Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 279 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 280
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Summary/Review Summary/Review
G
How is torque controlled in brush-type dc drives and How are isd and isq obtained from the is space vector?
brushless-dc drives? At the end of the initial flux build-up process at t = 0-, are
In a sentence, describe the vector control of induction-motor there any currents in the rotor bar?
drives that emulates the performance of dc drives. Why is it How are the currents induced in the rotor bars at t = 0+ ?
more challenging? What needs to be done to maintain the torque produced at t =
What does the Theorem of Constant Flux Linkage state? 0+ ?
In words, what does the analogy of a transformer with the Why does the slip speed at which the d-axis and q-axis
short-circuited secondary, and excited by a step-current windings need to be rotated, to maintain the torque produced
conclude? beyond t = 0+, depend on various quantities as given in Eq.
What is the reason for introducing the d-axis and the q-axis 13-12?
windings? Describe the similarity between voltage-fed induction
Without the details, state the reason for choosing 3/2 N s 2 machines and vector-controlled induction machines.
as the number of turns in the d-axis and q-axis windings. Describe the control block diagram of vector control.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 281
Describe DTC and its objectives.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 282
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Reluctance Drives
Stepper Motor and Switched
Reluctance Drives
Chapter 14
Reluctance Drives
Stepper Motor drives
Reluctance Drives: - Accurate position control without feedback
- Electrical pulse input gives discrete angle change
Stepper-Motor and Switched- - Types: Variable Reluctance
Permanent Magnet
Reluctance Drives Hybrid
step angle l
pulse
input + RS 2
0 t
0 t
1
T 1
at +
e(t )
at
i
Each pulse moves motor a discrete angle step angle 0 i1
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 285 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 286
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ic
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 287 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 288
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Variable - Reluctance Stepper Permanent Magnet Stepper
Motors (cont) Motor
= 0o = 45o
= 90o =135o
A A
N B S B B
N B S
S N
Rotor and stator saliency z S z N
N S S N
z
A N S S N A
A S N N S A z
S N
N S
N N S B
S N
B B S S
Unequal number of poles
N
A B
A
stator pole A
S N N S A = 180o
zS
N
A
360 0
q = number of phases
step-angle =
qN r N r = number of rotor poles
Permanent magnets replace salient poles of variable-
reluctance motor
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 289 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 290
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air gap
stator
outer casing 1
1
8 2
L' R' S S N 8 N 2
1 S S N N
rotor N
S 4 tooth N
pitch S
7 S 3 N
S 7 N 3
N
Uses both rotor saliency and permanent magnets on rotor S
S
N
N S S4 N
Saliency on ends of rotor ends not lined up 6 S
5
6
N N N S4
i ph
ib
+ R ph
L ph
v ph
+
e ph
Phase winding T2
D2
Rsense
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 295 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 296
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Switched-Reluctance Motor
PPU for PM and Hybrid Drives
Stepper-Motor
= -30o = 0o
ia ia
+ a
T1 D1 T3 D3 = 0o
Phase winding
Vd
= -30o
D4 + v ph D2 ia
T2
T4
Variable-reluctance stepper-motor
Phase currents must be reversible Closed-loop, uses feedback
Motor goes into saturation
Complete switch poles used Rugged, inexpensive
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 297 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 298
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Summary/Review Summary/Review
What are the three broad categories of reluctance drives?
How is the principle on which reluctance drives operate What is the nature of power-processing units in stepper-motor
different than that seen earlier with other drives? drives?
Write down the reluctance torque expression. What does the Describe the operating principles of switched-reluctance drives.
direction of torque depend on? What are the application areas of switched-reluctance drives?
Describe the operating principle of a variable-reluctance
stepper-motor.
Describe the operating principle of a permanent-magnet stepper-
motor.
Describe the operating principle of a hybrid stepper-motor.
What is the equivalent-circuit representation of a stepper-motor?
How is half-stepping and micro-stepping achieved in stepper-
motors?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 299 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 300
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Energy Efficiency of
Electric Drives and
Inverter-Motor
Chapter 15 Interactions
Motor Losses
Energy Efficiency of Electric
Harmonic Losses
Drives and Inverter-Motor
Interactions PPU Losses
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 301 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 302
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70
losses) 1, 000
Load loss
20
Friction and Windage Losses (5% - 10% of motor losses) Core loss
Friction and windage
10
dependent
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 303 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 304
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Switching Frequency
Premium Efficiency Motors Harmonics Effect on
100
Motor Losses
95 Premium efficiency
90
Efficiency (%) Standard efficiency
85
80
Core losses increased
75
Stator and rotor I2R losses increased
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
Rating (kW) Stray load losses increased
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 305 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 306
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Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 307 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 308
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Deleterious Effects of Summary/Review
PWM Inverter Voltage
Waveform on Motor Life What is the definition of energy efficiency of electric drives?
What are the various mechanisms of losses in motors, assuming
a sinusoidal excitation?
How do the losses and the efficiency depend on motor speed,
Derate motor (10%) because of increased losses assuming a constant torque loading?
Large dv/dt What are premium-efficiency motors? How much more
Insulation stress efficient are they, compared to standard motors?
Shaft currents (currents through bearings) What are the effects of switching-frequency harmonics on the
motor? How much should the motor be de-rated?
What is the typical range associated with the energy efficiency
of power-processing units and of overall drives?
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 309 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 310
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Summary/Review
Discuss the economics and the payback period of using
premium-efficiency motors.
Describe the various deleterious effects of PWM-inverter
Chapter 16
output voltage waveforms. Describe the techniques for
mitigating these effects.
Powering Electric Drives: Power
Quality Issues
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 311 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 312
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Powering Electric Linear and Nonlinear Loads
Drives: Power Quality
Issues is
Power
Processing Motor Load Linear Load
fixed Unit
form speed /
Electric Source adjustable position
(utility)
form
Sensors
Controller P
PF = = cos
Vs Is
input command
(speed / position)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 313 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 314
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0 t 0 t 0.9
1 /
0.8
T1
0.7
PF
Non-linear Load (PPU) DPF 0.6
0.5
IEEE 519
Limits on allowable harmonic currents drawn by loads of various
relative magnitudes
Relative magnitude of load currents is based on Short Circuit Diode-bridge rectifiers
Ratio (SCR) Switch-mode converters
Thyristor converter
Isc
SCR = Where Isc is the short circuit current and Is1 is the fundamental
Is1 current of the load
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 317 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 318
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Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 319 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 320
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Three-Phase Diode-Rectifier Voltage and Current Without Cd
Bridge
va vb vc ia
120 o
idr 0 60 o
0 t
t
va Ls 1 3 5 ib
+
vb 0
+ Ls + vo
(a) t
vd Cd Req
ic
vc Ls 2VLL Vd
+ 0
0 t
t
4 6 2
va Ls
+
3
1
idr VP follows whichever phase voltage is most positive at any
P
vb
+ Ls 5 moment
vc
4 VN follows whichever phase voltage is most negative at any
Ls 6
+
2
N moment
Without Cd, phase currents flow for a full 120 duration
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 321 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 322
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vs is
is iL
is t
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 325 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 326
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Rectifier P motoring
mode
P regenerative
Inverter braking mode
va (t ) ia (t ) i A (t ) e (t )
+ + A
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 327 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 328
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Bi-Directional Power Flow Phase-Controlled Thyristor
(cont) Converters
DC Motor Drives
ia ,1 (t ) iA,1 (t )
+ + + +
va (t ) vao ,1 (t ) vao ,1 (t ) eA ( t )
sinusoidal More economical when response is not critical
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 329 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 330
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Angle is adjustable
Increasing lowers Vd Converter can pass power both directions
Vd = 0.9 Vs cos
Vd can be made negative with large values of
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 333 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 334
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va ia 1 + regenerative motoring CW
va ia + conv1 conv2
1 3 5 P dc braking CCW conv 2: rectifier
+ 3 motor conv 2: inverter
Ls vd
vb 5 +
+ Tem , I d
Id vd
4 + regenerative
vc motoring CCW
+ 6 conv 1: rectifier braking CW
+
2 N conv 1: inverter
4 6 2
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 337 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 338
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Ls1
is vs
v pcc Ls1 + Ls2
Ls1 + Ls2
+
vs v pcc
t
other
loads Many drives are designed to tolerate disturbances within the
CBEMA limits shown (Computer and Business Equipment
Manufactures Association)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 339 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 340
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Handling Outages and Voltage Summary/Review
Sags
How is the power factor (PF) defined with linear loads?
Capacitor
Rectifier Inverter How does the definition of power factor change with loads
which draw distorted currents?
Injection What is meant by the distortion component of the current?
transformer
How is the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) defined?
AC
source
thyristor L
What is the Displacement Power Factor (DPF)? What is it equal
switch o
a to in linear loads which draw sinusoidal waveform currents?
d
back-up
switch
What is the power factor equal to in terms of the displacement
power factor?
What are the deleterious effects of a high THD and a poor power
factor?
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) What are the various harmonic guidelines? Briefly describe the
DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer) IEEE-519 and the rationale behind it.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 341 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 342
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Summary/Review Summary/Review
What is the most common type of front-end used to interface What is a good solution for a three-phase PFC in systems where
drives with single-phase and three-phase utility systems? the power is not fed back into the utility grid?
Briefly describe the operation of single-phase diode-rectifier In the case of a bi-directional power flow, assuming a three-phase
bridges with a large capacitor at the dc output. Why is the current utility input, draw the complete topology of the power-processing
drawn by these highly distorted? What is the impact of the values unit. How can we analyze it in steady state on a per-phase basis?
of Ls and Cd on the input current waveform? For which type of motor drives are thyristor converters still used?
Repeat the previous question for a three-phase diode-rectifier Describe phase control and its effect on the simplest possible
bridge. thyristor circuit.
How do single-phase and three-phase rectifier bridges compare in Describe the operation of a single-phase, full-bridge thyristor
terms of performance? At higher power levels, if there is a converter. How is the average value of the output voltage
choice available, why is one much more favorable than the other? controlled?
Describe the operating principle of the single-phase power-factor- Describe current commutation and the effect of Ls on the
corrected (PFC) circuit, where the power flow is unidirectional. operation of a single-phase, full-bridge thyristor converter.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 343 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 344
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Summary/Review
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 345 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 346
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vB
Light-
reciever
LED circuit