Notebook Three

There are four general steps that take place when constructing diagnostic radiographic
film:
There must be a base
Adhesive
Emulsion with crystals
Supercoat

The base of radiographic diagnostic film is made of cellulose triacetate. The base,
back in World War I, was originally made with glass. Shortly after, there was a shortage
with glass so manufacturers switched to cellulose nitrate. This material was highly
flammable so in the 1920s, cellulose nitrate was introduced.
The film base must be flexible yet tough, rigid, and uniformly lucent. It contains a
blue dye tint to reduce eyestrain for the radiologist when reading the image. The base is
often coated with a special substance to prevent light from one screen crossing over to the
other, which causes blurring of the image.

A thin coating of adhesive is applied to the base material before it is coated with
emulsion. This coating is designed to glue the emulsion to the base and to prevent
distortion or bubbles when the film is being processed, handled, or developed.

The emulsion is composed of gelatin in which photosensitive silver halide crystals

are suspended. The silver halide crystals (or grains) are silver bromide, silver iodide, and
silver chloride. 95-98% of these halides are silver bromide while the remainder are silver
iodine. The silver halide crystals must have an impurity added, usually gold-silver sulfide, to
form sensitivity specks. Sensitivity specks serve as electrodes to attract the free silver
ions. The emulsion is spread evenly on the base ranging from 0.0002inches-0.0004inches
in thickness. The purpose of the emulsion is to act as a neutral lucent suspension medium
for the silver halide crystals that must be separated from one another to permit processing
chemicals to reach them. There are a few things the gelatin does to help the image:
It serves as a nonreactive medium through which chemicals can diffuse to reach the
silver halides
It distributes the crystals evenly over the surface to prevent clumping of the silver
halides which would cause one area of the film to be more photosensitive than
another area
The gelatin must also be clear to allow light to travel through it evenly and it must be flexible
enough so when the film is being handled and bent, it doesnt distort the image.
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 Lastly, there is the supercoat layer. This layer is a hard, protective gelatin that is
designed to prevent the soft emulsion underneath it from being physically or chemically
abused by scratches, abrasions from stacking, and oils from skin when being handled.
This supercoat also prevents the film from becoming static. When the supercoat is applied,
it is nearly impossible to tear the film.

There are two types of film:

Single-emulsion
Double-emulsion
Single-emulsion film has the adhesive, emulsion, and supercoat on one side of the
base, while double-emulsion film has adhesive, emulsion, and supercoat on both sides of
the base.

Single Emulsion Radiographic Film

Radiographic film normally has emulsion just on one side, while diagnostic
radiographic film has emulsion on both sides
There are special radiographic films though that are coated on one side only like
duplication, mammography, and fine-detail extremity films.
An antihalation coating is sometimes applied to the back of single-emulsion film.
This coating is designed to absorb the light coming from the emulsion and prevent
backscatter, visible light, or reflected light from degrading the image.
Single-emulsion film must be loaded with the emulsion toward the intensifying
screen.
You can tell which side is coated with emulsion because it will appear dull
while the other side of the film will appear shiny.
There is an identifying notch cut in the lower left corner of single-emulsion film with
LL to make it easy to remember when loading it

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Double-Emulsion Radiographic Film
Also known as duplitized or double-coated film
This is when the emulsion is applied to both sides of the film base
Most diagnostic radiographic film is coated with emulsion on both sides of the film
base

1. Base
2. Adhesive
3. Emulsion
4. Supercoat

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 The photons that go through the patient and reach the emulsion of the film are
primarily light photons from the intensifying screens that are in contact with the film. X-ray
photons are still involved in the production of the image. This deposits energy from the
photon within the lattice of the silver halide crystals. The latent image is the unseen change
in the atomic structure of the crystal lattice that results in the production of a visible image.

Intensifying screens are used to amplify the incoming x-ray beam and reduce patient
dose. When intensifying screens are struck by x-rays, they produce large quantities of light
photons. They intensify the latent imaging power of the beam. Less than 33% of the x-ray
photons that strike the cassette interact with the intensifying screen. Over 99% of the latent
film image is formed by this light, with less than 1% contributed by x-ray photons.

Intensifying screens are composed of radiolucent plastic, coated with phosphors

that will emit light when struck by x-ray photons. They are mounted in pairs inside the top
and bottom of a lightproof cassette so that a sheet of radiographic film can be sandwiched
tightly between them.

An intensifying screen consists of a:

Base
Reflective Layer
Phosphor Layer
Protective Coat
The base is made of polyester plastic and is 1mm thick. It must be flexible, tough,
rigid, chemically inert, and uniformly radiolucent.

The base material is not transparent to light so a special layer of reflective material
is used to reflect light towards the film. This material is usually magnesium oxide or titanium
oxide and it is about 23um thick. When a phosphor is struck by an x-ray photon, it will emit
light in all directions. So, when a reflective layer is added, nearly twice as much light is
reflected toward the film. This increase in light striking the film assists in creating the latent
image and decreases the dose of radiation to the patient.

A protective coat of plastic, about 25um thick, is added on top of the phosphor
layer. This coating protects the phosphor layer from any damages that might happen while
loading and unloading films.

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1. Base
2. Reflective Layer
3. Phosphor
4. Protective Coating

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