Eng1004 Course Booklet

ENG 1004
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
AND
ACADEMIC REPORTING II
COURSE BOOKLET
ENG 1004 COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND ACADEMIC REPORTING II
COURSE BOOKLET
Course Information:
This course aims to enhance English language learning skills in an academic setting
according to the B2 level academic language skills defined in the Common European
Framework. With a focus on communication skills and academic reporting, it offers an
integrated approach to academic language learning that aims to develop competence in using
critical reading and guided writing as a means of reporting and evaluation. Throughout the
semester the learning process gives you the opportunity to make connections with your own
background knowledge, generate questions or derive answers from texts, summarize main
ideas, identify examples, draw inferences, analyze the language components of what is read,
learn complex sentence structuring, understand unity, learn how to guess vocabulary from
context, develop note-taking skills, and organize new information in a clear and easily
understood style and format using in-text citation and end-text reference. On successful
completion of this course, you are expected to effectively apply all the skills you have learned
to new contexts in an academic environment.
Course Objectives:
1. to demonstrate academic language learning strategies with examples
2. to transfer the fundamentals of Academic English
3. to illustrate academic language use with examples
4. to report results and comments in an academic style and format
Course Learning Outcomes:
1. to guess unknown vocabulary from context
2. to use complex sentence structures and academic phrases
3. to identify the audience, tone, and purpose in academic writing
4. to analyze coherence, cohesion, and unity in academic writing
5. to summarize
6. to paraphrase
7. to apply rules and conventions of academic writing
8. to write a piece of writing in academic language
All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,or stored in a data base or retrieval system, 1
without the prior written permission of the BAU SFL Modern Languages Department.
Course Assessment:
Weekly tests on itslearning (40%)

A Midterm Exam (20%)
A Final Exam (40%)
Course Principles:
You are responsible for attending classes. If you are absent for 11 hours in class, you
will get NA, which means you are not allowed to take the Final Exam and Btnleme.
You can attend your instructors other sections (or another instructors sections with
the permission of your instructor) in the case of necessity by informing your
instructor beforehand. Thus, you will not lose your attendance.
Excuses such as permissions to participate in an activity of the university should

be submitted to Modern Languages Department secretary.
Course Requirements:
You are responsible for reading the assigned texts, doing the related tasks in the
course booklet, bringing the course booklet to the lesson, and completing the
weekly tests on itslearning before coming to the lesson.
You are required to keep vocabulary and grammar notes in the classroom and while
doing the tests on itslearning. You need to bring them to the lesson.
You are responsible for following all the announcements and checking your e-mail
account on itslearning every day. You can download the mobile app.
You need to get regular feedback about your performance from your instructor. You
need to arrange face-to-face or online tutorials.
You are responsible for knowing your instructors office hours, extension number, and
e-mail address to keep in touch with them.
i Introduction
Aims of the course
The purpose of this course is to help you develop the academic writing skills you need to deal
effectively with the written element of your academic study, as well as to develop other
important skills such as reading research and critical thinking.
Working with the course
When you are writing in another language, you not only need to think about the language to express
your ideas, but you also need to understand the writing conventions associated with it. This can be
particularly challenging with academic writing, where the writing conventions may be very different to
the conventions used in your own academic culture. This book will help you in two ways:
by providing you with guided instruction on what to do and how to do it
by giving you the opportunity to practise writing in a similar context to the one you will use in
your future studies
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 7 26/06/2014 08:29

What you put into the course will determine how much you get out of it. If you want to improve
your academic writing, it is essential to practise the skills. You should therefore prepare well for the
sessions, as well as participating actively in them.
The process approach to writing
The process approach to writing has been widely used for a number of years on writing courses
throughout the world. The approach has proved itself an effective way of improving the academic
writing skills of students studying English for academic purposes (EAP). The basic concept of this
approach is that good writers go through a number of processes while composing a text before
they produce their final product. The main underlying principles are:
Writing is a recursive process. Effective writing results from rewriting and revising
at each stage of the composing process. A good writer goes back and thinks again
before continuing to write. You will be asked to:
brainstorm ideas, i.e., think quickly to get ideas for your essay
organize your ideas into a plan
write your first draft
revise and edit your first draft, according to peer feedback and your own developing ideas
rewrite it to produce a second draft
revise and edit your second draft, according to teacher feedback and your own developing
ideas
rewrite it to produce a third draft
It helps to share and discuss the writing process with others. Your work improves if you
talk to others about your ideas and problems. Simply by talking to another student, you can
clarify aspects of your work that you are not sure about. Another person will have an objective
view, as your reader, and will be able to make useful suggestions about your writing. When
you write, it is for an audience; you should therefore consider ways of structuring your message
so that you communicate your ideas in the clearest way. Showing your writing to others will
provide you with feedback on how to adapt your writing to different audiences.
During this writing course, you will have the opportunity to discuss your writing at each stage of
the process.
A good writer is critical of his/her own work. You should read your work carefully and
consider both the strengths and weaknesses of your writing.
a. Self-evaluation: To help you develop your critical ability, you will be asked to consider a
series of evaluation questions, which you will use to evaluate your own writing.
b. Peer evaluation: You will also be asked to consider a series of evaluation questions which
you will use to evaluate the writing of another student. You will carry out peer evaluation
by reading the students essay, offering suggestions and comments in a way that is both
helpful and constructive. You will then benefit from the comments of the other student.
When reading a students essay, you will focus on the organization of the ideas and the
overall argument of the text. At this stage, this is more important than the accuracy of the
language, spelling and punctuation, unless errors make the essay difficult to understand.
Your teacher will read the second draft of your essays, and will respond with comments and
suggestions. His/her feedback will focus on:
task achievement, i.e., how well you have responded to the title of your essay
organization and development of ideas
content
language
He/she will give you feedback on language problems through the use of symbols, which will
indicate the type of error you have made, such as:
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 8 26/06/2014 08:29

using the wrong word ( WW )
using the wrong form of the word ( WF)
Your teacher will explain this system in more detail and refer you to a key to the symbols. You
will be asked to correct your language errors, as well as improve other aspects of your essay; this
will be your final editing work.
Although some of these approaches may be unfamiliar to you, the aim is to help you acquire skills
with which you will be able to produce good written English without dependence on a teacher.
This is essential for your future studies.
In diagrammatic form, the process looks like this:
START HERE

Write third Brainstorm Organize ideas

draft ideas and plan

Evaluate
REVISE AND Evaluate
teacher
REWRITE (Self and peer)
feedback

Teacher Evaluate Write

Write second

evaluation and (Self and peer)

draft first draft
marking
The development of critical thinking skills
At the advanced level necessary for your studies, academic writing should express the critical
thinking and reasoning that has been used to develop the main ideas in your writing. This is a
fundamental skill which is necessary for successful academic study in higher education. It could
typically involve:
assessing information to show how it relates to an understanding of the truth in a particular
context
identifying problems
seeking solutions to these problems
evaluating the solutions
assessing the implications (or effect) if those solutions are applied
Research has shown that working for a period of time on one particular topic provides a basis for
developing and expressing critical thinking skills. This is one of the reasons why your writing tasks
are based on specific reading texts.
Many of the tasks you will carry out during the course will contribute to the development and
expression of your critical thinking skills. You will probably discover that writing of this kind
higher education differs from writing in your own language.
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 9 26/06/2014 08:29

The microskills of writing
EAS: Writing will also deal with other important aspects of writing, known as microskills. These
include:
how to write an effective introduction and conclusion
how to communicate the main idea of a paragraph to the reader
how to support your main ideas with examples
how to express yourself in writing using more complex sentences
how to write accurately and fluently using language appropriate to the task
The importance of genre
In later units, EAS: Writing will look at how different academic subjects require different styles of
writing, i.e., genre. For example, an essay written in a science subject will typically be in a more
concise style than one written in a social science subject. A variety of ways of organizing writing
will therefore be analyzed and practised. These will include essays of:
cause and effect
situation, problem, solution(s), implication(s) and evaluation (SPSIE)
comparison and contrast
The course will also increase your awareness of the most appropriate type of language for
expressing these patterns of organization. By the end of the course, you should be able to write
effectively for your individual purposes, and be able to make appropriate choices when approaching
a writing task. In your writing, you should be able to show clear development of a topic through
good organization and language use.
The link between reading and writing
Research has shown that an integrated approach to the teaching of writing contributes to the
development of the critical thinking skills of the learner. Carson and Leki view critical thinking as:
the ability to transform information for their own [students] purposes in reading and to synthesise
their prior knowledge with another text in writing Together, reading and writing facilitate the
development of critical thinking (1993, p. 100).
The implication of research for teaching academic writing is that there should be an integrated skills
approach that includes the specific development of critical thinking skills.
One of the main purposes of the texts will be to provide relevant information to support your ideas in
the written assignments. You will need to process and critically analyze that information before
incorporating it in your own argument. In this way, you will be engaging in problem-solving activities. It
is important that your writing development reflects the problem-solving you will meet in your academic
study.
During the course, you will carry out tasks that develop your awareness and skill in incorporating
sources into your writing; you will learn to paraphrase and use quotations, as well as how to
acknowledge sources accurately. As the sources you refer to are the ideas of other writers and not your
own, it is essential to acknowledge them accurately. Inaccurate referencing can be considered as
stealing ideas known as plagiarism a serious offence in academic life.
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 10 26/06/2014 08:29

Timed writing
Written examinations will be a major method of formal assessment once you start your chosen
degree course. To be successful in examinations, you will need the ability to write quickly and
concisely when answering a question. Writing to complete an essay within a time limit will be
practised on this course as an integral component. You will also develop your technique in quickly
analyzing an examination question, in order to respond to the task appropriately.
Some practical points
You should type your first drafts in a word-processing programme. This is because:
it is easier for your classmates to read
it is easier to make corrections and revisions to your work
you will be required to submit word-processed essays in your future studies
You should use an approved university style of layout. This might be Times New Roman font
size 12 and 1.5 spacing for the main body of your text. However, if you have little or no experience
in word processing, you should discuss with your teacher when you begin typing your essays.
When you give your teacher the second draft of your essay, you will also give him/her your plan and
your first draft. This will enable him/her:
to assess the effectiveness of the process
to assess your response to evaluation
to help you further
Similarly, when you give your teacher the third draft of your essay, you will also give him/her your
second draft.
Reference
Carson, E. J., & Leki, I. (1993). Reading in the composition classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 11 26/06/2014 08:29

i Introduction
Aims of the course
The purpose of this course is to help you develop the academic reading skills you need to deal
effectively with the reading and research you will need to carry out during your academic study.
This course will particularly focus on reading for a specific academic purpose, working on
effective reading strategies, detailed comprehension of sentences and paragraphs, and text
analysis.
Working with the course
When you are reading in another language, you not only need to deal with the vocabulary and
grammatical aspects of the text, but also understand the writing conventions associated with it.
This can be particularly challenging with academic texts where the written conventions are
even more important.
providing you with guided instruction on how to understand the structure of academic text
giving you the opportunity to practise reading in a similar context to the one you will use in your
future studies
What you put into the course will determine how much you get out of it. Obviously, if you want to
improve your academic reading, it is essential to practise the skill. You should therefore prepare well
for the sessions, as well as participating actively in them.
GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 9 09/05/2012 15:37

Course aims:
1 Reading for a specific academic purpose

This will help you find the relevant information in written sources that will help you complete an
academic task. For example, you may need to:
combine information from a variety of sources in order to complete an assignment on a
specific question
research a new topic for an introductory overview in order to assist with listening to a
series of lectures on that topic
add new knowledge to what you already know about a topic in order to carry out a
variety of functions; add to your general understanding of a topic, write about your specialist
area of interest, take notes for future exam revision, etc.
2 Working on effective reading strategies

The main strategies you will be looking at are:
a. Skimming
This involves looking at a text quickly for one of the following purposes:
identifying what the text is about (the topic)
identifying the main idea of the text
deciding how useful the text is for your purposes
deciding how you will make use of the text
Skimming a text might involve looking at some or all of the following features of the text:
title
section headings
abstract or summary provided by the writer
first and last paragraphs
first and last sentences of intervening paragraphs
topic sentences in each paragraph
Another form of skimming is when you are previewing a book to decide how useful it is for your
purposes. In this situation, you might also look at one or more of the following:
information about the author and/or publication details
contents page
foreword and/or introduction
index
b. Predicting
This means using what you already know about the topic, what you want to learn about the topic
from the text, and what you have learnt from your previewing, to guess what kind of information
the text will contain and how useful it will be. You will be surprised how much you already know
about a text before you even begin reading. Brainstorming your prior knowledge will help you to
understand the text.
c. Scanning
This involves finding words (or other symbols, such as figures) that have particular importance for
you. When you are scanning, you already know the form of the words or symbols you are looking
for. When you scan, you normally focus on small parts of the text only.
d. Search reading
This involves quickly finding ideas that are important for you. This is different from scanning, because
you dont know the exact words you are looking for in advance and cannot make a direct match.
e. Identifying the main ideas
This involves understanding the writers main points. It may be possible to do this quite quickly after
skimming the text. However, with more difficult texts, it may only be possible to identify the main
ideas after more detailed reading.
GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 10 09/05/2012 15:37

Introduction i
f. Careful reading
This involves reading slowly and carefully so that you have a clear understanding of the text (or
the part of the text that you are most interested in). You might do this in order to understand the
details of the text or to infer meaning that is not directly stated .
g. Inferring
This involves obtaining meaning from the text that the writer has not explicitly stated. Sometimes
the writer expects you to fill gaps in the text for it to make sense. Sometimes you may wish to infer
why the author wrote the text, i.e., the writers purpose, and also the writers attitude to what he/
she is writing about.
h. Dealing with unfamiliar words
When you find a word you dont understand in a text, you first need to decide whether it is
necessary to understand the word. Perhaps you can understand enough of the text without
understanding the word in which case you can ignore it. Alternatively, the context in which the
word is located may allow you to guess the meaning of the word well enough to continue reading.
If neither of these applies, you may have to look up the word in a dictionary. If you find you are
using a dictionary so much that you cannot read the text at a reasonable speed, the text may be
too specialized for you; in this case you should consider finding another one which deals with the
same topic in a more generalized way.
An approach to dealing with new vocabulary is to decide whether you:
need to know the word now to help you understand the text and use it later under different
circumstances. In this case, you will need some way of recording the word, e.g., in a vocabulary
notebook. You will also have to decide whether to rely on working out the meaning of the word
from context, or whether you need to check in a dictionary.
only need to know the word now to help you understand the text. This is often the case with
technical words or low-frequency words; these are words that are not often used in English,
even by native speakers of the language, except for specialist reasons. Of course, if you are
reading a text in your academic area, you will need to know certain specialist vocabulary.
You will need to record this vocabulary as well as use it so it becomes part of your active
vocabulary, i.e., words that you use to communicate effectively.
dont need to know this word either now or in the future. If the word does not prevent you
from understanding the rest of the text, you probably do not need to worry about it. If the
word occurs several times, however, you may feel it is necessary to work out its meaning or look
it up and record it.
3 Detailed comprehension of sentences and paragraphs

In an academic context, much of your reading work will involve dealing with complete texts and
extracting information from them in various ways, i.e., reading purposefully in order to make use
of content. However, in order to fulfil your reading purpose, you may sometimes find it necessary
to have a very precise understanding of specific sentences and paragraphs. There may be obstacles
to your understanding in terms of grammar or ideas, or the texts organization or a combination of
these. This is one area the course will help you solve.
Detailed comprehension involves analyzing the relationship between ideas within a specific
sentence or between a sequence of sentences of up to paragraph length or even beyond. This
precise knowledge might be required, for example, to infer meaning, to view the content critically,
to enhance overall understanding or to formulate precise understanding.
4 Text analysis
It is often helpful to understand the way a text is organized in order to make the best use of
the information it contains. The organization of a text can be considered at the global level; for
example, the way that the text is organized into sections and paragraphs according to the purpose
of the text and the type of text. In a report of an experiment, for example, it is very common to see
the pattern of organization on page 12.
All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may beProperty

reproduced or distributed
of Bahcesehir University in any form
- Copyright or by
Garnet any means,or stored in a data base or retrieval system,
Education 11
GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 11 09/05/2012 15:37

title
abstract
introduction/background
methods
results
conclusions
references/bibliography
Another aspect of organization that can be useful to examine is how information is organized
logically at the local level, i.e., within complex sentences or paragraphs.
As you have seen, there are many different aspects of academic reading that you will consider
during the course. Although it is important to be aware of all these different aspects, it is also
important to:
develop a flexible reading style. Becoming a better academic reader is not just about
mastering different aspects of reading. It is also important to decide which is the best way to
read a text, depending on the particular academic purpose that you have for reading it.
remember that the more you read, the better you will read. Regular independent reading
outside the classroom is essential for any student wishing to develop reading abilities such
as fluency, greater reading speed, vocabulary acquisition and the strategies associated with
successful reading.
You can improve your academic reading level by making decisions about:
why you are reading
what you are reading
how you are reading
how well you are reading
GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 12 09/05/2012 15:37

Fo od security
Text 1 Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world
Diet and sustainability

key to feeding the world:
A food security report
One of the greatest problems the world faces is food
security. Starvation, malnutrition and associated health
and welfare problems can best be addressed by a
systematic policy of education and research.
5 Grave concerns about food security have surfaced for a
number of reasons. Firstly, there has been a population
explosion. According to the Royal Society, between 1930
and 2010 the worlds population grew from 2 billion to
6.8 billion now, with a projected peak of 9 billion by 2050
10 (Black, 2010). A further major cause for concern is the
impact on food production of climate change, brought
about by global warming. Population growth and climate
change will mean there is an increasing shortage of water
and of land for food production, and therefore more
15 competition for these resources.
While threats to global food security are numerous and
affect both economically developed and less-developed
countries, it is the people of the latter who are likely
to feel the most impact. Vast numbers lack basic food
20 requirements: at least 1 billion people are undernourished
and 2 billion suffer from micronutrient deficiency.
Conversely, 1.2 billion are overweight.
An environmental example of the impact of food
production mismanagement on ecosystems, and the
25 wider implications of this, can be clearly seen in the
case of drastic declines in bird species. For example, in
Europe and North America populations of specialist
bird species those that are adapted to live in specific Population growth is an often unspoken driver of
environments have fallen by an estimated 30% over trends such as deforestation.
30 40 years. This has been attributed at least partially to the
impact of farming, especially when this involves a single crop type being grown over a large area.
In fact, a study by Stanford University biologists (ekerciolu, Daily & Ehrlich, 2004) concluded that by
2100, 10% of all bird species were likely to disappear and another 15% could be on the brink of extinction.
This dramatic loss is expected to have a negative impact on forest ecosystems and agriculture worldwide, and
35 warned that it might even encourage the spread of human diseases. The latter point is supported by reports of a
dramatic fall in vulture numbers in India, allowing an upsurge in numbers of rats and feral dogs, which spread
diseases that affect humans (see Swan et al., 2006; BirdLife International, 2008). The vulture population crash
is attributed mainly to poisoning by high concentrations of diclofenac, a drug used to treat farm animals. The
birds ingest the drug when they feed on the animals carcasses.
40 The challenges involved in addressing the problem of food security are complex. Part of the solution is increasing
the potential of food yields, but the approach must be sustainable. Producers and consumers of food must play
a major role in all this and take responsibility in terms of choosing how food is produced, used and consumed.
English for Academic Study Property of Bahcesehir University - Copyright Garnet Education
0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 28 09/05/2012 15:35

Food security 5a
Text 1 Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world
Reducing the amount of waste in the food production system is one approach to improving food security.
However, in future the journey from farm to plate also needs to be organized more systematically
45 and globally. A particular problem area here is the importing into economically developed
countries of exotic fruit and vegetables. This can have a negative impact on food security in two ways.
Firstly, importing (and especially air-freighting) fresh produce from overseas locations can significantly
increase the carbon footprint of food production, contributing to global warming and its associated problems.
Secondly, if growers in less economically developed countries switch to producing fruit and vegetables
50 for export, this could displace local staple crops, resulting in worsening diets for what may be an already
malnourished population.
A further solution is to manage crop production to boost yields of some crops in countries with temperate
climates. However, climate change could also cause shifts in seasonal patterns that put crops out of rhythm
with the insects that pollinate them, or could increase the likelihood of extreme weather events damaging
55 the developing flowers that are essential for the crop. There is a strong likelihood that diets will increasingly
be dependent on animal sources of protein, but farmers do not necessarily adopt practices that lead to the
fulfilment of potential yield. Helping them become more efficient offers a further means of addressing the
food security issue.
An integrated, systemic approach to the problems of food security has to be developed. This includes
60 encouraging agri-food research, with the most technologically advanced countries directing their attention
and research focus towards dealing with the problem. In addition, a global approach is needed and specialist
research initiatives will need to help with integrating the food-security research undertaken by non-specialist
institutions.
References
BirdLife International (2008, April 30). Vulture crisis deepens. Retrieved October 31, 2011, from www.birdlife.org/
news/news/2008/04/vulture_declines.html
Beddington, J. (ed.) (2011). Foresight report: The future of food and farming. Challenges and choices for global
sustainability. London: Government Office for Science. Retrieved December 22, 2011, from www.bis.gov.uk/assets/
bispartners/foresight/docs/food-and-farming/11-546-future-of-food-and-farming-report.pdf
Black, R. (2010, July 12). Global population study launched by Royal Society. BBC News. Retrieved December 21, 2011,
from www.bbc.co.uk/news/10578484
ekerciolu, . H., Daily, G. C. & Ehrlich, P. R. (2004). Ecosystem consequences of bird declines. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 101(52), 1804218047.
Swan, G., Naidoo, V., Cuthbert, R., Green, R. E., Pain, D. J., Swarup, D. & Wolter, K. (2006). Removing the threat
of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology. 4(3): e66.
Tiffin, R. (2011, January 24). Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world. [Press release]. Reading: University of
Reading. Retrieved October 31, 2011, from www.reading.ac.uk/about/newsandevents/releases/PR345098.aspx
Source: John Slaght, ISLC, University of Reading, UK, based on the references cited.
Property of Bahcesehir University - Copyright Garnet Education Reading & Writing Source Book 29

Text 2 The challenge of feeding 9 billion people
The challenge of feeding 9 billion people

H. Charles J. Godfray, John R. Beddington, Ian R. Crute, Lawrence Haddad, David Lawrence,
James F. Muir, Jules Pretty, Sherman Robinson, Sandy M. Thomas, Camilla Toulmin*
ABSTRACT: Continuing population and consumption growth will mean that the global demand for
food will increase for at least another 40 years. Growing competition for land, water and energy,
in addition to the overexploitation of fisheries, will affect our ability to produce food, as will the
urgent requirement to reduce the impact of the food system on the environment. The effects of
climate change are a further threat. But the world can produce more food and can ensure that it is
used more efficiently and equitably. A multifaceted and linked global strategy is needed to ensure
sustainable and equitable food security. Different components of this strategy are explored here.
1 The past half-century has seen marked affluent population to its supply; do so in
growth in food production, allowing for a ways that are environmentally and socially
dramatic decrease in the proportion of the sustainable; and ensure that the worlds
worlds people that are hungry, despite a poorest people are no longer hungry. This
5 doubling of the total population (World Bank, 40 challenge requires changes in the way food
2008; FAO, 2009a). Nevertheless, more than is produced, stored, processed, distributed
one in seven people today still do not have and accessed that are as radical as those that
access to sufficient protein and energy from occurred during the 18th- and 19th-century
their diet, and even more suffer from some Industrial and Agricultural Revolutions and the
10 form of micronutrient malnourishment (FAO, 45 20th-century Green Revolution. Increases in
2009b). The world is now facing a new set production will have an important part to play,
of intersecting challenges (Evans, 2009). The but they will be constrained as never before
global population will continue to grow; yet by the finite resources provided by the Earths
it is likely to plateau at some 9 billion people land, oceans and atmosphere (Conway, 1997).
15 by roughly the middle of this century. A major 3 Patterns in global food prices are indicators of
correlate of this deceleration in population
how the availability of food changes, at least
growth is increased wealth, and with higher
for those who can afford it and have access
purchasing power comes higher consumption
to world markets. Over the past century, gross
and a greater demand for processed food,
food prices have generally fallen, levelling off
20 meat, dairy products and fish, all of which add
55 in the past three decades but punctuated by
pressure to the food supply system. At the
price spikes such as that caused by the 1970s
same time, food producers are experiencing
oil crisis. In mid-2008, there was an unexpected
greater rivalry for land, water and energy, and
rapid rise in food prices the cause of which
the need to curb the many negative effects
is still being debated that subsided when the
25 of food production on the environment is
60 world economy went into recession (Piesse
becoming increasingly clear (Tilman et al.,
& Thirtle, 2009). However, many (but not all)
2001; WRI, 2005). Overarching all of these
commentators have predicted that this spike
issues is the threat of the effects of substantial
heralds a period of rising and more volatile food
climate change and concerns about how
prices driven primarily by increased demand
30 mitigation and adaptation measures may
65 from rapidly developing countries, as well as by
affect the food system (Parry et al., 2007;
competition for resources from first-generation
Schmidhuber & Tubiello, 2007).
biofuels production (Royal Society, 2008).
2 A threefold challenge now faces the world Increased food prices will stimulate greater
(Von Braun, 2007): match the rapidly changing investment in food production, but the critical
35 demand for food from a larger and more 70 importance of food to human well-being and
30 English for Academic Study Property of Bahcesehir University - Copyright Garnet Education

Food security 5b
Text 2 The challenge of feeding 9 billion people
also to social and political stability makes it likely 90 production has more than doubled, the
that governments and other organizations will amount of land devoted to arable agriculture
want to encourage food production beyond globally has increased by only about 9%
that driven by simple market mechanisms (Pretty, 2008). Some new land could be
75 (Skidelsky, 2009). However, there are serious brought into cultivation, but the competition
concerns about changes in food production 95 for land from other human activities makes this
patterns where production of traditional staple an increasingly unlikely and costly solution,
food sources is flattening out rather than particularly if protecting biodiversity and the
rising in line with the population explosion public goods provided by natural ecosystems
80 (Figure 1). The long-term nature of returns on (for example, carbon storage in rainforests)
investment for many aspects of food production 100 are given higher priority (Balmford et al.,
and the importance of policies that promote 2005). In recent decades, agricultural land
sustainability and equal treatment for all also that was formerly productive has been lost to
argue against relying purely on market solutions. urbanization and other human uses, as well
as to desertification, salinization, soil erosion
105 and other consequences of unsustainable land
A Major crop plants
management (Nellemann et al., 2009). Further
3.5 Main grains (wheat, barley,
maize, rice, oats)
losses, which may be exacerbated by climate
3.0 Coarse grains change, are likely (Parry et al., 2007). Recent
(millet, sorghum)
Root crops
policy decisions to produce first-generation
2.5
110 biofuels on good-quality agricultural land have
Relative production
(cassava, potato)
2.0 added to the competitive pressures (Fargione

et al., 2008). Thus, the most likely scenario
1.5
is that more food will need to be produced
1.0
from the same amount of (or even less) land.
115 Moreover, there are no major new fishing
0.5 grounds: virtually all capture fisheries are fully
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
exploited, and most are overexploited.
B Major types of livestock * The authors are members of the UK Government
5.0 Office for Sciences Foresight Project on Global
4.5
Chickens Food and Farming Futures.
Pigs
4.0 Cattle and buffalo Source: Adapted from Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I.
Sheep and goats
3.5
R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., et al. (2010). The challenge
Relative numbers
of feeding 9 billion people. Science. 327(5987), 812818.

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Figure 1. Changes in the relative global production

of crops and animals since 1961 (relative production
scaled to 1 in 1961) where (A) major crop plants and
(B) major types of livestock (FAO, 2009a).
4 So how can more food be produced

sustainably? In the past, the primary solution
to food shortages was to use more land for
agriculture and to exploit new fish stocks.
Yet over the past five decades, while grain
Property of Bahcesehir University - Copyright Garnet Education Reading & Writing Source Book

Text 3 Closing the yield gap
Closing the yield gap

1 There is a wide geographic variation in crop 35 from increasing productivity or for economic
and livestock productivity, even across regions reasons arising from market conditions. For
that experience similar climates. The difference example, farmers may not have access to
between actual productivity and the best that the technical knowledge and skills required
5 can be achieved using current genetic material to increase production, the finances required
and available technologies and management is 40 to invest in higher production (e.g., irrigation,
termed the yield gap. fertilizer, machinery, crop-protection products
2 The best yields that can be obtained locally and soil-conservation measures), or the crop
and livestock varieties that maximize yields.
depend on the capacity of farmers to access
After harvest or slaughter, they may not be
10 and use, among other things, seeds, water,
45 able to store the produce or have access to
nutrients, pest management techniques,
the infrastructure to transport the produce to
soils, biodiversity and knowledge. It has been
consumer markets. Farmers may also choose
estimated that in those parts of Southeast
not to invest in improving agricultural productivity
Asia where irrigation is available, average
because the returns do not compare well with
15 maximum climate-adjusted rice yields are
50 other uses of capital and labour.
8.5 metric tons per hectare, yet the average
yields actually achieved are 60% of this figure 4 Exactly how best to facilitate increased food
(Cassman, 1999). Similar yield gaps are found production is highly region-specific. In the
for rain-fed wheat in central Asia and rain-fed most extreme cases of failed states and
20 cereals in Argentina and Brazil. Another way to nonfunctioning markets, the solution lies
illustrate the yield gap is to compare changes 55 completely outside the food system. Where a
in per capita food production over the past functioning state exists, there is a balance to be
50 years. In Asia, this amount has increased struck between investing in overall economic
approximately twofold, and in Latin America, growth as a spur to agriculture and focusing on
25 it has increased 1.6-fold; in Africa, per capita investing in agriculture as a spur to economic
production fell back from the mid-1970s and 60 growth, though the two are obviously linked in
has only just reached the same level as in regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa, where
1961 (FAO, 2009a; Evenson & Gollin, 2003). agriculture typically makes up 20 to 40% of
Substantially more food, as well as the income gross domestic product. In some situations,
30 to purchase food, could be produced with such as low-income food-importing countries,
current crops and livestock if methods were 65 investing purely in generating widespread
found to close the yield gaps. income growth to allow food purchases from
regions and countries with better production
China rice production increases for sixth straight year capabilities may be the best choice. When
140.0
investment is targeted at food production,
135.0 70 a further issue is the balance between
130.0 putting resources into regional and national
Million tons
125.0
120.0
infrastructure, such as roads and ports, and
115.0 investing in local social and economic capital
110.0 (Hazell & Haddad, 2001; FARA, 2006).
105.0
100.0 5 A yield gap may also exist because high
00/01
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
09/10
costs of inputs or low profits from increased

production mean that raising production to the
Figure 2. China rice: bumper crop forecast for 2009-
maximum that could theoretically be attained
2010 (FAS, 2009).
will not be economically worthwhile. Poor
3 Low yields occur because of technical 80 transport and market infrastructures raise the
constraints that prevent local food producers prices of inputs, such as fertilizers and water,

Food security 5c
and increase the costs of moving the food

produced into national or world markets. Where
the risks of investment are high and the means
85 to offset these risks are absent, not investing
can be the most rational decision, part of the
poverty trap. Food production in developing
countries can be severely affected by market
interventions in the developed world, such as
90 subsidies or price supports. These need to be
carefully designed and implemented so that
their effects on global commodity prices do
not act as disincentives to production in other
countries (Anderson, 2009).
Irrigation is a key factor in environmental pollution.
6 The globalization of the food system offers
some local food producers access to larger 7 Closing the yield gap would dramatically
markets, as well as to capital for investment. increase the supply of food, but with uncertain
When factors are taken together, such impacts on the environment and feedbacks
globalization also appears to increase the that could undermine future food production.
100 global efficiency of food production by allowing 135 Food production has important negative
regional specialization in the production of the externalities. These include the release of
locally most appropriate foods. Because the greenhouse gases especially methane and
expansion of food production and the growth nitrous oxide, which are more damaging
of population both occur at different rates in than CO2 and of which agriculture is a major
105 different geographic regions, global trade is 140 source (Stern, 2007), environmental pollution
necessary to balance supply and demand due to nutrient run-off, water shortages due
across regions. However, the environmental to over-extraction, soil degradation and the
costs of food production might increase loss of biodiversity through land conversion or
with globalization, for example, because inappropriate management, and ecosystem
110 of increased greenhouse gas emissions 145 disruption due to the intensive harvesting of
associated with increased production and fish and other aquatic foods (WRI, 2005).
food transport (Pretty et al., 2005). An 8 It is now widely recognized that to address
unfettered market can also penalize particular these negative effects, food production
communities and sectors especially the systems and the food chain in general must
115 poorest, who have the least influence on how 150 become fully sustainable (Royal Society, 2009).
global markets are structured and regulated. The principle of sustainability implies the use
Expanded trade can provide insurance against of resources at rates that do not exceed the
regional shocks affecting production, such capacity of the Earth to replace them. By
as conflict, epidemics, droughts or floods definition, dependency on nonrenewable inputs
120 shocks that are likely to increase in frequency 155 is unsustainable, even if in the short term it
as climate change occurs. Conversely, a is necessary as part of a progression toward
highly connected food system may lead to the sustainability. However, introducing measures
more widespread propagation of economic to promote sustainability does not necessarily
concerns, as in the recent banking crisis, reduce yields or profits. One study of 286
125 thus affecting more people. There is an urgent 160 agricultural sustainability projects in developing
need for a better understanding of the effects countries, involving 12.6 million chiefly
of globalization on the full food system and smallholder farmers on 37 million hectares,
its externalities (effects on the environment found an average yield increase of 79% across
or economy that are not reflected in the cost a very wide variety of systems and crop types
130 of food). 165 (Pretty et al., 2006). One-quarter of the projects

Figure 3. An example of a major successful sustainable agriculture project. In Tahoua, Niger, tree cover as
well as crop yields increased over a period of ten years after donors invested in soil and water conservation.
Satellite pictures show the same locality in 1975, at left, and 2005, at right (Reij & Smaling 2008; UNEP 2008).
reported a doubling of yield. Research on the for a healthy life and who will require social
ability of these and related programmes to 200 protection programmes to increase their ability
reach an equivalent level of success at national to obtain food. However, if properly designed,
and regional levels should be a priority (see these programmes can help stimulate local
170 Figure 3). agriculture by giving smallholders more
9 certainty about the demand for their products.
Strategies designed to close the yield gap in
205 There is also a role for large-scale farming
the poorest countries face some particular
operations in poorer countries, though the
challenges (Hazell & Wood, 2008). Much
value of this and the contexts in which it is
production is dominated by smallholder
feasible are much debated (Collier, 2008).
175 agriculture, with women often taking a
dominant role in the workforce. Where viable, 10 Many of the very poorest people live in
investment in the social and economic 210 areas so remote that they are effectively
mechanisms to enable improved smallholder disconnected from national and world food
yields, especially where targeted at women, markets. But for others, especially the urban
180 can be an important means of increasing poor, higher food prices have a direct negative
the income of both farm and rural non-farm effect on the ability to purchase a healthy
households. The lack of secure land rights 215 diet. Also, many rural farmers and other food
can be a particular problem for many poor producers live on the very edge of being net
communities as it may act as a disincentive food consumers and producers and can be
185 for smallholders to invest in managing the land affected in complex ways by rising food prices,
more productively, and may make it harder to with some benefitting and some being harmed
raise investment capital (Deininger & Feder, 220 (Hazell & Haddad, 2001). Thus, although
2009). In a time of rising prices for food and free world trade should stimulate overall
land, it can also render these communities food production in developing countries, not
190 vulnerable to displacement by more powerful everyone will gain (Anderson, 2009; Aksoy &
interest groups. Where governments are Beghin, 2005). Better models that can more
prepared to protect the poorest and where the 225 accurately predict these complex interactions
necessary infrastructure is available, adequate are urgently needed.
support for the poor could be greatly assisted Source: Adapted from Godfray, et al. (2010).
195 by the application of modern information
and communication technologies. Even so,
there will be many people who cannot afford
to purchase sufficient calories and nutrients

Food security 5d
Text 4 Dealing with the situation
Dealing with the situation

1 The most productive crops, such as sugar that reduce production efficiency could reduce
cane, growing in optimum conditions, can substantial losses. Biotechnology could also
convert solar energy into biomass with an 50 produce plants for animal feed that help to
efficiency of about 2%, resulting in high yields increase the efficiency of meat production and
5 of biomass (up to 150 metric tons per hectare; reduce methane emissions.
Gilbert et al., 2006). There is much debate over
what the theoretical limits are for the major
Developing
crops under different conditions, and similarly, countries
for the maximum yield that can be obtained
10 for livestock rearing (Royal Society, 2009).
However, there is clearly considerable scope USA
for increasing production limits.

The Green Revolution succeeded by using UK
conventional breeding to develop F1 hybrid
15 varieties of maize and semi-dwarf, disease- 0% 50% 100%
resistant varieties of wheat and rice. These On-farm Transport and processing
varieties could be provided with more irrigation
Retail Food service Home and municipal
and fertilizer (Evenson & Gollin, 2003) without
the risk of major crop losses due to lodging
20 (falling over) or severe rust epidemics. Figure 4: Make-up of total food waste in USA and
Increased yield is still a major goal, but the UK (developed countries) compared to developing
countries. Retail, food service and home and
importance of greater water- and nutrient- municipal categories are combined for developing
use efficiency, as well as tolerance of abiotic countries (Nellemann et al., 2009; COSU, 2008;
stress, is also likely to increase. Modern WRAP, 2008; Stuart, 2009).
25 genetic techniques and a better understanding 2 Roughly 30 to 40% of food in both the
of crop physiology allow for a more directed
developed and developing worlds is lost to
approach to selection across multiple traits.
55 waste, though the causes behind this are very
The speed and costs at which genomes today
different (Figure 4). In the developing world,
can be sequenced or resequenced means that
losses are mainly attributable to the absence
30 these techniques can be more easily applied
of food-chain infrastructure and the lack of
to develop varieties of crop species that will
knowledge about or investment in storage
yield well in challenging environments. These
60 technologies on the farm, although data are
include crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava
scarce. For example, in India, it is estimated
and banana species that are staple foods
that 35 to 40% of fresh produce is lost
35 for many of the worlds poorest communities
because neither wholesale nor retail outlets
(IAASTD, 2008).
have cold storage (Nellemann et al., 2009).
Currently, the major commercialized genetically 65 Even with rice grain, which can be stored more
modified (GM) crops involve relatively simple readily, as much as one-third of the harvest
manipulations, such as the insertion of a in Southeast Asia can be lost after harvest to
40 gene for herbicide resistance or another for pests and spoilage (FAO, 1997). But the picture
a pest-insect toxin. The next decade will see is more complex than a simple lack of storage
the development of combinations of desirable 70 facilities: although storage after harvest when
traits and the introduction of new traits such as there is a glut of food would seem to make
drought tolerance. By mid-century, much more economic sense, the farmer often has to sell
45 radical options involving highly polygenic traits immediately to raise cash.
may be feasible. Producing cloned animals
with engineered innate immunity to diseases

In contrast, in the developed world, pre-retail If food prices were to rise again, it is likely
75 losses are much lower, but losses arising at that there would be a fall in the volume of
the retail, food service and home stages of 125 waste produced by consumers in developed
the food chain have increased dramatically in countries. Waste could also be reduced by
recent years, for a variety of reasons (CIWMB, alerting consumers to the scale of the issue, as
2007). At present, food is relatively cheap, at well as to domestic strategies for reducing food
80 least for developed-world consumers, and
this cost issue reduces the incentives to avoid
waste. Consumers have become accustomed
to purchasing foods of the highest cosmetic
standards; hence, retailers discard many
85 edible, yet only slightly blemished products.
Commercial pressures can also encourage
waste: the food service industry frequently
uses super-sized portions as a competitive
lever, and buy-one-get-one-free offers have
90 the same function for retailers. Litigation
and lack of education on food safety have
lead to a reliance on use-by dates, whose
safety margins often mean that food fit
for consumption is thrown away. In some
95 developed countries, unwanted food goes to
landfill instead of being used as animal feed or Consumers in China are spending more on meat.
compost because of legislation to control prion loss. Advocacy, education and legislation could
diseases (human and animal diseases such as 130 also reduce waste in the food service and
CJD and BSE, believed to be linked to animal retail sectors. Legislation that has inadvertently
100 nervous tissue getting into the food chain). increased food waste, such as that on sell-by
Different strategies are required to tackle the dates and swill, should be re-examined to take
two types of waste. With regard to waste more account of all the different risks involved.
in developing countries, public investment 135 Reducing developed-country food waste is
in transport infrastructure would reduce particularly challenging, as it is so closely linked
105 the incidence of spoilage, whereas better- to individual behaviour and cultural attitudes
functioning markets and the availability of toward food.
capital would increase the efficiency of the food 3 About one-third of global cereal production is
chain, for example, by allowing the introduction 140 fed to animals (FAO, 2006). The conversion
of cold storage (though this has implications efficiency of plant into animal matter is about
110 for greenhouse gas emissions; WRAP, 2008). 10%; thus, it seems one could argue that more
Existing technologies and best practices need people could be supported from the same
to be spread by education and extension amount of land if they were vegetarians than
services, and market and finance mechanisms 145 if they were meat-eaters. But one of the major
are required to protect farmers from having challenges to the food system is the rapidly
115 to sell at peak supply, leading to gluts and increasing demand for meat and dairy products
wastage. There is also a need for continuing that has led, over the past 50 years, to a 1.5-
research in post-harvest storage technologies. fold increase in global numbers of cattle, sheep
Improved technology for small-scale food 150 and goats, with equivalent 2.5- and 4.5-fold
storage in poorer contexts is a prime candidate increases for pigs and chickens, respectively
120 for the introduction of state incentives for (Figure 1, page 31; FAO, 2009a). This is
private innovation, with the involvement of largely attributable to the increased wealth of
small-scale traders, millers and producers.

Food security 5d
consumers everywhere and most recently in our diets is the most difficult and needs to be
155 countries such as China and India. better understood.
However, the argument that all meat
consumption is bad is simplistic. First, there
is substantial variation in the production
efficiency and environmental impact of the
160 major classes of meat consumed by people.
Second, although a substantial fraction of
livestock is fed on grain and other plant
protein that could feed humans, there remains
a very substantial proportion that is grass-
165 fed. Much of the grassland that is used to
feed these animals could not be converted
to arable land or could only be converted
with major adverse environmental outcomes.
Also, pigs and poultry are often fed on human Aquaculture carries risks of ecosystem disruption.
170 food waste. Third, through better rearing or 4 Aquatic products (mainly fish, aquatic molluscs
improved breeds, it may be possible to boost
the efficiency of meat production. Finally, in and crustaceans) have a critical role in the food
developing countries, meat represents the system, providing nearly 3 billion people with at
most concentrated source of some vitamins least 15% of their animal protein intake (Smith
175 and minerals, which is important for individuals et al., 2010).
such as young children. Livestock also are 210 In many regions, aquaculture has been
used for ploughing and transport, provide a sufficiently profitable to permit strong growth;
local supply of manure, can be a vital source of replicating this growth in areas such as Africa
income, and are of huge cultural importance for where it has not yet occurred could bring
180 many poorer communities. major benefits. Technical advances in hatchery
Achieving a reduction in the consumption 215 systems, feeds and feed-delivery systems, and
of meat and an increase in the proportion disease management could all increase output.
derived from the most efficient sources offers Future gains may also come from better stock
an opportunity to feed more people and also selection, larger-scale production technologies,
185 presents other advantages (COSU, 2008). aquaculture in open seas and larger inland
Well-balanced diets rich in grains and other 220 water bodies, and the culture of a wider range
vegetable products are considered healthier of species. The long production cycle of many
than those containing a high proportion of species (typically 6 to 24 months) requires a
meat (especially red meat) and dairy products. financing system that can provide working
190 As developing countries consume more meat capital as well as offset risk. Wider production
in combination with high-sugar and high-fat 225 options (such as temperature and salinity
foods, they may find themselves having to tolerance and disease resistance) and cheaper
deal with obesity before they have overcome feed substrates (for instance, plant material
undernutrition, leading to a rise in health with enhanced nutritional features) might also
195 spending that could otherwise be used to be accessed with the use of GM technologies.
alleviate poverty. Livestock production is also a 230 Aquaculture, though, may harm the
major source of methane, a major greenhouse environment due to the release into water
gas, though such emissions can be partially bodies of organic effluents or disease-
offset by using animal manure instead of treatment chemicals, indirectly through its
200 synthetic nitrogen fertilizer (FAO, 2003). Of dependence on industrial fisheries to supply
the five strategies we discuss here, assessing 235 feeds, and by acting as a source of diseases or
the value of decreasing the fraction of meat in genetic contamination for wild species. Efforts

to reduce these negative externalities and References

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Food security
FOCUS TASK
You are going to read a selection of texts in order to produce a
set of notes that will help you complete the following assignment:
The global population has increased from 2 billion to 7 billion in the

past 80 years. In the next 40 years it is predicted to rise to 9 billion.
What are the challenges and what measures can be most effective
in feeding such a rapidly expanding population?
Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world: A food security

Text
report, Text 1
Text 1 summarizes the key issues relating to food security that are covered in greater detail in the
three other texts in the booklet. These come from a review paper by UK government scientists,
which maintains that good nutrition and sustainability are essential in order to ensure global food
security.
Task 1 Surveying the text
It is important that students in higher education make decisions Study tip

about how to make use of an academic text because of the large
amount of reading required on some courses. Remember that surveying
features of the text before
going into detailed reading
1.1 Analyze the title of Text 1 by examining it in
can save time and provide
sections. Complete Column 2 with appropriate important insights into the
deductions. In the table below the title is divided content and value of the text.
into six separate parts. Features to look for include the
title and any figures or graphs.
Note: Very useful ideas and information can be learnt
from carefully analyzing the title of academic texts.
Title deconstruction Deductions

Diet relating to food and nutrition
sustainability something which can be
key very factor(s)
feeding the world
food security having access to
report a
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Food security
1.2 Now consider what you can deduce from the photograph about the content of
the text. Discuss your ideas with another student.
1.3 Look at the references at the end of the text. What useful information do
these give?
Task 2 Search reading: Practising fast, accurate reading
2.1 Read Text 1 quickly, but carefully, to answer questions 112.

Scan the text quickly to find the information you need to answer the questions. Then read
the information carefully to answer accurately.
1. What solutions for achieving food security are identified in the introductory material?
2. What two major causes of starvation on a global scale are identified?
3. These two factors have resulted in there being less
a.
b.
4. The population explosion is predicted to level off in
5. Approximately how many people in total are faced with insufficient food and nutrition?
a. 1 billion b. 2 billion c. 3 billion
6. What year does the Stanford University research relate to?
7. The dramatic decrease in vulture numbers in India has led to
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8. What is the negative impact of developed countries importing exotic fruit?
9. What could be the negative impact of poorer countries exporting exotic fruit?
10. Where can the impact of climate change be most effectively managed?
11. In future, animals may well be the main source of
12. Which form of research is recommended for dealing with future food insecurity?
Task 3 Identifying functions of the text
A useful approach to understanding the organization, purpose Study tip

and value of a text is to identify the functions section by section,
paragraph by paragraph and if necessary, sentence by sentence. Clear annotation of text can
One way of doing this is by annotating the text in the margin. provide useful reference for
revision or further study.
3.1 Look at the two examples of annotations for
lines 515 of Text 1. Then highlight the parts of
the text relevant to the other two annotations.
Annotations Text extract (lines 515)
Grave concerns about food security have surfaced for a number

one reason of reasons. Firstly, there has been a population explosion.
According to the Royal Society, between 1930 and 2010 the
further info. worlds population grew from 2 billion to 6.8 billion now, with
a projected peak of 9 billion by 2050 (Black, 2010). A further
another reason major cause for concern is the impact on food production of
+ cause climate change, brought about by global warming. Population
growth and climate change will mean there is an increasing
implication shortage of water and of land for food production, and therefore
more competition for these resources.
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Food security
3.2 Go through the rest of the text making brief annotations in the margin. Use a
pencil in case you decide to make changes.
Identify which sections of the text have the following functions (not all of these functions
might be used in this text):
background information, e.g., giving detail of the overall situation
general problems/implications
exemplification, i.e., examples
explication, i.e., further information to develop a point
solution
evaluation, e.g., of ideas
viewpoints, i.e., writers recommendations or suggestions
conclusion
3.3 Complete the table using the annotations you made in Ex 3.2.
In the extra comments column you might write comments such as relevant to the focus
task or check this source.
Function Line numbers Extra comments

1. background some reasons and implications mentioned +
515
information relevant to Focus task
2. general
problems/
implications
3. exemplification
4. explication
5. solution
6. evaluation
7. viewpoints
8. conclusion
Task 4 The writers choice of language
The writers choice of language can also perform a particular function, for example, to indicate
the seriousness or importance of the information or ideas being described. The use of adjectives
or adverbs can play an important role in putting the writers message across effectively. It can also
help the reader identify examples of the writers attitude or bias towards the topic.
4.1 Look at lines 122 and identify two more examples of language that the writer
uses to convey the seriousness of the topic.
grave concerns (line 5)
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4.2 Look at lines 2339 and list further examples of strong descriptive language the
writer uses to emphasize the problems.
brink of extinction (line 33)
4.3 Look at the words and phrases in the table below Study tip
and find words and phrases in the text with
a similar meaning. Taking an interest in features
Complete the table with the word or phrase, its word of the text such as the writers
choice of language will not
class and the number of the line where it appears. Note
only help your understanding
that the definitions are listed in the same order as the of the text, but will also help to
relevant words in the text. develop your reading research
skills in the long term.
Definition Line number Word or phrase Word class
a. deal with (P1)
b. appear or emerge (P2)
c. estimated high point or

maximum (P2)
d. a large amount/many (P3)
e. having insufficient food (P3)
f. opposite situation (P3)
g. total amount of
greenhouse emissions (P6)
h. very possible (P7)
i. actions/policies (P8)
The challenge of feeding 9 billion people, Text 2

Text
Text 2 looks in more detail at the issues we face in producing enough food to feed our growing
world population.
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Food security
Task 5 Understanding the Focus task
You need to think carefully about what the task asks you to do, because it will determine what you
should concentrate on in your reading. It will also determine how you read.
You are going to read three more texts and produce a set of notes that will help you complete the
assignment specified in the Focus task.
5.1 Read the first part of the Focus task. What is your reaction? Choose from 15.
FOCUS TASK
The global population has increased from 2 billion to 7 billion in the past 80 years. In the next
40 years it is predicted to rise to 9 billion.
1. Im amazed.
2. Im quite surprised.
3. Im concerned.
4. Im unconcerned.
5. Im not surprised.
5.2 List some possible reasons for the unprecedented phenomenon mentioned in the
Focus task.
Compare your list with those of other students.
5.3 Now look at the second part of the Focus task and answer the two questions.
FOCUS TASK
What are the challenges and what measures can be most effective in feeding such a rapidly
expanding population?
1. In what ways have your eating habits and those of your friends and family changed
since childhood?
2. Can you explain why these changes might have occurred?
5.4 Write answers to questions 15. Then discuss your answers with other students.
All the questions relate to the second part of the Focus task.
1. There are two questions. What are they?
2. Discuss these questions with other students. What do you understand by the challenges?
3. What do you understand by measures?
4. Do you need to consider all possible measures, or just the most effective ones?
5. How much background information is necessary in order to complete the task?
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Task 6 Predicting specific content in a text
6.1 Brainstorm ideas with other students.

What will Text 2 identify as:
1. the main challenges involved in feeding a rapidly expanding global population?
2. the measures that need to be taken to meet these challenges?
6.2 Read the abstract from Text 2 and compare it with what you wrote in Ex 6.1. The
abstract briefly mentions the challenges and measures needing to be taken. Did you
think of any of the same issues?
Task 7 Identifying the main ideas
7.1 Match the following brief summaries to the main contents of the four sections,
14, of the text.
Note: There is one extra summary that is less appropriate. For this summary write N/A (not
appropriate).
Summary Section
Finding new food sources for an expanding population
Evaluating some possible solutions
Providing for both planetary and human needs
Trends in food availability and prices
Identifying the future global challenges
Discuss your answers with another student.
Task 8 Addressing the Focus task
8.1 Re-read the text and write notes relating to the challenges the Focus task
mentions and necessary measures that need to be taken.
a. Read the text once and write brief notes relevant to the assignment.
b. Discuss your notes with another student and amend them if necessary.
c. Refer back to the text and add any further notes if appropriate.
d. Use your notes to help you complete the table on the next page.
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Food security
Challenges Measures
Key reading skills: Developing your notes

Well-written notes will provide you with an effective tool for revision and writing research. You
should therefore practise developing your own style of note-taking one that works for you. Bear
in mind that your notes will always be more effective if you have a clear idea of what information
you wish to extract from the text before you begin reading.
Task 9 Logic and language
A well-written paragraph should be both coherent and cohesive. Study tip

The task below will provide further practice in organizing
a paragraph in such a way. Remember to pay attention to Recognizing coherence and
cohesive markers, such as linking words and expressions, and cohesion in a text will benefit
any pronoun referencing or other words/phrases that link back your writing as well as your
to previous ideas. understanding of the text.
9.1 Reorganize the paragraph in the table below in a logical order. Number the
sentences 15.
Sentences Number
Particular emphasis should be given to sustainability.
Recent studies suggest that the world will need 70 to 100% more food
by 2050.
Only when this has been fully established might a global catastrophe be
avoided.
Major strategies for contributing to the challenge of feeding 9 billion
people, including the most disadvantaged, therefore need to be explored.
At the same time, the combined role of the natural and social sciences in
analyzing and addressing the challenge of feeding the poorest must be
prioritized.
Key reading skills: Coherence and cohesion

A well-written text should be both coherent and cohesive. The coherence comes from the
logical ordering of the text content and the cohesion comes from the appropriate use of
linguistic features such as cohesive markers, e.g., however, subsequently, in this respect,
these, etc.
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Task 10 Working out meaning from context
10.1 Complete the table below with words or phrases of the same or similar meaning
(i.e., synonyms) from Text 2, Sections 13. Write the word class and the line
number where it appears in the text.
Note: The words in column 1 are listed in the same order as the relevant synonyms in
the text.
Synonym Word or phrase Word Line

class number
significant (S1)
stop increasing (S1)
approximately (S1)
competition (S1)
concerning (S1)
having greater wealth (S2)
far-reaching/very
significant (S2)
interspersed (S3)
sudden sharp rises (S3)
decreased (S3)
unstable (S3)
encourage (S3)
Key reading skills: Selecting useful vocabulary

The words in Ex 10.1 have been selected because they could be very useful for you to
know and to be able to use during your future academic studies. Always think carefully
about which words are the most useful to learn and use. Try to work out the meaning of
such words (if you do not already know them) from the context and then record them in
your vocabulary notebook.
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Food security
Text Closing the yield gap, Text 3
One major decision you need to make when reading an academic text is to decide which parts of
the text are the most relevant to your reading needs. This will save you time and allow you to make
the best use of the most relevant material.
Text 3 consists of ten paragraphs, including the introductory
Study tip
material. These paragraphs have various different purposes or
functions, such as: describing problems, giving a definition, Like cohesion and coherence, an
outlining the situation, analysis and discussion and looking at understanding of the function
solutions. of a paragraph will benefit your
own writing.
Task 11 Identifying the function of paragraphs
11.1 Read the list of functions 15. Discuss with another student which paragraphs
they might refer to in the text.
1. Discussion and analysis
2. Problems
3. Conclusion
4. Evaluation
5. Solutions
11.2 Read Text 3 as quickly as possible and complete the table with the function
(or functions) that best applies to each paragraph.
Paragraph Main function or functions Most useful

paragraphs
6 discussion and analysis (and evaluation)

7
10
11.3 Tick () the relevant paragraphs in the table above to indicate which are most
useful in helping you produce further notes relevant to the Focus task.
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Task 12 Annotating the text using the Cornell system
12.1 Study the following example notes developed from paragraphs 15 of the text.
a. Decide whether any further notes or annotations could be added.
b. Briefly summarize the notes in the summary section at the bottom of the table.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS
Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F.,
et al. (2010). The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science. 327(5967), 812818.
Annotations NOTES
definition yield gap (from Closing the yield gap lines 37)
useful (see first para.)
Challenges:
Level of food production varies greatly depending on
region, e.g., Africa had far lower production increases
than China/Latin America need to close yield gap
Example needed? Low yields due to technical constraints + econ.
reasons driven by market forces
Lack of tech. knowledge & skills
Does this include Limited finances
all forms of food Lack of storage space
production?
Lack of investment by farmers poor returns +
poverty trap
Solutions Balance needed between investing in overall growth
and focusing on agricultural growth
Focusing on overall growth leading to buying from
more developed system may be best choice
Need to have developed infrastructure before yield
gap can be addressed
More problems Factors such as poor transport system, limited market
infrastructure = higher prices of inputs
SUMMARY
The Cornell note-taking system

The Cornell note-taking system was developed by Walter Pauk, emeritus professor of
education at Cornell University in the United States. It is the page layout of Cornell notes
that makes this system different from other ways of note-taking. A single sheet of paper
is divided into a left- and a right-hand column, with a row at the bottom and a row at the
top. The four resulting sections each have a specific purpose.
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Food security
The row at the top should include all the bibliographical details, including the name(s)
of the author(s), the title of the original article, the source, the date of publication, the
volume number if the text comes from a journal, and the page numbers. A book should
also have the name of the publisher and the place (city or town) of publication.
The space in the right-hand column is the note-taking area. Here there is sufficient room to
write down ideas, impressions and notes that are made from a text or during a lecture. It is
usually when these notes have been completed that the left column and bottom area are
used, although some annotating may go on during the note-taking stage.
The left column is then used to annotate the notes with comments, questions, references,
reminders, extra ideas or interpretations. This annotation process is a crucial element in
note-taking. It provides the opportunity to consider the notes, digest and fully understand
them. It may lead the note-taker to add ideas or expand the information.
The bottom area leaves space for the main notes on each page to be summarized. The
summary provides a concise review of the key facts that have been identified and can be
used for reference later.
12.2 Using the Cornell system, continue making notes, annotations and summaries for
the remaining relevant parts of the text and complete the table below.
Annotations NOTES
SUMMARY
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12.3 Look at the following questions and underline the words or phrases in Text 3
that answer them.
1. What is a yield gap?

2. What would be the two most significant results if the yield gap was reduced?
3. Which area of the world has not increased its food production level?
4. What two key factors prevent some poorer farmers from achieving high yields?
5. What impact can a limited transport and market infrastructure have?
6. What positive result can the globalization of the food system have?
7. What does the concept of sustainability suggest?
8. What system might be established to improve the income of the rural poor in the
more underdeveloped regions?
9. Why is it important for the land rights of the very poor to be protected?
10. What can social protection programmes do to safeguard the ability of the rural poor
to be adequately fed?
12.4 Check whether the notes in your Cornell note-taking grid include answers to the
questions in Ex 12.3.
a. Add any extra notes as necessary.
b. Transform any other notes you have made into appropriate note form if you consider
them relevant to the focus question.
Key reading skills: Checking your notes

Asking questions about the text not only helps you gain a better understanding of the
text, it also allows you to check how effective your notes are.
Text Dealing with the situation, Text 4
Text 4 addresses the problem of how to feed a rapidly expanding population and looks at solutions.
Task 13 Predicting the content of the text
Before you read, you will make some predictions about what sort of ideas the text contains.
13.1 Read the question and write at least four possible solutions to the problem.
What strategies and actions do you think might most effectively solve the huge problem
of feeding the rapidly expanding global population?
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Food security
13.2 Compare and discuss your predictions with other students.

Try to agree on one that you all feel would be the most effective.
Note: Later, one of your main reading objectives will be to check whether your predictions
and those of other students are mentioned in the text, and which solutions the researchers
emphasize as being the most effective.
Task 14 Identifying the main ideas
14.1 Read section headings 15 and match them to the sections in Text 4. There
are four main sections in the text as well as the conclusion so one of the
headings below should be omitted.
Headings Sections
Reducing waste
Improving infrastructures
Expanding aquaculture
Increasing production limits
Changing diets
14.2 Analyze your reading strategy.

Discuss with another student the strategies you used to identify the headings and how
effective they were.
Task 15 Identifying and dealing with assumed knowledge
Academic texts often contain certain assumed knowledge. This is knowledge that the writer
assumes the reader already has, and which does not therefore need explanation, definition or
support with a reference. For example, in Section 1 of Text 4, the writer assumes the reader is
already familiar with the idea of Green Revolution.
15.1 Find more examples of assumed knowledge in Section 1.
15.2 Match the phrases you found in Ex 15.1 with definitions 15.
1. They involve a wide variety of laboratory methods, including the modification of

embryos, sex selection and genetic engineering. =
2. Relating to two or more genes. As opposed to monogenic. Eye colour is an example. =
3. A field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in
engineering, technology, medicine and other fields. =
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4. A plant has this if it can survive a dry spell of more than two or three months without
supplemental watering. =
5. This can be defined as the negative impact of non-living factors on the living
organisms in a specific environment; for example, caused by cold, salt, drought or
some forms of metal in the vicinity. =
Task 16 Making use of displayed information
16.1 Look at Figure 4 in the text. What do you understand by the terms listed?
1. On-farm:
2. Transport and processing:
3. Retail:
4. Food service:
5. Home and municipal:
16.2 Now answer the questions below relating to Figure 4.

1. What is being described and in which specific areas?
2. Suggest why retail, food service, home and municipal have been combined for
developing countries.
3. Which area has the greatest amount of retail wastage?
4. Which area has the most on-farm wastage?
5. Which has the least?
6. Approximately what percentage of wastage in the UK occurs in the retail trade?
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Food security
16.3 Summarize the most significant data that Figure 4 displays. Write no more than
two sentences.
16.4 Find an example in the text that supports your summary.
Key reading skills: Making use of displayed information

Displayed information has a significant purpose as well as decorating or breaking up
a text, and should not be neglected when you are reading. For example, when you are
surveying texts, graphics can quickly give you an understanding of the overall contents
as they summarize or exemplify what is being described. You need to develop your ability
to interpret the graphical information being displayed and to appreciate the
most significant aspects.
6 10
5 8
4
6
3
4
2
2
1
0 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Task 17 Producing notes
17.1 Complete the following notes on food wastage taken from Section 2, using no
more than five extra words per line to complete the notes.
You will have to think carefully about what to take from the text and transform the
wording of some of the text to complete the task.
In the developing world, food waste is mainly due to:

absence of
lack of
insufficient
the immediate
In the developed world, food wastage is mainly due to:

less incentive to
throwing away
promotion of
too much dependency on
misuse of
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Task 18 Microskills: Writing your conclusion
18.1 What is the function of the concluding paragraph of an essay?
Discuss your ideas with another student.
18.2 Read the following three concluding paragraphs and identify their functions.
Each conclusion comes from an essay with this title:
Is it better to help developing countries to help themselves than to give them food
and machinery?
1. It seems that in countries with misguided policies, where conventional aid is

known to fail, those who want to help should concentrate not on lending money,
but on the policy of education. They should advise the governments and help to
provide different kinds of training; they should act as vehicles for transferring
knowledge. Other types of aid are not useful, as they often support the ineffective
economic policies of a government, increase a countrys dependence on aid, and
contribute to a waste of money on projects that are not viable. In some cases,
the consequences of such aid are not prosperity and economic development, but
stagnation and an increase in poverty. Before giving financial aid or machinery,
the people should be educated in how best to use them, which is the most useful
contribution developed countries can make to developing countries.
2. To conclude, it is important to stress that developing countries need help, but it is

difficult to decide which is the most effective and appropriate help for any given
situation. The countries which want to help are wise to include local people in the
early stages of planning an aid project, as this cooperation results in the continuity
of the programme, and ongoing interest in and maintenance of the project over a
long period. So a logical outcome of viewing development aid as a right and not as
a gift, is that development cooperation should be based on a genuine partnership,
with programme ownership and implementation anchored in the developing
countries. However, in spite of all these possible solutions, it is the responsibility
of developing countries to choose the best way, because they know their own
situation. They need only to be shown the direction in which to go in order to
solve their problems, and then they will be able to achieve their goal.
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Food security
3. In conclusion, it seems that the roots of the current crisis from which the Third
World suffers are centuries old, as some of them date from the 19th century and
are directly linked to colonialism. In spite of all the efforts that have already
been made in the economic and social fields, the problems still exist. If no action
is taken within the next few years, the situation will inevitably deteriorate and
even affect the interests of the developed countries, as they will lose the extensive
markets that the developing countries represent.
Sources: Edited extracts from authentic student material.
Key writing skills: Writing conclusions

A conclusion should signal to your readers that you have finished your writing and leave
them with the clear impression that you have achieved the purpose(s) of your essay.
Conclusions typically include:
a summary of the main points (but be careful not to repeat exactly what you have
already written)
concluding statements drawn from the points you made in the main body
suggestions or recommendations for action to be taken
predictions formed from information in the main body
The conclusion should not include any new important ideas. Such ideas should have
already been discussed in the main body. An effective conclusion will often progress from
a specific statement to a general statement. Note that this is the opposite progression to
that of an effective introduction, which progresses from a general statement to a specific
thesis statement.
18.3 The following three sentences come from a conclusion to an essay entitled The
benefits of higher education. Number the sentences in the most logical order.
1. In that sense, educational levels are likely to be improved and education

methods become more efficient.
2. To conclude, it seems that universities and higher education establishments

have been of widespread importance in the improvements and developments
realized in modern societies.
3. However, more should be done to ensure further improvement and

participation of those bodies in the development process, for instance
the cancellation of tuition fees, or at least a reduction.
Sources: Edited extracts from authentic student material.
18.4 Compare your order with that of another student and explain your choice. Then
identify the function of each sentence.
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18.5 The following extracts from the conclusion of an essay entitled The consumption
of tobacco and its consequences are in the wrong order. Number them in the
most logical order.
1. However, most people recognize that many developed countries use the
international organizations as a curtain to achieve their purposes. This is
because they are by far the biggest beneficiaries of tobacco production,
gaining $100 billion a year from taxes on tobacco.
2. A rational consideration of this situation should lead to a ban on

tobacco consumption being introduced, resulting in fewer deaths from
smoking-related illness. However, there are many who believe that,
despite repeated efforts to instigate change, the present situation will
remain indefinitely.
3. We have established that there are so many possible solutions to the

problems of tobacco consumption that it would be impossible to consider
them in an essay of this length.
4. As discussed in this paper, tobacco companies often respond to tobacco

problems by suggesting solutions that benefit their own interests, rather
than those of the developing countries, and use international organizations
to introduce them.
Language note
In-text citation can be divided into two main types: integral and non-integral.
Integral citation is where the authors name is prominent and included in the sentence.
The citation is introduced with a reporting verb:
Fargione et al. (2008) point out that recent policy decisions to produce first-
generation biofuels on good-quality agricultural land have added to the competitive
pressures.
Non-integral citation is where the information is prominent; the source is normally
given at the end of sentences in brackets:
Recent policy decisions to produce first-generation biofuels on good-quality
agricultural land have added to the competitive pressures (Fargione et al., 2008).
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g Glossary
active vocabulary looking at: the contents page, the foreword or
Vocabulary that you use in your day-to-day life introduction and/or the index.
in order to communicate effectively. prior knowledge
annotate This is knowledge that you already have about
To write comments or explanatory notes directly something, sometimes known as general
onto a text, e.g., in the margin. knowledge or world knowledge. If you have
careful reading prior knowledge of key vocabulary, or an idea in
Reading slowly and carefully to develop a clear a text (e.g., from reading about it in your own
understanding of the text or a particular part of language), you will generally find the text easier
the text. For example, you would read carefully to follow.
to understand details or to infer meaning. reading critically
complex sentences Reading in a way that involves questioning what
Sentences that are made up of several clauses the text says, what the writer is trying to do and
(main and dependent clauses). They may also how he or she does this, e.g., whether the text
include long phrases or unusual syntax and/or is biased or prejudiced.
terminology. reading for a purpose
displayed information Having a specific reason for reading a text, e.g.,
Information that is displayed in and around a reading to learn, reading for entertainment or
text, such as headings and titles, text boxes, reading to confirm. The reading purpose will
tables, graphs and diagrams. Displayed affect which reading strategy to apply, e.g., fast
information, also known as overt information, skimming, browsing, search-reading, intensive
often highlights key words and ideas. reading.
foreword read selectively
A section of a book or longer text that comes at Selective reading involves choosing certain
the beginning and gives a short introduction to sections in a text to read carefully because these
it. This introduction is often written by someone are the areas that you wish to understand or
other than the author and may be in the form research in more depth. You read selectively
of a short essay. when you have a clear purpose for reading.
infer (v) reading strategy
To obtain or work out meaning from the text Something that you can actively do to help
that the writer has not explicitly stated. This is your reading or improve your reading skills over
sometimes called reading between the lines a period of time. Typical reading strategies for
and involves the reader making use of his or her academic texts include: knowing your reading
world knowledge. purpose, picking out key words and note-taking.
paragraph leader recall
The first sentence in a written paragraph. Remembering information and/or ideas from a
The paragraph leader links to the ideas in the text that you have read, to help you in your own
previous paragraph and may lead into the ideas writing.
in the next paragraph. The paragraph leader can references
sometimes also be a topic sentence. Acknowledgement of the sources of ideas
predicting and information used or mentioned in a text.
The skill of using what you already know and References allow a reader to check those
what you want to know about a topic to guess sources for accuracy or to find out more
what the text will contain. Clues such as titles, information about the topic.
pictures, layout and paragraph leaders can help scanning
you predict and make the text less challenging Reading for specific information involves
to read or difficult to understand. scanning. It involves finding key words or
previewing figures. For example, it is normal to scan a text
Looking at text to decide how useful it is for a to find dates, names and specific facts.
particular purpose. Previewing might involve
GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 110 09/05/2012 15:38

Glossary
search reading
Looking through a text quickly to find specific
ideas rather than words. It is different from
scanning because you do not know the specific
words you are looking for.
skimming
Reading for the general idea or gist of a text
involves skimming reading the text quickly
to get the main idea of what it is about rather
than focusing on every word. For example, it is
normal to skim a letter or book cover to find out
what it is about. This often precedes reading for
more specific information.
supporting sentences
Sentences that follow or support the main idea
or topic sentence in a paragraph. Supporting
sentences may give examples, explanations or
additional information about the key idea.
synthesize
To take information from different sources and
to write it all up as a single text.
text analysis
Checking the currency, authorship, purpose,
accessibility, relevance and interest value of a
text.
topic sentence
A sentence that carries the main idea of the
paragraph. It often comes at the beginning
or end of a paragraph, but may also appear
elsewhere. It is usually followed by supporting
sentences or preceded by them. There may be
more than one topic sentence in a paragraph or
none at all.
word class
Words can be grouped into classes according to
their function in a sentence. Word classes, also
known as parts of speech, include nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs.
GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 111 09/05/2012 15:38

g Glossary
academic evidence extended definition
Evidence that comes from recognized academic This is longer and more detailed than a simple
research or published text and is considered to dictionary-style definition. In an extended
be stronger and more reliable than other forms definition there may be extended examples
of evidence. and/or a contrast with other similar, but
brainstorm distinct concepts.
To reflect on a topic or issue and generate a
large number of ideas. This can be an individual genre
activity or a group activity in which everyone A type of text or art form that uses a particular
suggests as many possible ways to solve a style of writing or speaking. Scientific essays
problem or complete a task as they can. are a different genre from humanities essays.
citation manipulate
A reference to the source of an idea in someones To adapt or change something (figures,
work. This may be an in-text reference to an statistics, facts, etc.) so that it shows what
author, a reference in a bibliography or footnote you want it to.
or a verbal reference in a talk or lecture.
microskills
coherence Skills that contribute to a larger skill (or
Coherence of text is what enables the reader macroskill) such as reading, writing, listening or
to follow the writers train of thought. There speaking. Writing microskills include organizing
should be coherence within sentences, between and linking ideas.
paragraphs. For example, paragraphs should
flow smoothly from one to the next with the paragraph leader
first sentence in the new paragraph linking to The first sentence in a written paragraph.
the one before. The paragraph leader links to the ideas in the
complex sentence previous paragraph and may lead into the ideas
A sentence that is made up of several clauses to be developed in the next paragraph. It is a
(main and dependent clauses). It may also cohesive device.
include long phrases or unusual syntax and/or
terminology, for example, Crime statistics are paraphrase
proof positive that, with a bit of art, you can A rewritten version of a writer's or speakers
fool all the people all the time. idea, usually relating to a specific point that the
writer has made, with an acknowledgement of
concise (style) the source.
Expressing a lot of information in a few words.
peer evaluation
constructive criticism Peer evaluation takes place when a colleague
Advice that is useful and intended to help or another student reads and evaluates the
someone or improve something. Constructive effectiveness of ones work. Peers are often able
criticism may also involve offering possible to suggest improvements quickly.
solutions to problems.
plagiarism
critical reading Reproducing sections of another writers
Reading in a way that involves questioning what material and claiming it as your own, whether
the text says, what the writer is trying to do and in the form of long pieces of text or short lines
how he/she does this. or phrases. This practice is unacceptable in
academic writing. Any reproduction of another
critical thinking writers work has to be clearly acknowledged.
Thinking critically involves the following
skills: supporting your own views with a clear
rationale, evaluating ideas that you hear and
read, and making connections between ideas.
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 84 26/06/2014 08:30

Glossary
process approach
An approach based on the idea that good
writers go through a number of processes while
composing a text before they produce their final
product. It encourages the learner to go back
to look at and change the text as much as he
or she needs to.
source
This describes the place where information
included in a text has been obtained. In
academic writing, your sources will be other
texts on the subject you are covering, such as
journals or books.
SPSIE
An approach to problem-solving in academic
life that you can use in written work. The
abbreviation stands for situationproblems
solutionsimplicationsevaluation.
terminology
Vocabulary (or terms) used in a particular field,
topic or area of study. These may be technical
words or terms to describe complex concepts
that are specific to that topic.
thesis
A writers point of view or position in a text is
what may be referred to as his/her thesis. In
order to write an evaluative project, the writer
needs to develop a thesis as the starting point.
thesis statement
A statement of the writers thesis. It is often
stated in the introduction and supported by
reasons in the body of the essay or presentation,
and revisited in the conclusion.
topic sentence
A sentence in a paragraph that directs the
ideas that are developed in the paragraph. It is
important because it explains the main idea in
the paragraph and helps the reader to focus
on it.
GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 85 26/06/2014 08:30

s Symbols and abbreviations
Symbols Meaning
&, + and, plus
- less, minus
= is, equals, is the same as
is approximately equivalent to
> is greater than, is more than, is over
< is less than
, $ money; cost, price
gives, produces, leads to, results in
rises, increases, grows
falls, decreases, declines
ditto (repeats text immediately above)
therefore, so

because, as, since
@ at
C century, as in 20th C
# number, as in #1
? this is doubtful
approx. approximately
asap as soon as possible
c. approximately, as in c.1900
cf. compare
Ch. chapter
C century, as in C19
co. company
dept. department
diff. difference
GED 0088 Reading Teachers Book v1.1.indd 192 05/07/2012 16:18

Symbols and abbreviations
Symbols Meaning
ed./eds. editor(s)
e.g. for example
and the other people or things (used when referring to a book with
et al.
more than two authors)
etc. et cetera, and all the rest, and so forth
written after the number of a page or line to mean and the

ff.
following pages or lines as in p.10ff.
fig. figure (used when giving a title to a drawing or table)
i.e. that is, that means, in other words
ibid. in the same place in the source already mentioned
incl. including
ltd. limited
max. maximum
min. minimum
N.B. important, note
n.d. no date given
No., no. number
op. cit in the source already mentioned
PARA paragraph problem, add or combine paragraphs
p./pp. page/pages, as in pp. 110
poss. possible/possibly
Q. question
A. answer
re. concerning, regarding, about
ref. with reference to
st./sts. student/students
v. very
viz. namely
vol. volume
yr. year

a Academic Word List
The following appendix consists of the 10 sublists of the Academic Word List (AWL), containing 570
headwords in total. Sublist 1 contains the most frequent words; Sublist 2 contains the second most
frequent words, and so on.
For more information on the AWL, see: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/.
Sublist 1 process investment deduction
analysis required items demonstrate
approach research journal document
area response maintenance dominant
assessment role normal emphasis
assume section obtained ensure
authority sector participation excluded
available significant perceived framework
benefit similar positive funds
concept source potential illustrated
consistent specific previous immigration
constitutional structure primary implies
context theory purchase initial
contract variable range instance
create region interaction
data Sublist 2 regulations justification
definition achieve relevant layer
derived acquisition resident link
distribution administration resources location
economic affect restricted maximum
environment appropriate security minorities
established aspects sought negative
estimate assistance select outcomes
evidence categories site partnership
export chapter strategies philosophy
factors commission survey physical
financial community text proportion
formula complex traditional published
function computer transfer reaction
identified conclusion registered
income conduct Sublist 3 reliance
indicate consequences alternative removed
individual construction circumstances scheme
interpretation consumer comments sequence
involved credit compensation sex
issues cultural components shift
labour design consent specified
legal distinction considerable sufficient
legislation elements constant task
major equation constraints technical
method evaluation contribution techniques
occur features convention technology
per cent final coordination validity
period focus core volume
policy impact corporate
principle injury corresponding
procedure institute criteria

Academic Word List
Sublist 4 stress stability motivation

access subsequent styles neutral
adequate sum substitution nevertheless
annual summary sustainable overseas
apparent undertaken symbolic preceding
approximated target presumption
attitudes Sublist 5 transition rational
attributed academic trend recovery
civil adjustment version revealed
code alter welfare scope
commitment amendment whereas subsidiary
communication aware tapes
concentration capacity Sublist 6 trace
conference challenge abstract transformation
contrast clause accurate transport
cycle compounds acknowledged underlying
debate conflict aggregate utility
despite consultation allocation
dimensions contact assigned Sublist 7
domestic decline attached adaptation
emerged discretion author adults
error draft bond advocate
ethnic enable brief aid
goals energy capable channel
granted enforcement cited chemical
hence entities cooperative classical
hypothesis equivalent discrimination comprehensive
implementation evolution display comprise
implications expansion diversity confirmed
imposed exposure domain contrary
integration external edition converted
internal facilitate enhanced couple
investigation fundamental estate decades
job generated exceed definite
label generation expert deny
mechanism image explicit differentiation
obvious liberal federal disposal
occupational licence fees dynamic
option logic flexibility eliminate
output marginal furthermore empirical
overall medical gender equipment
parallel mental ignored extract
parameters modified incentive file
phase monitoring incidence finite
predicted network incorporated foundation
principal notion index global
prior objective inhibition grade
professional orientation initiatives guarantee
project perspective input hierarchical
promote precise instructions identical
regime prime intelligence ideology
resolution psychology interval inferred
retained pursue lecture innovation
series ratio migration insert
statistics rejected minimum intervention
status revenue ministry isolated

media induced incompatible nonetheless
mode inevitably inherent notwithstanding
paradigm infrastructure insights odd
phenomenon inspection integral ongoing
priority intensity intermediate panel
prohibited manipulation manual persistent
publication minimized mature posed
quotation nuclear mediation reluctant
release offset medium so-called
reverse paragraph military straightforward
simulation plus minimal undergo
solely practitioners mutual whereby
somewhat predominantly norms
submitted prospect overlap
successive radical passive
survive random portion
thesis reinforced preliminary
topic restore protocol
transmission revision qualitative
ultimately schedule refine
unique tension relaxed
visible termination restraints
voluntary theme revolution
thereby rigid
Sublist 8 uniform route
vehicle scenario
abandon
via sphere
accompanied
virtually subordinate
accumulation
widespread supplementary
ambiguous
visual suspended
appendix
team
appreciation
Sublist 9 temporary
arbitrary
accommodation trigger
automatically
analogous unified
bias
anticipated violation
chart
assurance vision
clarity
attained
conformity
behalf Sublist 10
commodity
bulk adjacent
complement
ceases albeit
contemporary
coherence assembly
contradiction
coincide collapse
crucial
commenced colleagues
currency
concurrent compiled
denote
confined conceived
detected
controversy convinced
deviation
conversely depression
displacement
device encountered
dramatic
devoted enormous
eventually
diminished forthcoming
exhibit
distortion inclination
exploitation
duration integrity
fluctuations
erosion intrinsic
guidelines
ethical invoked
highlighted
format levy
implicit
founded likewise

School of Foreign Languages
Modern Languages Department
raan Caddesi No:4 Beikta- STANBUL
Tel: 0212 381 00 00
www.bahcesehir.edu.tr
All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
data base or retrieval system,without the prior written permission of the BAU SFL Modern Languages Department.

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ENG 1004

1. to demonstrate academic language learning strategies with examples

2. to transfer the fundamentals of Academic English

3. to illustrate academic language use with examples

4. to report results and comments in an academic style and format

Course Learning Outcomes:

1. to guess unknown vocabulary from context

2. to use complex sentence structures and academic phrases

3. to identify the audience, tone, and purpose in academic writing

4. to analyze coherence, cohesion, and unity in academic writing

7. to apply rules and conventions of academic writing

8. to write a piece of writing in academic language

Weekly tests on itslearning (40%)

Excuses such as permissions to participate in an activity of the university should

Working with the course

GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 7 26/06/2014 08:29

The process approach to writing

GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 8 26/06/2014 08:29

evaluation and (Self and peer)

The development of critical thinking skills

GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 9 26/06/2014 08:29

The importance of genre

The link between reading and writing

GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 10 26/06/2014 08:29

Some practical points

GED0088 Writing_2014.indd 11 26/06/2014 08:29

Working with the course

GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 9 09/05/2012 15:37

1 Reading for a specific academic purpose

2 Working on effective reading strategies

GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 10 09/05/2012 15:37

3 Detailed comprehension of sentences and paragraphs

All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may beProperty

GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 11 09/05/2012 15:37

GED 0088 Reading_2012.indb 12 09/05/2012 15:37

Text 1 Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world

Diet and sustainability

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 28 09/05/2012 15:35

Text 1 Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 29 09/05/2012 15:35

The challenge of feeding 9 billion people

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 30 09/05/2012 15:35

Text 2 The challenge of feeding 9 billion people

2.0 added to the competitive pressures (Fargione

of feeding 9 billion people. Science. 327(5987), 812818.

Figure 1. Changes in the relative global production

4 So how can more food be produced

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 31 09/05/2012 15:35

Closing the yield gap

costs of inputs or low profits from increased

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 32 09/05/2012 15:35

Text 3 Closing the yield gap

and increase the costs of moving the food

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 33 09/05/2012 15:35

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 34 09/05/2012 15:35

Text 4 Dealing with the situation

Dealing with the situation

for increasing production limits.

0088 EAS - Reading and Writing - Source book.indd 35 09/05/2012 15:35

grave concerns (line 5)