Lieu Wen

Internal Combustion Engines I:
Gas Turbines
Tim Lieuwen
Affiliation:
Professor
School of Aerospace Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Email: tim.lieuwen@ae.gatech.edu
Ph. 404-894-3041
2012 Princeton-CEFRC Summer School on Combustion

Course Length: 6 hrs
June 25 26, 2012
Course Outline
Introduction
Flashback and Flameholding
Flame Stabilization and Blowoff
Combustion Instabilities
Flame Dynamics
CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012

2
Course Outline
Introduction
Constraints, metrics, future outlook
Flame Dynamics

3
Role of Combustor within Larger
Energy System
0.7
0.6
Microturbine
Example: Ideal Brayton Cycle
Thermal Efficiency
0.5
Heavy Aeroengine
0.4 frame Gas
th= 1- (Pr)-( -1)/ 0.3 Turbine
Pr = compressor pressure ratio 0.2
0.1
= Cp/Cv, ratio of specific heats
0
0 10 20 30 40
Conclusions Pressure Ratio
Combustor has little effect upon cycle efficiency (e.g. fuel > kilowatts) or
specific power
Combustor does however have important impacts on
Realizability of certain cycles
E.g., steam addition, water addition, EGR, etc.
Engine operational limits and transient response
Emissions from plant
4
Combustor Performance Metrics
What are important combustor performance

parameters?
Operability
Blow out Fuel
Combustion instability
Flash back
Autoignition Air
Low pollutant emissions
Fuel flexibility
Good turndown
Transient response

5
Tradeoffs and Challenges
Cost/
Turndown
Complexity
Combustion
Blowoff
Instabilities
Emissions
NOX, CO, CO2
6
Alternative Fuel Compositions
Source: L.
Witherspoon and
A. Pocengal,
Power Engineering
October 2008
7
Natural Gas Composition Variability
Source: C. Carson, Rolls Royce Canada

8
Operability issues have caused
significant problems in deployment of
low NOX technologies
Power
Example: Broken part
replacement largest non-fuel
related cost for F class gas
turbines
Industrial
Residential
Example: issues in EU with
deployment of low NOX water
heaters, burners Goy et al., in Combustion instabilities in gas turbine engines: operational
experience, fundamental mechanisms, and modeling,
T. Lieuwen and V. Yang, Editors. 2005. p. 163-175.

9
10
Financial Times
Power in Latin America
23 July 99, Issue 49
Daggers Drawn over Nehuenco

The Patience of Chiles Colbun power company has finally run out over the continued non-
performance of the Siemens-built Nehuenco generating plant. Exasperated by repeated
break-downs at the new plant and under pressure from increasingly reluctant insurers (and
with lawsuits looking likely) the generator announced that it will not accept the $140m
combined-cycle plant - built and delivered by the Germany equipment manufacturer.
Siemens, together with Italys Ansaldo, took the turnkey contract for the 350 MW plant in 1996
and should have had it in service by May of last year. The startup was delayed till January.
Since then matters have worsened. There have been two major breakdowns and, says
Colbun, there have been no satisfactory explanations.
The trouble could not have come worse for Colbun. The manly hydroelectric generator, which
is controlled by a consortium made up of Belgiums Tractebel, Spains Iberdrola and the local
Matte and Yaconi-Santa Cruz groups, has been crippled by severe drought in Chile, which has
slashed its output and thrown it back without Nehuenco onto a prohibitively expensive spot
market.

11
Single largest issue associated with
development of low NOX GTs
Designs make systems susceptible to
large amplitude acoustic pulsations

12
Turndown
100
Normalized Load (%)

80
60
40
20
0
27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5
Time (Days)
Operational flexibility has been substantially crimped in

low NOX technologies
Significant number of combined cycle plants being cycled
on and off daily
13
Blowoff
Low NOX designs make
flame stabilization more
problematic On Tuesday February 26th, 2008, the FRCC Bulk Power
Industry System experienced a system disturbance initiated by a138
Advisory kV transmission system fault that remained on the system
for approximately 1.7 seconds. The fault and subsequent
June 26, delayed clearing led to the loss of approximately 2,300 MW
2008 of load concentrated in South Florida along with the loss of
approximately 4,300 MW of generation within the Region.
Background: Approximately 2,200 MW of under-frequency load shedding
subsequently operated and was scattered across the
peninsular part of Florida.
Indications are that six combustion turbine (CT) generators

within the Region that were operating in a lean-burn mode
(used for reducing emissions) tripped offline as result of a
phenomenon known as turbine combustor lean blowout. As
the CT generators accelerated in response to the frequency
excursion, the direct-coupled turbine compressors forced
more air into their associated combustion chambers at the
same time as the governor speed control function reduced
fuel input in response to the increase in speed. This resulted
in what is known as a CT blowout, or loss of flame, causing
the units to trip offline.

14
Autoignition
Liquid fuels
Higher hydrocarbons in natural gas
Poor control of dewpoint
Images:
B. Igoe, Siemens
Petersen et. al. Ignition of Methane Based Fuel Blends at Gas Turbine Pressures, ASME 2005-68517

15
Emissions
NOX Reactions with
nitrogen in air and/or fuel
CO Incomplete or rich
combustion
UHC Incomplete
combustion
SOX sulfur in fuel
Particulates (soot,
smoke)
CO2 and H20? Major
project of hydrocarbon
combustion
16
Pollutant Trends, CO and UHC
From A. Kendrick, et al,
Rich flames large amounts formed ASME-GT-2000-0008
due to insufficient oxygen to react 40
fuel to CO2 1 0 0 ps i
2 0 0 ps i
Lean flames incomplete
ppm v
30
2 8 0 ps i
2,
combustion
C O at 15% excess O
Slow CO conversion 20
High CO levels formed in flame

that relax slowly to equilibrium
10
Low power, low temperature

operation
Limits turndown range
0
0 .3 5 0 .4 0 .4 5 0 .5 0 .5 5 0 .6 0 .6 5
Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) also E q uiv a le nc e ra tio
associated with incomplete

combustion Kinetically Equilibrium
controlled controlled
17
Pollutant Trends, NOX
Primarily formed at high temperatures (>1800 K), due to
reaction of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen
Water/steam injection used to cool flame in nonpremixed combustors
Fuel lean operation to minimize flame temperature is a standard
strategy in DLN combustors
Source: A. Lef ebvre, Gas Turbine Combustion

18
Combustor Configurations
Nonpremixed
Water/steam injection used for NOX control

19
Combustor Configurations
Dry, Low NOX (DLN) Systems
Premixed operation
If liquid fueled, must prevaporize
fuel (lean, premixed,
prevaporized, LPP)
Almost all air goes through
front end of combustor for fuel
lean operation little available
for cooling
Multiple nozzles required for
turndown

20
Combustion challenges in a CO2
constrained world
CO2 emissions set by fuel and cycle choice

Sets combustion configuration and challenges
Combustion research areas:
Pre-combustion carbon capture
Post-combustion carbon capture
Bio-fuels (near zero net CO2 emitting fuels)

21
Pre-combustion Carbon Capture
Carbon removed prior to
combustion, producing high H2
fuel stream
IGCC
High H2 introduces significant
combustion issues
VERY high flame speed causes
flashback
Warranties generally limit H 2 <5%
by volume
Plants burning high H2 fuels use
older, high NOx technology
80% H 2 20% CH 4 flashback at 281 K, 1 atm,
nozzle velocity of 58.7 m/s, and = 0.426

22
Post Combustion Carbon Capture
Sequesterable stream
preferably composed primarily
of CO2 and H2O
Oxy-combustion
Control flame temperature by
diluting oxygen with recycled
steam or CO2
Exhaust gas recirculation
Kimberlina Power Plant

23
Significant Issues associated with
generating a sequesterable
exhaust
Air:
O2/N2 ratio fixed
Stoichiometry varied to control flame temperature
Emissions:
NOX a major pollutant Component Canyon Reef Weyburn pipeline
CO2 >95% 96%
CO to a lesser extent CO - 0.1%
H2O No free water < 0.489 m-3 <20ppm
Oxy-System: in the vapour phase
H2S <1500 ppm 0.9%
CO2/O2 ratio varied to control N2 4% <300ppm
O2 <10ppm (weight) <50ppm
flame temperature CH4 - 0.7%
Stoichiometry close to 1 Hydrocarbon
Temperature
<5%
<49C
-
-
Emissions: Pressure - 15.2 MPa
Table 1. Specifications for two CO2 transport pipelines for EOR
Near zero NOx emissions
CO and O2 emissions
24
Challenges: Emissions
CO ppm
O2 ppm
Emissions:
CO: high CO2 levels
lead to orders of
magnitude increase in
exhaust CO
O2: normally, a major
exhaust effluent;
requires operating
slightly rich to minimize

25
Concluding Remarks
Many exciting challenges associated with

Fuel flexibility
Clean Air Act emissions and CO 2
Operational flexibility
Reliability
Low cost

26
UNSTEADY COMBUSTOR PHYSICS
Tim Lieuwen
Cambridge Press, to appear in 2012
~430 pages, with exercises
1. Overview and Basic Equations
Section I: Flow Disturbances in Combustors

2. Decomposition and Evolution of Disturbances
3. Hydrodynamic Flow Stability I: Introduction
4. Hydrodynamic Flow Stability II: Common Combustor Flow Fields
5. Acoustic Wave Propagation I: Basic Concepts
6. Acoustic Wave Propagation II: Heat Release, Complex Geometry, and Mean
Flow Effects
Section II: Reacting Flow Dynamics

7.Flame-Flow Interactions
8. Ignition
9. Internal Flame Processes
Section III: Transient and Time-Stationary Combustor Phenomenon

10. Flame Stabilization, Flashback, and Blowoff
11. Forced Response I - Flamelet Dynamics
27
12. Force Response II- Heat Release Dynamics
1
Course Outline
Introduction

Boundary Layer Flashback
Core Flow Flashback and Combustion Induced Vortex Breakdown
Flame Dynamics
2 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012

Flashback:
Upstream propagation of a premixed flame into a region not
designed for the flame to exist
Occurs when the laminar and/or turbulent flame speed exceeds
the local flow velocity
Reference flow speed and burning velocity?
Flameholding:
Flame stabilizes in an undesired region of the combustor after a
flashback/autoignition event
Problem has hysteretic elements
Wall temperature effects
Boundary layer and swirl flow stability effects
Flashback and Flameholding Mechanisms
Flashback in the boundary layer
Flame propagation into core flow

Well focus on swirl flows
Combustion instabilities
Strong acoustic pulsations lead to
nearly reverse flow
Krner et al. CST 2007
Note: p/p~u/c=Mu/u
i.e. u/u=(1/M)p/p
Significance of above mechanisms is

a strong function of:
Fuel composition
Operating conditions Show video
Fluid mechanics
4
Heeger et al. Exp. In Fluids 2010
Boundary layer flashback
5
Boundary Layer Flashback-Classical Treatment
Neglects effects of
Heat release (changes approach flow) u x
ux
Stretch (changes burning velocity) y y0
Flashback occurs if flame speed exceeds

flow velocity at distance, q from the wall
flame
u x ( y q ) sd ( y q )
u

Expanding velocity in a Taylor series, q
establish flashback condition:

u x g u q
ux(y q) q u
1
y sd
gu
Assuming, , define flashback

q F
Karlovitz number
gu F
Ka
6 u
sd
CH4-air
2000
gradient (sec-1)
Flashback Karlovitz number
1000
approach is well validated for open
g (1/s)
flames, such as Bunsen burners
Critical velocity
u
Performed detailed kinetics
calculations to determine flame Increasing T u
speed and thickness for several 100
data sets 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

Shows how prior burning
CH4-air (solid) and C3H8-air (dashed)
velocity, flame thickness 1
tendencies can be used to
understand tendencies 0.75
gu F0 sdu ,0
Pressure 0.5
Preheat temperature 0.25

Stoichiometry
0
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Data for figures obtained from:
7 Grumer Ind. & Eng. Chem. 1954
Dugger Ind. & Eng. Chem 1955
Turbulent Boundary Layers

Multi-zoned
ux y q
Near wall laminar g u , la m in a r u x
q
sublayer, g u , tu r b u le n t y y0
Basic scaling developed for

laminar flows holds if:
Most literature data shows

g u ,tu r b u le n t 3 g u ,la m in a r
Significant space-time
variation during flashback
Images suggest flame
interactions with boundary
layer instabilities C. Eichler Exp. In Fluids 2012
Show video
Coupled Effects of Flame Curvature and Gas
Expansion
Flame bulging into reactants
Approach flow decelerates
Streamlines diverge
u b Adverse pressure gradient
u x ,0 u x ,0
Implications:
2
A
k
Boundary layers adverse
pressure gradients lead to
separation
Solid thick contours: positive pressure fluctuations Swirl flows adverse pressure
0.8
gradients can lead to vortex
0.6 breakdown
0.4 Triple flames flame can
Pressure
0.2 propagate into region with velocity
0 that is higher than flame speed
-0.2
Velocity Flame stability flame
-0.4 spontaneously develops wrinkles
9 -0.6
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012
kx
Heat Conduction Influences on Boundary Layers
4
3
D u
2
Reacting
y
1
Nonreacting
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
u u m ax
Important implications for

Scaling velocity gradients in shear layers
Flame stretch rates
Shear layer instability frequencies acoustic sensitivities
Heat Release and Stretch Effects
Heat release modifies approach

flow
C. Eichler Turbo Expo 2011
Stretch modifies burning velocity Inner lip
Unconfined Confined

Heat Release and Stretch Effects
150000
1.5
Particularly important in explaining 125000
gu 105 1/ s
flameholding phenomenon 1000001 confined
Once a flashback event has 75000

occurred, difficult to expel flame 0.5
50000
from combustor 25000 unconfined
00
Leading point of advancing
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
flashback event subject to positive
curvature C. Eichler Turbo Expo 2011
Inner lip
Effect of gas expansion due to
heat release on local flow velocity
Unconfined Confined
Stretch Effects
Leading point of advancing

flashback event subject to
positive curvature u x
ux
y
For M a 0 , this can cause: y 0
sd ( y q ) sd
u u ,0
flame
s du , 0 can be a significant q
underestimate of flame
speed Positively curved flame

Heat Release Effects
M ad
Gas expansion across a
gu,confined gu,unconfined
10 -0.9 -0.7 -0.5 -0.4
10
curved flame alters the
gu ,confined gu ,unconfined
approach flow
1

2
Resulting adverse
pressure gradient ahead
1 of flame decelerates flow 1
1 In extreme cases, can 4 10
10

Tb Tu
cause boundary layer
separation Flame Separated flow region
2 mm
Approach flow sucks
flame back into nozzle
Reactants Reactants
Figures:
14 C. Eichler Turbo Expo 2011 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012
Heeger et al. Exp. In Fluids 2010
Core Flow Flashback and Combustion Induced
Vortex Breakdown
15
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown
The degree of swirl in the

flow, S, has profound
influences on the flow
structure
Most prominent feature of

high swirl number flows is
the occurrence of vortex
breakdown, which is
manifested as a stagnation
point followed by reverse
flow Stagnation
points
Billant et al., JFM, 1998

Sarpkaya, JFM, 1971

Prominent Features of Swirling Flows
with Vortex Breakdown: Precessing Vortex Core
Regio
highes
Azimuthal axial v
The flow does not instantaneously rotate Velocity
Path of PVC
about the geometric centerline center
The location of zero azimuthal velocity is

referred to as the precessing vortex core
(PVC)
The frequency of rotation of the PVC center
precessing vortex core scales with a
Strouhal number based on axial flow Region of
highest forward
velocity and diameter
Azimuthal axial velocity
Velocity PVC
Leads to a helical pattern in Path of PVC center
center
instantaneous axial flow velocity
Important to differentiate the PVC from Region
of
the other helical shear flow structures reverse
flow
which may also be present
PVC center

Source: Syred, Prog. Energy and Comb. Sci., 2006
Prominent Features of Swirling Flows:
Shear Layer Instability
Shear layers exist in both span- and streamwise directions

Can be axisymmetric or helical

Huang and Yang, Proc. Comb. Inst., 2005
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown
Vortex breakdown can be

described as a fold catastrophe
Bifurcation of the possible
steady state solutions to the
Navier-Stokes equations
In high Re flows, there is an

intermediate swirl number range
where flow is bi-stable and
hysteretic Vortex
Breakdown
i.e., either vortex breakdown
Swirl Number
or no vortex breakdown flow
state possible Either
No
Breakdown
Vortex Core Size/Nozzle Radius

Source: Lopez, Physics of Fluids, 1994
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown: Example
calculation
Vortex breakdown can be predicted for given velocity profile

Q-vortex" velocity profile: u 2 5 r x ,0 2
1 exp( ( ) )
u b ,0 1 4 rc
5 r 2
(1 e x p ( ( ) ))
r u ,0 Sv 4 rc

u b ,0 ( r / rc ) (1 e x p ( 5 / 4 ) )
3 1
u a ,0 u b ,0
2.5

0.8 u a ,0 u b ,0
2
u x ,0 u b ,0 0.6
1.5 r u ,0 u b ,0
0.4
1
0.2 Axial and azimuthal velocity profiles used for
0.5 vortex breakdown calculation, using Sv=0.71
for u,0plot.
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
r rc
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown: Example
Calculation
Wake Jet
2.5
1.2
Breakdown
2
1.0
Breakdown
0.8 1.5
Sv Sv
0.6
1
0.4 No breakdown
0.5 No breakdown
0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5
rc /a
Following Z. Rusak

Core Flow Flame Propagation
A B
S ta b l e F la m e
r
z
C IV B
Uf
S w ir l G e n e r a t o r M ix in g T u b e
C o m b u s t io n C h a m b e r
Image reproduced from T. Sattelmayer
Vortex breakdown flame interaction

Can occur even if flame speed everywhere less than flow speed
Gas expansion across a curved flame:
1. Adverse pressure gradient & radial divergence imposed on reactants
2. Low/negative velocity region generated upstream of flame
3. Flame advances further into reactants
4. Location of vortex breakdown region advances upstream
Due to bi-stable nature of vortex breakdown boundaries
CIVB itself not necessarily bi-stable
Natarajan et al. Combustion and Flame 2007

Flame Anchoring -1 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012
Course Outline
Introduction
Introductory Concepts
Flame Stabilization in Shear Layers
Flame Stabilization by Stagnation Points
Flame Dynamics

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS


Flame stabilization requires:
A point where the local flame
speed and flow velocity
match: s u
d
u
Typically found in regions with:

Low flow velocity
Aerodynamically decelerated
regions (VBB)
High shear
Locations of flow separation
(ISL & OSL) Figures:
Natarajan et al. Combustion and Flame 2007
Petersson et al. Applied Optics 2007
Premixed Flame Stabilization: Basic Effects

Flame stabilization: Flow
c sd
u
b a
Balance combustion wave propagation ux
with flow velocity

q
Burning velocity, edge speed,

autoignition front?
Suggests that stable flames are rare 150
air Blow-off in
125
However, flames have self-stabilizing 100 N2
mechanisms
u cm s
75
Shear layer stabilized: Upstream flame 50
CO2
propagation increases wall quenching 25 Flashback
Aerodynamic stabilization velocity 0

0.55 0.7 0.85 1 1.15 1.25
profiles
Lewis & Von Elbe 1987

Multiple Anchoring
Complex flows can provide multiple anchor locations
II: VBB/ISR
I: VBB
III: ISR
IV: OSR

Stabilization locations determine location/spatial
distribution of flame
Flame Shape
Flame Length
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Combustor operability, durability, and emissions

directly tied to these fundamental characteristics
affecting:
Heat loadings to combustor hardware
Combustion instability boundaries
Blowoff limits
Course Outline
Introduction
Flame Dynamics

Stretch Effects on Shear Layer Flames

Flame will extinguish
when flame stretch
rate exceeds ext
As expected, higher
flow velocities result
in flame extinction
occurring at higher
values of ext

Shear Layer Stabilized Flames

In high speed flows, although locally low velocities
exist within the shear layer, flame extinction
typically leads to liftoff/blowoff
Limited by the amount of flame stretch which they
can withstand before extinction
e.g, 50 m/s jet with 1 mm shear layer thickness
shear~duz/dx ~ 50 103 s-1
Much greater than typical extinction strain rates,
ext
How is flame stretch related to flow strain in a
shear layer?
Sources of Flame Stretch

1. Flame curvature
2. Unsteadiness in flame and
flow
Q. Zhang et al. J. Eng. for Gas Turbines & Power 2010
3. Hydrodynamic strain: n
nz z
ui
nx
s , s tr a in ij
nin j flame
x j x
For reference, fluid strain rate

given by tensor:
1 ui u j
S ij
2 x xi
j
flow

Flame Stretch Due to Fluid Strain

General expression can be reduced by
assuming 2-D flow and incompressibility
(upstream of flame):
nz n z
u u u
uz ux uz nx
s
(nx
2
nz )
2
nxnz flame
z z x x
Normal Strain Shear Strain

Contribution Contribution
flow


Shear Strain Contribution
Shearing flow Decelerating flow

velocity profile velocity profile
nz n z
nx
flame
x
u u
(a) ux uz (b)
s ,shear
nxnz
z x
Flame strain occurs due to

variations in tangential velocity
flow
Leads to positive stretch

Normal Strain Contribution
Decelerating flow
velocity profile
nz n z
nx
flame
x
u
(b)
2 2 uz
s ,norm al
nx nz
z
Jet flows typically decelerate

producing normal strain
flow
Leads to negative stretch

For high speed flows: n
nz n z
nx
uz
u u
sd nz
flame
x
1
nx
nx 1 O(
2
) & nz O
3
Also assume:
ux
u
uz
u
flow
z x
Expressions for shear and normal stretch can be simplified as follows:

u u u
ux uz 2 2 uz
s ,shear
nxnz nx nz
s ,norm al
z x z
u u
uz uz
s ,shear s ,norm al
x z
Stretch from Shear Strain

u
uz
s ,shear
nz
nx
n z
x flame
x
u u u
sd
If u
then s ,shear
sd
u
uz
uz uz x flow
u
Shearing flow
s , shear
~ sd sh velocity profile
Stretch rate due to shear ~indep. of u ?

increasing u shear but
but u can influence shear layer: sh u-1/2

Stretch from Normal Strain

u u nz n z
uz uz nx
~ flame
s , normal
~ x
z L char
Obtain traditional flow

flow
time scaling approach
Decelerating flow
velocity profile

Total Stretch from Strain

Total stretch due to strain Shearing flow
velocity profile
u u
uz uz
s
z x
Opposite signs if decelerating flow

which term dominates - small ? Decelerating flow
velocity profile
u u u u
ux uz ux uz
even if vs. ??
z x z x

Flame Stretch Distribution in Swirl Flame

Dimensionless value
of 1= 4,125 1/s
1
Shows
Normalized Strain Rate (1/s)
0.8
dominance of 0.6 n-n
22
x r
* uu/
x
rx
2 2
deceleration 0.4 n-n

z * uv/ zz
z z
0.2 n-n *n
n * uu/ zz
term in first 0
x r z z
n-n *n
x
n * uv/
x r z z z
xr
10 mm -0.2 s s
Shear term -0.4

-0.6
dominates -0.8
0 5 10 15 20
farther Axial Location (mm)
downstream Zhang, Q., Shanbogue, S., Shreekrishna,OConnor, J., Lieuwen, T., Strain Characteristics Near the Flame
Attachment Point in a Swirling Flow, Combustion Science and Technology, Vol. 83, 2011, 665-685.

Piloting or Flow Recirculation Effects

Flame stabilization can be enhanced through:
Pilot flames
Recirculation zones
Transport hot products to the attachment point of a flame

Dilution/Liftoff Effects
At high dilution/preheating levels, the flame does not
"extinguish"
Increases in reactant temperature are equivalent to a reduction in
dimensionless activation energy
Example: calculation of CH4/air flame stagnating against hot
products with indicated temperature
25 20
20 15
sscucu(cm/s)
ssdud (cm/s)
[cm/s]
[cm/s]
1350 K
15 1350 K 10
10 5 1450 K
u
1450 K 1400 K
5 0
1400 K
0 -5
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Strain
StrainRate
rate [1/s]
(1/s) Strain rate
Strain Rate(1/s)
[1/s]

Blowoff of Bluff Body Stabilized Flames

Stages of blowoff
Stage 1: Flame is continuous but
marked by local extinction events
Stage 2: Changes in wake dynamics as
large scale structures become visible Nair J. Prop. Power 2007
Stage 3: Blowoff of flame

Da Approach:
Scaling captures onset of flame
extinction events
Ability to capture blowoff dependent
on link between extinction events and
blowoff physics Images courtesy of D. R. Noble

Course Outline
Introduction
Flame Dynamics

Flame Anchoring Locations and Flame

Shapes in Swirling Flows
(c) IRZ & Outer Nozzle (d) Centerbody & Outer Nozzle
Flame Anchoring Locations and Flame

Shapes in Annular Nozzle Geometries
Flame stabilizes in front of stagnation
point of vortex breakdown bubble
Stagnation point apparently precesses,
probably also moves up and down
i.e., flame anchoring position highly
unsteady, in contrast to stabilization at
edges/corners
Under what circumstances can such
flames exist?
Not always observed; flames may
blowoff directly without reverting to a
free floating configuration
From Kumar and Lieuwen
Flow must have interior stagnation
point
Vortex Breakdown in Annular Geometries

Nature of centerbody wake/ VBB changes with geometry, swirl #,
and Reynolds #
Recirculation zone with Recirculation zone with Merged recirculation zones

vortex tube bubble-like breakdown above
Sheen et al., Phys. Fluids, 1996
Swirl number/ Centerbody Diameter


heat release parameter, and Reynolds #


and Reynolds #

Flame Stabilization Influenced by

Downstream Boundary Conditions
Fluid rotation introduces
inertial wave
propagation mechanism
sub- and supercritical
flow distinction
Exit boundary condition

has significant influence
on vortex breakdown
bubble topology

Disturbances in Combustors:
Propagation, Amplification, and other Characteristics
1
Course Outline
Introduction
Motivation
Disturbance propagation, amplification, and stability
Acoustic Wave Propagation Primer
Unsteady Heat Release Effects and Thermoacoustic Instability
Flame Dynamics

Motivation Combustion Instabilities
Large amplitude
acoustic oscillations Heat
driven by heat release Acoustics
release
oscillations
Oscillations occur at
specific frequencies,
associated with
resonant modes of
combustor
Video courtesy of S. Menon

Resonant Modes You can try this at home
Helmholtz Mode
190 Hz
Longitudinal Modes
1,225 Hz
1,775 Hz
Transverse Modes
3,719 Hz
10,661 Hz
Slide courtesy of R. Mihata, Alta Solutions

Key Problem: Flame Sensitive to Acoustic Waves
Video from Ecole Centrale 75 Hz, Courtesy of S. Candel

Key Problem: Combustor System Sensitive to Acoustic Waves
Rubens Tube

Thermo-acoustics
Rijke Tube (heated

gauze in tube)
Self-excited oscillations Purdues Thermoacoustic Refrigerator
in cryogenic tubes
Thermo-acoustic
refrigerators/heat pumps

Liquid Rockets
F-1 Engine
Used on Saturn V
Largest thrust engine
developed by U.S
Injector face destroyed by combustion instability, Source: D.
Problem overcome Talley
with over 2000 (out of

3200) full scale tests
From Liquid Propellant Rocket

Combustion Instability, Ed. Harrje and
Reardon, NASA Publication SP-194

Ramjets and Afterburners
Mig-29 with RD-33 Engines
Systems prone to
damage because of light
construction
Damage to flame holders,
Moskit Ramjet Powered Missile
spray bars
Ramjets: un-starting of
inlet shock
Images courtesy of E. Lubarsky

Solid Rockets
Examples:
SERGEANT Theater ballistic
missile tangential instabilities
generated roll torques so strong
that outside of motor case was
scored due to rotation in restraints
Minuteman missile USAF
experienced 5 flight failures in
1968 during test due to loss of
flight control because of severe
vibrations
Space shuttle booster- 1-3 psi From Blomshield, AIAA Paper #2001-3875
oscillations (1 psi = 33,000 pounds

of thrust)
Adverse effects thrust oscillations, mean pressure changes, changes
in burning rates
Course Outline
Introduction
Motivation
Flame Dynamics

Small Amplitude Propagation in Uniform, Inviscid Flows
Assume infinitesimal perturbations superposed upon a spatially

homogenous background flow.
We will also introduce two additional assumptions:

(1) The gas is non-reacting and calorically perfect, implying that the
specific heats are constants.
(2) Neglect viscous and thermal transport.
Decomposition Approach
Decompose variables into the sum of a base and fluctuating
component; e.g.,
p ( x , t ) p 0 p1 ( x , t )
(x,t) 0 1(x,t) (2.9)
u ( x , t ) u 0 u1 ( x , t )

Summary of Disturbance Equations
D 0 1
Vorticity: 0 (2.18)
Dt
2
D 0 p1
Acoustic: 2
c0
2
p1 0 (2.20)
2
Dt
Entropy:
D 0 s1
0 (2.27)
Dt

Canonical Decomposition
Further decompose perturbations by their origin
1 1 1s 1
s1 s1 s1 s s1 (2.28)
p1 p1 p1s p1
Examples:
1 s vorticity fluctuations induced by entropy fluctuations.
p 1 pressure fluctuations induced by vorticty fluctuations.
Dynamical equations are linear and can be decomposed into

subsystems

Oscillations from Vorticity
Oscillations associated with vorticity mode:

D 0 1 (2.29)
0
Dt
p 1 s 1 T1 1 0 (2.30)
D 0 u 1
0 (2.31)
Dt
Vorticity, and induced velocity, fluctuations are convected by the mean

flow.
Vorticity fluctuations induce no fluctuations in pressure, entropy,
temperature, density, or dilatation.

Oscillations from Acoustics
Oscillations associated with acoustic mode:

2
D 0 p1 2 2 (2.32)
2
c0 p1 0
Dt
1 s1 0 (2.33)
p1 0c p
1 T1 (2.34)
2 2
c0 c0
D u1 (2.35)
0 p1
Dt
The density, temperature, and pressure fluctuations are locally and

algebraically related through their isentropic relations

Oscillations from Entropy
Oscillations associated with entropy mode:
D 0 s1 s
p1s 1s u1s 0 (2.37)
Dt
0 0
1s s1 s T1 s (2.38)
cp T0
Entropy oscillations do not excite vorticity, velocity, pressure, or

dilatational disturbances
They do excite density and temperature perturbations

Comments on the Decomposition
In a homogeneous, uniform flow, these three disturbance modes

propagate independently in the linear approximation.
three modes are decoupled within the approximations of this

analysis - vortical, entropy, and acoustically induced fluctuations are
completely independent of each other.
For example, velocity fluctuations induced by vorticity and acoustic

disturbances, u 1 and u 1 are independent of each other and each
propagates as if the other were not there.
Moreover, there are no sources or sinks of any of these disturbance

modes. Once created, they propagate with constant amplitude.

Comments on Length Scales
Acoustic disturbances propagate at the speed of sound.
Vorticity and entropy disturbances convect at bulk flow velocity,u 0 .
Acoustic properties vary over an acoustic length scale, given by

c0 f
Entropy and vorticity modes vary over a convective length scale,

given by c u .0 f
Entropy and vortical mode wavelength is shorter than the acoustic

wavelength by a factor equal to the mean flow Mach number.
c u 0 c0 M

Comments on Acoustic Disturbances
Acoustic disturbances, being true waves, reflect off boundaries, are

refracted at property changes, and diffract around obstacles.
Acoustic Flame
wave
Image of instantaneous pressure field and flame front of a sound wave incident upon a
turbulent flame from the left at three successive times. Courtesy of D. Thvenin.

Comments on Acoustic Disturbances
PIV data shows example of

refraction in a combustor environment
Simultaneous presence of acoustic and vortical disturbances
Refracted
acoustic
wave
Reactants
Illustration of acoustic
refraction effects. Data
courtesy of J. O'Connor
Transverse plane wave
Example: Effects of Simultaneous Acoustic and
Vortical Disturbances
Consider superposition of two disturbances with different phase

speeds:
x x
u 1 x , t u 1, u 1, = A cos w t A cos wt
c0 u x ,0

For simplicity, assume A A A
c0 u 0 c0 u 0
u1 x,t 2A cos x cos w t x
2 c u
0 0 2 c u
0 0
Velocity field oscillates harmonically at each point as cos(wt)

c0 u 0
Amplitude of these oscillations varies spatially as cos
2 c u
x due to
0 0
interference

Some Data Illustrating This Effect
Fit parameter: A A 0 .6
0.1 1
Measurements u1, only
Fit-u1,+u1, 0
0.08
-1
un/
u
|un|/U0
0.06 Measurements
-2
u u1, only
0.04 -3
u1, only
0.02 u1, only -4
Fit-u1,+u1,
-5
0 0 0.5 1 1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 x/
x/ c
c

Modal Coupling Processes
We just showed that the small amplitude canonical disturbance

modes propagate independently within the fluid domain in a
homogeneous, inviscid flow.
These modes couple with each other from:

Boundaries
e.g., acoustic wave impinging obliquely on wall excites vorticity and entropy
Regions of flow inhomogeneity

e.g., acoustic wave propagating through shear flow generates vorticity
Accelerating an entropy disturbance generates an acoustic wave
Nonlinearities
e.g., large amplitude vortical disturbances generate acoustic waves (jet
noise)

Disturbance Energy
25
Energy Density and Energy Flux Associated with
Disturbance Fields
Although the time average of the disturbance fields may be zero,

they nonetheless contain non-zero time averaged energy and lead
to energy flux whose time average is also non-zero.
Ex:
1
E k in u1 u1
2
Consider the energy equation.

E
I (2.50)
t
d
I ndA
dt
E d V d V (2.51)
V A V

Acoustic Energy Equation
Consider the acoustic energy equation, assuming:

Entropy and vorticity fluctuations are zero
Zero mean velocity, homogenous flow.
Combustion process is isomolar
1 1 p1
2
1 (2.52)
0 u1 u1 2
p1u 1 p1q1
t 2 2 0c0 p0
2
1 1 p1 (2.53)
E 0 u1 u1
2 0c0
2
2
I p 1u 1 (2.54)
1
p1q1

p0
(2.55)
Time Average of Products
Time average of product of two fluctuating quantities depends on

their relative phasing
1
Example s in w t s in w t cos
2
o
0
t
s in w t s in w t
t o
90
t
o
180
Comments on Acoustic Energy
The energy density, E , is a linear superposition of the kinetic

energy associated with unsteady motions, and potential energy
associated with the isentropic compression of an elastic gas.
The flux term, p 1 u 1 , reflects the familiar pumping work done by

pressure forces on a system.
The source term, , shows that unsteady heat release can add or

remove energy from the acoustic field, depending upon its phasing
with the acoustic pressure.

Rayleighs Criterion
Rayleighs Criterion states that unsteady heat addition locally adds

energy to the acoustic field when the phases between the pressure
and heat release oscillations is within ninety degrees of each other.
Conversely, when these oscillations are out of phase, the heat

addition oscillations damp the acoustic field.
Figure illustrates that the highest pressure amplitudes are observed

at conditions where the pressure and heat release are in phase.
180
135
phase difference (pc'-OH*')
90
Data courtesy of K. Kim and D. Santavicca. 45
pq 0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12
-45
-90
-135
30 -180

pc'/pc,mean
p / p
Nonlinear Behavior
31
Linear and Nonlinear Stability of Disturbances
The disturbances which have been analyzed arise because of

underlying instabilities, either in the local flow profile or to the
coupled flame-combustor acoustic systems (such as thermoacoustic
instabilities).
Consider a more general study of stability concepts by considering

the time evolution of a disturbance
d A (t )
FA FD (2.63)
dt
FA and FD denote processes responsible for amplification and

damping of the disturbance, respectively.

Linear Stable/Unstable Systems
In a linearly stable/unstable system, infinitesimally small

disturbances decay/grow, respectively.
To illustrate these points, we can expand the functions FA and FD

around their A=0 values in a Taylors series:
F A AA F A,NL (2.64)
Amplification/Damping
A
1
FA
FD D A FD ,NL (2.65) FD
D
1
FA
A 0
(2.66)
ALC
A
A
A

Comments on Linear Behavior
The amplification and damping curves intersect at the origin,

indicating that a zero amplitude oscillation is a potential equilibrium
point.
However, this equilibrium point is unstable, since A D and any

small disturbance makes FA larger than FD resulting in further growth
of the disturbance.
If A D the A=0 point is an example of an attractor in that

disturbances are drawn toward it
Linearized solution:
A1 ( t ) A ( t 0 ) e x p ( ( A
D )t )
(2.67)

Comments on Nonlinear Behavior
This linearized solution may be a reasonable approximation to the

system dynamics if the system is linearly stable (unless the initial
excitation, A(t=0) is large).
However, it is only valid for small time intervals when the system is
unstable, as disturbance amplitudes cannot increase indefinitely.
In this situation, the amplitude dependence of system

amplification/damping is needed to describe the system dynamics.
The steady state amplitude is stable at ALC=0 because amplitude

perturbations to the left (right) causes FA to become larger (smaller)
than FD, thus causing the amplitude to increase (decrease).

Example of Stable Orbits: Limit Cycles
p
In many other problems, A ( t ) is used
to describe the amplitude of a t
fluctuating disturbance; for example,
Limit cycle is example of orbit that

encircles an unstable fixed point
A stable limit cycle will be pulled back into
p (t )
this attracting, periodic orbit even when it is
slightly perturbed.
p ( t ) p 0 A ( t ) c o s (w t )
(2.69)

Variation in System Behavior with Change in
Parameter
Consider a situation where some combustor parameter is

systematically varied in such a way that A increases while D remains
constant. Amplification/Damping
A
Supercritical Bifurcations
The A=D condition separates two regions of fundamentally different

dynamics and is referred to as a supercritical bifurcation point.
Note smooth monotonic variation of limit cycle amplitude with parameter
0.02
Stable Pressure0.015
Amplitude, A
Unstable amplitude
p 0.01
p
0.005
0
0
0 18 21 24 27 30
A- D Nozzle velocity, m/s

Nonlinearly Unstable Systems
Small amplitude disturbances decay

in a nonlinearly unstable system, but
disturbances with amplitudes
exceeding a critical value, Ac, will
grow.
This type of instability is sometimes

referred to as subcritical.
Other examples:
hydrodynamic stability of shear flows
without inflection points
Certain kinds of thermoacoustic
instabilities in combustors.
historically referred to as triggering
in rocket instabilities

Subcritical Instability
Figure provides example of amplitude

dependence of FA and FD that
produces subcritical instability.
In this case, the system has three
equilibrium points where the FA
amplification and dissipation curves
intersect. 1
D
All disturbances with amplitudes
A<AT return to the stable solution FD A
A=0 and disturbances with 1
amplitudes A>AT grow until their AT ALC

A
amplitude attains the value A=ALC.
Consequently, two stable solutions

exist at this operating condition. The
one observed at any point in time will
depend upon the history of the
system.
Variation in System Behavior with Change in
Parameter

Subcritical Bifurcation Diagram
If a system parameter is monotonically increased to change the sign

of A D from a negative to a positive value, the systems
amplitude jumps discontinuously from A=0 to A= ALC at
A D 0 .
Note hysteresis as well
0.015
Stable
Unstable
Amplitude, A
Pressure 0.01
amplitude
p
AT p
0.005
0
A0-D 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5
Nozzle velocity, m/s

Course Outline
Introduction
Motivation
Flame Dynamics

44
Overview 1 of 2
Acoustic Disturbances:
Propagate energy and information through the medium without requiring
bulk advection of the actual flow particles.
Details of the time averaged flow has relatively minor influences on the
acoustic wave field (except in higher Mach number flows).
Acoustic field largely controlled by the boundaries and sound speed
field.
Vortical disturbances
Propagate with the local flow field.
Highly sensitive to the flow details.
No analogue in the acoustic problem to the hydrodynamic stability
problem.

Overview 2 of 2
Some distinctives of the acoustics problem:

Sound waves reflect off of boundaries and refract around bends or other
obstacles.
Vortical and entropy disturbances advect out of the domain where they are
excited.
An acoustic disturbance in any region of the system will make itself felt
in every other region of the flow.
Wave reflections cause the system to have natural acoustic modes;
oscillations at a multiplicity of discrete frequencies.

Traveling and Standing Waves
The acoustic wave equation for a homogeneous medium with no

unsteady heat release is a linearized equation describing the
propagation of small amplitude disturbances.
We will first assume a one-dimensional domain and neglect mean

flow, and therefore consider the wave equation:
2 2
p1 2 p1 (5.1)
2
c0 2
0
t x

Harmonic Oscillations
We will use complex notation for harmonic disturbances. In this

case, we write the unsteady pressure and velocity as
p 1 R e a l p 1 ( x , y , z ) e x p i w t (5.13)

u 1 R e a l u 1 ( x , y , z ) e x p i w t (5.14)
As such, the one-dimensional acoustic field is given by:

p1 R e a l A e x p ik x B e x p ik x e x p iw t (5.15)
1
u x ,1 R eal A e x p ik x B e x p ik x e x p iw t (5.16)
0c0

Time Response of Harmonically Oscillating
Traveling Waves
The disturbance field consists of space-time harmonic disturbances

propagating with unchanged shape at the sound speed.
An alternative way to visualize these results is to write the pressure

in terms of amplitude and phase as:
p 1 x p 1 x e x p i x (5.17)
t
Temporal variation of harmonically
p1
varying pressure for rightward
moving wave
x

Amplitude and Phase of Traveling Wave
Disturbances
The magnitude of the disturbance

B leftward moving
stays constant but the phase
decreases/increases linearly with axial A rightward moving
distance. p 1
d
The slope of these lines are w / c0 .
dx
x
Harmonic disturbances propagating
with a constant phase speed have a
linearly varying axial phase w / c0

dependence, whose slope is inversely 1
proportional to the disturbance phase x
speed. w / c0
1
Spatial amplitude/phase
variation of harmonically varying
acoustic disturbances.
Standing Waves
Consider next the superposition of a left and rightward traveling

wave of equal amplitudes, A=B, assuming without loss of generality
that A and B are real.
p1 ( x , t ) 2 A c o s k x c o s w t (5.18)
1
u x ,1 2 A s in k x s in w t (5.19)
0c0
Such a disturbance field is referred to as a standing wave.
Observations:
amplitude of the oscillations is not spatially constant, as it was for a single
traveling wave.
phase does not vary linearly with x, but has a constant phase, except across the
nodes where it jumps 180 degrees.
pressure and velocity have a 90 degree phase difference, as opposed to being
in-phase for a single plane wave.
Behavior of Standing Waves
(a) 0.8
1 3
p1 2,4
0.6
2,8
0c0ux,1 0.4
0.2
0
1,5
3,7
-0.2 kx/2
-0.4
6,8
-0.6
4,6
-0.8
5 7
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
(b) p 1
2A
0 c 0 u x ,1
kx/2
(c) 270o
o
(degrees) 180
90o
0o
kx/2
Spatial dependence of pressure (solid) and velocity (dashed) in a

standing wave.

One Dimensional Natural Modes
Consider a duct of length L with rigid boundaries at both ends,

u x 0 , t u x L , t 0 . Applying the boundary condition at x=0
x ,1 x ,1
implies that A=B, leading to:

1
u x ,1 R e a l 2 iA s in k x e x p iw t (5.62)
0c0
n
k (5.63)
L
w kc0 nc0
fn (5.64)
2 2 2L
These natural frequencies are integer multiples of each other, i.e.,

f2=2f1, f3=3f1, etc.
n x
p1 ( x , t ) 2 A c o s cos w t (5.65)
L
2A n x (5.66)
u x ,1 ( x , t ) s in s in w t
0c0 L
Course Outline
Introduction
Motivation
Flame Dynamics

Unsteady Heat Release Effects
Oscillations in heat release generate acoustic waves.

For unconfined flames, this is manifested as broadband noise emitted
by turbulent flames.
For confined flames, these oscillations generally manifest themselves
as discrete tones at the natural acoustic modes of the system.
The fundamental mechanism for sound generation is the unsteady

gas expansion as the mixture reacts.
To illustrate, consider the wave equation with unsteady heat release

2
p1 q1 n
2
c0
2
p 1 ( 1) p0
(57)
t t
2
n 1
The two acoustic source terms describe sound wave production

associated with unsteady gas expansion, due to either heat release
(first term) or non isomolar combustion (second term).
Unsteady Heat Release Effects Confined
Flames
Unsteady heat release from an acoustically compact flame induces

a jump in unsteady acoustic velocity, but no change in pressure:
1 1
u x ,1 b u x ,1 a Q1 (61)
A p0
p1b p1 a (62)
Unsteady heat release causes both amplification/damping and shifts

in phase of sound waves traversing the flame zone.
The relative significance of these two effects depends upon the
relative phase of the unsteady pressure and heat release.
The first effect is typically the most important and can cause systems with
unsteady heat release to exhibit self-excited oscillations.
The second effect causes shifts in natural frequencies of the system.

Combustor Stability Model Problem
Assume rigid and pressure release boundary conditions at x=0 and

x=L, respectively, and that the flame is acoustically compact and
located at x=LF . Heat release
LF
zone
ux,1=0 I II p1=0
a b
L
Unsteady pressure and velocity in the two regions are given by:
A e
x LF ik I x LF iw t
x,t
ik I
pI e BIe
Region I: I
(63)
1
A e
x LF ik I x LF iw t
x,t
ik I
u x ,1 I I
e BIe
0I c0I
A e
x LF i k II x LF
Region II: p II x,t II
e
i k II
B II e
iw t
(64)
1
A e
x LF i k II x LF iw t
x,t
i k II
u II II
e B II e
0 , II c 0 , II

Matching Conditions
Applying the boundary/matching conditions leads to the following

algebraic equations:
ik I L F ik I L F
(Left BC) AIe -BIe 0
ik I I L L F ik I I L L F
(Right BC) A II e B II e 0
(Pressure Matching) A I B I A II B II
Q1
LF ,t uI LF ,t

(Velocity Matching) u II 1
0,I c0,I
2
6)

Unsteady Heat Release Model
Model for unsteady heat release is the

most challenging aspect of combustion
instability prediction
We will used a velocity coupled flame

response model
Assumes that the unsteady heat release
is proportional to the unsteady flow
velocity, multiplied by the gain factor, n,
and delayed in time by the time delay, .
0,I c 0,I
2
Q1 A n u1 x L F , t
1
This time delay could originate from, for
example, the convection time
associated with a vortex that is excited
by the sound waves.

Heat Release Modeling Simplifications
Solving the four boundary/matching conditions leads to:
0 , II c 0 , II
c o s k I L F c o s k II L L F
0,I c 0,I
0

1 n e s i n k I L F s i n k II L L F
iw
In order to obtain analytic solutions, we will next assume that the

flame is located at the midpoint of the duct, i.e., L=2LF and that the
temperature jump across the flame is negligible.
iw
cos kL n e kL 2
2
s in (72)

Approximate Solution for Small Gain Values
We can expand the solution around the n 0 solution by looking at

a Taylor series in wavenumber k in the limit n < < 1.
n e x p i w n 0
n
2
k k n 0 1 O
2 k n 0 L s in k n 0 L
( 2 n 1)
kn 0 L
2

Complex Wavenumbers
Wavenumber and frequency have an imaginary component,.

Considering the time component and expanding :
e x p ( iw t ) e x p ( iw r t ) e x p ( w i t ) (75)
Real component is the frequency of combustor response.

n c o s ( w n 0 )
w r w n 0 1 ( 1 )
n

( 2 n 1 )
Imaginary component corresponds to exponential growth or decay in

time and space. Thus, i>0 corresponds to a linearly unstable
situation, referred to as combustion instability.
n c 0 s i n ( w n 0 ) (77)
w i ( 1)
n
2L

Rayleighs Criterion
Rayleigh's criterion: Energy is added to the acoustic field when the

product of the time averaged unsteady pressure and heat release is
greater than zero.
n 2n 1
p1 x L 2 , t Q1(t) s in c o s w n 0t s in w n 0 ( t )
2 2
n 2n 1
p1 ( x L / 2 , t )Q 1 ( t ) s in s i n w n 0
4 2
n 1
p1 ( x L / 2 , t )Q 1 ( t ) 0 1 s in w n 0 0

Stability of Combustor Modes
Unstable 1/4 wave mode (n=1)

3/4 wave
mode U S U S U S U S U
m 1/ 2 m
T 1/ 4
Unstable 3/4 wave mode (n=2) Frequency n
n=0 ( 2 n 1)
m m 1/ 2

3 T 1/ 4
3
1/4 wave
mode S U S
Sign of p 1Q 1 alternates with time
0 1/2 1 3/2

delay T 1/ 4
Important implications on why instability prediction

is so difficult- no monotonic dependence upon
underlying parameters
Largest frequency shifts occur at the values where oscillations are not
amplified and that the center of instability bands coincides with points
of no frequency shift.
Thermo-acoustic Instability Trends
0.6
Two parameters, the heat release
0.5
time delay, , and acoustic period,
T, control instability conditions. p
0.4
0.3
( psi)
Data clearly illustrate the non- 0.2
monotonic variation of instability 0.1
amplitude with T . 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
/T
Data illustrating variation of instability amplitude with normalized
time delay. Image courtesy of D. Santavicca
LFL
Air Air
Flame stabilized
LSO
Fuel Fuel downstream
LFI Shorter Longer Flame stabilized

flame flame at centerbody
Understanding Time Delays
Data from variable length combustor

Equivalence ratio
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75
50 1 Decreasing
3 2 Period, T
45
Combustor length, in
3 4
40 2
1
35
Measured instability
amplitude (in psi) of 30
combustor as a function of Decreasing time delay,
fuel/air ratio and combustor
length. Data courtesy of D. 25
Santavicca.
1850 1925 2000 2075
Adiabatic flame temperature, K
More Instability Trends 1 of 2
6
Note non-monotonic variation

5
4
of instability amplitude with p
3
axial injector location, due to 2
the more fundamental variation 1
of fuel convection time delay, . 0

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Fuel injector location, LFI
Biggest change in frequency is 180
observed near the stability 150
Frequency, Hz
120
boundary.
90
60
30
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Fuel injector location, LFI
Measured dependence of instability

amplitude and frequency upon axial
location of fuel injector. Data obtained from
Lovett and Uznanski.

More Instability Trends 2 of 2
u =18m/s
0.08 p
0.06 0 500 1000

Frequency (Hz)
p 0.04 430 Hz u =25m/s
630 Hz
0.02
0 0 500 1000
15 20 25 30 35 40 Frequency (Hz)
Premixer Velocity (m/s) u =36m/s
Measured dependence of the excited instability mode

amplitude upon the mean velocity in the combustor inlet.
Obtained from measurements by the author.
0 500 1000
Frequency (Hz)

Limit Cycles and Nonlinear Behavior
As amplitudes grow nonlinear effects grow in significance and the

system is attracted to a new orbit in phase space, typically a limit
cycle.
This limit cycle oscillation can consist of relatively simple oscillations

at some nearly constant amplitude, but in real combustors the
amplitude more commonly "breathes" up and down in a somewhat
random or quasi-periodic fashion.
0.015
0.01
0.005
p
0.0
p
-0.005
-0.01
-0.015
0 2500 5000
69
Normalized time, f0t CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012
Combustion Process and Gas Dynamic
Nonlinearities
Gas dynamic nonlinearities introduced by nonlinearities present in
Navier-Stokes equations
Combustion process nonlinearities are introduced by the nonlinear

dependence of the heat release oscillations upon the acoustic
disturbance amplitude.
1 150
0.8 120
Phase, degrees
0.6 90
Q
Q
0.4 60
0.2 30
Dependence of unsteady heat
release magnitude and phase upon 0 0
velocity disturbance amplitude.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Graph generated from data
obtained by Bellows et al. u x u x

Boundary Induced Nonlinearities
The nonlinearities in processes that occur at or near the combustor

boundaries also affect the combustor dynamics as they are
introduced into the analysis of the problem through nonlinear
boundary conditions.
Such nonlinearities are caused by, e.g., flow separation at sharp

edges or rapid expansions, which cause stagnation pressure losses
and a corresponding transfer of acoustic energy into vorticity.
These nonlinearities become significant when u u 1 .
Also, wave reflection and transmission processes through choked

and unchoked nozzles become amplitude dependent at large
amplitudes.

Dynamics of Harmonically Excited

Flames
Course Outline
Introduction
Flame Dynamics
General characteristics of excited flames
Analysis of flame dynamics
Global heat release response and Flame Transfer Functions

Flame Response to Harmonic

Disturbances
500
Combustion instabilities
manifest themselves as 400
F o u rie r T ra n sfo rm
narrowband oscillations at 300
natural acoustic modes of

200
combustion chamber
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
F re q u e n c y (H z )
CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012 3

Basic Problem
Wave Equation:
p tt
2
c p xx 1 qt
Key issue combustion response

How to relate q to variables p, u, and etc., in order
to solve problem

Flashback - Heat Release Modeling

Slide from Last Session
Model for unsteady heat release is the most challenging aspect of
combustion instability prediction
We will used a velocity coupled flame response model

Assumes that the unsteady heat release is proportional to the
unsteady flow velocity, multiplied by the gain factor, n, and
delayed in time by the time delay, .
2
0,I
c 0,I
Q1 A n u1 x LF ,t
1
This time delay could originate from, for example, the

convection time associated with a vortex that is excited by the
sound waves.
Response of Global Heat Release to

Flow Perturbations
0.5
0.4
Why does this saturate?

CH* / CH*o
Q/Qo
0.3
Why at this amplitude?
0.2
0.1 What factors affect

slope of this curve (gain
0
0
relationship)
0.2 0.4
? 0.6 0.8
u/u
u / uo
o
In this unit, well discuss in detail what flames do when harmonically

excited and where curves like these come from (well also discuss
conditions under which n- model is decent approximation) 6
Course Outline
Introduction
Flame Dynamics

Excited Bluff Body Flames

(Mie Scattering)
Increased
Amplitude of Forcing

9
50
50
180
Excited Swirl Flame - Attached
135
100
100
150
150
200 200
50
250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
50
100
225
100
90
150
150
200
200
50
250
(OH PLIF)
250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
50
100
100
270
150
150
45
200
200
50
250 250
50 100 150 200 250
50 100 150 200 50250

100
100
150
315
150
200
200
0
250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
50
50
10
100
100
150
Excited Swirl Flame Not Attached
150
200
50
200
50
250
100
250
100
135
180
300
150 300
150
200
350 350
200
50 50 100 150 200 50
250 50 100 150 200 250
250 250
100 100
90
225
300 300
150 150
350 350
(OH PLIF)
200 200
50 50 100 150 200 250
50 50 100 150 200 250
250 250
270
45
100 100
300 300
150 150
350 350
200 200
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

315
250 250
0
300 300
350 350
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
Excited Bluff Body Flames

(Line of sight luminosity)
18 m/s 38 m/s 127 m/s 170 m/s

294K 644K 644K 866K

Overlay of Instantaneous Flame Edges
18 m/s 38 m/s 127 m/s 170 m/s

294K 644K 644K 866K
Quantifying Flame Edge Response

Time
Series
Power
Spectrum
L(x, f0)

Spatial Behavior of Flame Response
Convective wavelength:
c= U0/f0
- distance a disturbance
propagates at mean flow
speed in one excitation
period

Spatial Behavior of Flame Response

Strong response at forcing
frequency
Non-monotonic spatial
dependence

Flame Wrinkling Characteristics

1. Low amplitude flame fluctuation near
attachment point, with subsequent growth
downstream
2. Peak in amplitude of fluctuation, L=Lpeak
3. Decay in amplitude of flame response

farther downstream
4. Approximately linear phase-frequency

dependence

Typical Results Other Flames

50 m/s, 644K 1.8m/s, 150hz
Magnitude can oscillate with downstream distance

Course Outline
Introduction
Flame Dynamics

Analysis of Flame Dynamics
1. Wrinkle convection and flame

relaxation processes
2. Excitation of wrinkles
3. Interference processes
4. Destruction of wrinkles
Level Set Equation for Flame Position
2
L L L
G-equation : u f
v f
SL 1
t x x


Wrinkle Convection
Model problem:
Step change in axial velocity over the entire domain from ua to
ub, both of which exceed sd:
ua t 0
u
ub t 0

Wrinkle Convection
Flame
1 sd
s in
ua
t1 t2 t3 cshock t
1 sd
s in
ub
Flame relaxation process consists of a wave that propagates along

the flame in the flow direction.

Harmonically Oscillating Bluff Body
u0 uc,f
ut ut
sL

Petersen and Emmons, The Physics of Fluids Vo. 4, No. 4, 1961
Phase Characteristics of Flame Wrinkle

Convection speed of
Flame wrinkle, uc,f
Mean flow velocity, u0
Disturbance Velocity, uc,v
Shin et al., Journal of Power and Propulsion, 2011

Harmonically Oscillating Bluff Body

Linearized, constant burning
velocity formulation:
Excite flame wrinkle with
spatially constant amplitude
Phase: linearly varies
Wrinkle convection is u0
controlling process responsible
for low pass filter character of
global flame response


Excitation of Wrinkles on Anchored Flames

L x,t 1 x un x x 1 x
(x ,t ) dx un ( x 0, t t )
0
x ut x ut ut ut
Linearized solution of G
Equation, assume anchored flame
un
Wrinkle convection can be seen L
from delay term
u0 u
t
sL

Excitation of Flame Wrinkles

Spatially Uniform Disturbance Field
(x ,t ) dx un ( x 0, t t )
0
x ut x ut ut ut
Wave generated at attachment point

(x=0), convects downstream
If excitation velocity is spatially 1
sL t
uniform, flame response exclusively t cos
u t
controlled by flame anchoring
boundary condition
Kinetic /diffusive/heat loss effects,
though not explicitly shown here, are
very important!


Spatially Uniform Disturbance Field
(x ,t ) dx un ( x 0, t t )
0
x ut x ut ut ut
Wave generated at attachment point

(x=0), convects downstream
If excitation velocity is spatially 1
sL t
uniform, flame response exclusively t cos
u t
controlled by flame anchoring
boundary condition
Kinetic /diffusive/heat loss effects,
though not explicitly shown here, are
very important!

Near Field Behavior- Predictions
Can derive analytical formula un

ut
for nearfield slope for
arbritrary velocity field:
'
L' 1 un
2
x cos ut

Comparisons With Data

1 un L
2
cos ut x
5 m/s, 300K
PIV Data MIE scattering Data

Shanbhogue et al., Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 2009.
Near Field Behavior

Increasing
amplitude, u Flame starts with small
amplitude fluctuations
because of attachment
L(x=0, t) = 0
Normalized by u
Nearfield dynamics are

essentially linear in
amplitude

Shanbhogue et al., Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 2009.


Spatially Varying Disturbance Field
(x ,t ) dx un ( x 0, t t )
0
x ut x ut ut ut
Flame wrinkles generated at all points

where disturbance velocity is non-
uniform, du/dx 0
Net flame disturbance at location
x is convolution of disturbances at
upstream locations and previous
times
Convecting vortex is continuously

disturbing flame
Vortex convecting at speed of uc,v
Flame wrinkle that is excited
convects at speed of ut Bechert , D. ,Pfizenmaier, E., JFM., 1975

Model Problem: Attached Flame Excited by a

Harmonically Oscillating, Convecting Disturbance
Model problem: flame excited by convecting velocity field,
un
n
cos(2 f (t x / u c ,v ) )
u t ,0
Linearized solution:
1
i n
s in i2 f y / u c ,v ta n t i2 f y/ u t ,0
s in t
R eal e e
u t ,0
f 2 u t ,0
cos / u c ,v 1

Solution Characteristics
Note interference pattern on in t
flame wrinkling
Interference length scale:

1
in t t
s in
|u t
u c ,v 1|
y / t
s in

Interference Patterns
0.08 0.1
0.08
cos )
0.06
cos
| 1 1(ff 00)|/( tcos
0.06
t
0.04
0.04
f0
0.02
1
0.02
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
x
x/( tcos
cos
) x cos
t t
Shin et al., AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting, 2011 Acharya et al., ASME Turbo Expo, 2011

Comparison with Data

2
cos
x peak / c
Result emphasizes 2
u0
cos
2
1
wave-like, non-local u c ,v
nature of flame response
Can get multiple

maxima/minima if
excitation field persists
far enough downstream
Shin et al., Journal of Power and Propulsion, 2011

Aside: Randomly Oscillating,

Convecting Disturbances
Space/time coherence of
4
disturbances key to Random
interference patterns 3 excitation
/ ref
2 1/2
2
Example: convecting Single frequency
1
1 excitation
random disturbances to
simulate turbulent flow 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
disturbances t L 11 or t u t ,0
f


Flame Wrinkle Destruction Processes:

Kinematic Restoration
Flame propagation normal to
itself smoothes out flame
wrinkles


wrinkles
Typical manifestation: vortex

rollup of flame
Sung & Law, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2000


wrinkles
2
L L L
u f
v f
SL 1
Typical manifestation: vortex t x x
rollup of flame
Process is amplitude dependent

and strongly nonlinear
Large amplitude and/or short
length scale corrugations
smooth out faster

Kinematic Restoration Effects:

Oscillating Flame Holder Problem
Flame front
u0
s in 0
t
Shin & Lieuwen, AIAA 50 th Aerospace Science Meeting, 2012
Kinematic Restoration Effects

Leads to nonlinear farfield flame
dynamics
Decay rate is amplitude dependent
x/ c
Numerical Calculation Experimental Result
Two Zone Behavior

Five simulations with 0 .1 3 ~ 0 .6 3
Products
|
0
2
s L ,0 t
s L ,0 t
|
T a n g e n tia l d ir e c tio n , t Reactants

Near flame holder Sung et al., Combustion and Flame, 1996
Higher amplitudes and shorter wavelengths decay faster

Farther downstream
Flame position independent of wrinkling magnitude
Flame position is determined by the leading points
Only a function of wrinkling wavelength
Shin & Lieuwen, AIAA 50th Aerospace Science Meeting, 2012


Shin & Lieuwen, Central State Section Spring Technical Meeting, Apr 12

Flame Stretch in Thermodiffusively Stable Flames
Wang, Law, and Lieuwen., Combustion and Flame, 2009

Preetham and Lieuwen, JPP, 2010
Flame Stretch Effects
| t , 0
|
exp s L ,0 t
: N o r m a liz e d M a r k s te in le n g th
Linear in amplitude
wrinkle destruction process

Course Outline
Introduction
Flame Dynamics
Global heat release response and flame transfer functions

Transfer Function
Definition of transfer functions FV , F ,and p
F :

Q1 Q0
Acoustic disturbance: Fp 12.3
p 1 p 0

Velocity disturbance: Q1 Q0
FV
u 1 u 0
12.4

Fuel/Air ratio disturbance: Q1 Q0
F

12.5
1 0
Complex numbers have

o Magnitude: relative magnitude ratio
o Phase: relative phase difference
The total unsteady heat release is the superposition ( by linear approximation):

Q1 u 1 p 1 1
Q0
FV
u0
FP
p0
F 12.6
0

Velocity Coupled Linear Flame Response

Flame Response to low frequency velocity fluctuations
Assumptions
o Constant burning velocity
o Area fluctuation is the only mechanism for the unsteady heat release
Take the solution in Eq. (11.53), then substitute it into Eq. (11.212) for flame area
Axisymmetric wedge flame:

v F ,n1 x , y , t
n
cos(2 f (t x / u c ))
x y ,t
u t ,0
x y ,t
kc 2 i S t2 2 i S t2 / k c
FV ( S t 2 , k c )
2
2
(1 k c ) S t2
2
1 kc 1 2 i S t2 e kc 2 i S t2 e 12.15
o Depends on two parameters, S t 2 and k c , ( see Sec. 11.1.2)

Velocity Coupled Linear Flame

Response: Gain
F
0
Gain F
St 2
1,k c
o Unity at low S t2
0 1% fluctuation in velocity
-360 F , k leads 1%V c
10 FV , k c 0 .5 fluctuation in heat release
F
F|F|
FV , k c
o-720
Gain increases greater than unity
Due
St
2
to
1,k
c
constructive
0 .5
interference between
wrinkles excited byF , kthe0 .convecting
V
5 c
flow
-1
10 -1 -1080 disturbance and those propagating along the
10 10
0
10
1 0 5 10 15 20
S t2
St2 flame St 2
(a) (b)
o "Nodes" of zero heat release response
Dependence of the linear flame transfer Flame is responding locally
function on the Strouhal number for
axisymmetric wedge flames showing (a) gain
Due to destructive interference between
and (b) phase (methane-air, 0=0.9, and mean oscillations at different parts of the flame
flame angle =30 degrees).
Velocity Coupled Linear Flame

Response: Phase
0 Phase
S t2 1,kc
F
o Rolls off nearly linearly with frequency
o 180 degree phase jumps at nodal locations
-360 FV , k c in the gain
o The slope of phase
F
Assumption: velocity and area

-720 disturbances are related by a time-
S t2 1,kc 0 .5
delayed as:
FV , k c 0 .5
-1080 A1 ( t ) u1 (t )
0 5 10 15 20
nV
S t2
A0 u0
(b)
Dependence of the linear flame transfer Then, slope of the phase and the time
function on the Strouhal number for delay are:
axisymmetric wedge flames showing (a) gain
and (b) phase (methane-air, 0=0.9, and mean 1 d( FV )
flame angle =30 degrees). 12.16
CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012 2 df 55
Measured Transfer Functions

3.5 0
0 .8
3
FV (degrees)
2.5 0 .6 5 -360 0 .6 5
2
FV
1.5
0 .8 -720
1
0.5
0 -1080
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (b)
Measured (a) gain and (b) phase response of a flame to upstream flow velocity
perturbations; reproduced from Jones et al. [88].

n Model
Flame area-velocity relationship in time domain
o Obtained by inverse Fourier transform
o Applies for S t 1 (i.e., a convectively compact flame)
2
o In terms of a simple n model (see Exercise 2.7):

A1 ( t ) u1 (t )
nV 12.20
A0 u0
For axisymmetric conical flame (see Exercise 12.3) :

1
2 (1 kc )LF
nV 1 and 2
3u o co s
Shows that n heat release model is a rigorous approximation of the heat release
dynamics in the low S t limit 2
o Time delay,
Time taken for the mean flow to convect some fractional distance of the flame length
Equivalent to replacing the distributed flame by a concentrated source at this location
2 1 k L 3 cos
c
1
for the axisymmetric wedge flame
F
2

Thats All!
Introduction
Flame Dynamics

Lieu Wen

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Internal Combustion Engines I:

2012 Princeton-CEFRC Summer School on Combustion

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Indications are that six combustion turbine (CT) generators

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1. Overview and Basic Equations

Section I: Flow Disturbances in Combustors

Section II: Reacting Flow Dynamics

Section III: Transient and Time-Stationary Combustor Phenomenon

Flashback and Flameholding

Flame Stabilization and Blowoff

2 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012

Flashback in the boundary layer

Flame propagation into core flow

Significance of above mechanisms is

Flashback occurs if flame speed exceeds

establish flashback condition:

Assuming, , define flashback

Preheat temperature 0.25

Turbulent Boundary Layers

Basic scaling developed for

Most literature data shows

Important implications for

Heat release modifies approach

11 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012

Once a flashback event has 75000

Leading point of advancing

13 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012

Gas expansion across a

The degree of swirl in the

Most prominent feature of

Billant et al., JFM, 1998

16 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012

The location of zero azimuthal velocity is

17 CEFRC Summer School, Copyright T. Lieuwen, 2012