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Psycholinguistics: Language Disorder: Broca's Aphasia
Psycholinguistics: Language Disorder: Broca's Aphasia
Psycholinguistics
Language disorder: Brocas Aphasia
Name of members:
Suciati Anandes
11214201482
Class E/6
PREFACE
Alhamdulillahhirabbil Alamin, the writer have finished writing this
paper. The writer should not forget Allah Almighty, The Lord of the universe
Who has given his guidance and blessings, which finally the writer could
complete and keep this paper existing. This paper entitles: Psycholinguistics :
Psycholinguistics Final term. Thanks to Mrs. Rizki Amelia, M.Pd and all of
highly appreciated.
The writer expect this may be useful for all of us, and to contribute ideas
for the readers, especially the expected goals can be achieved, Aamiin.
The Writer
Table of contents
Preface 2
Table of contents 3
Chapter I 4
Introduction 4
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Formulation of the problem 5
Chaper II6
Aphasia 6
Incident and prevalence 7
Sign and symptoms 7
Causes 9
Kind of Aphasias 10
Brocas Aphasia 12
Historical of Brocas Aphasia 12
Stories of Brocas Aphasia Patients 13
Communicate with an brocas aphasic person 15
Chaper III 16
Conclusion 16
References 17
CHAPTER I
A. Introduction
The human brain is well protected by the skull. Yet there are a
number of possible ways for the brain to become injured. When the
brain is injured, the problem of the patient will vary depending on the
extent and location of the damage. A particular injury might cause
only visual problems or problems only in moving certain sets of
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muscle. The injuries of particular interest to us in this paper are those
that cause problems with language. Language processing refers to
the way human beings use words to communicate ideas and feelings,
and how such communications are processed and understood. Thus it
is how the brain creates and understands language. Most recent
theories consider that this process is carried out entirely by and inside
the brain.
This is considered one of the most characteristic abilities of the
human species perhaps the most characteristic. However very little is
known about it and there is huge scope for research on it. Most of the
knowledge acquired to date on the subject has come from patients
who have suffered some type of significant head injury, whether
external (wounds, bullets) or internal (strokes, tumors, degenerative
diseases).
The patient who has brain (head) injury and gets problems with
language will cause language disorder. Language disorders or
language impairments are disorders that involve the processing of
linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve
grammar (syntax and/or morphology), semantics (meaning), or other
aspects of language. These problems may be receptive (involving
impaired language comprehension), expressive (involving language
production), or a combination of both. Examples include specific
language impairment and aphasia, among others. Language disorders
can affect both spoken and written language, and can also affect sign
language; typically, all forms of language will be impaired. Note that
these are distinct from speech disorders, which involve difficulty with
the act of speech production, but not with language.
Language disorder, known as aphasias, are presumed to have
as their cause some form of damage to some specific site in the
hemisphere where language is located. Such damage causes
characteristics problems in spontaneous speech, as well as in the
understanding of speech and writing. An extensive study in 1967 by
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Benson served to upport the traditional distinction that aphasias are
generally classifiable into two groups, Brocas aphasia and Wernikes
aphasia, by finding abnormalities in the two areas. Brocass aphasia is
located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere and wernickes area
is in the temporal lobe of that left hemisphere. 1 In this paper we will
discuss more deeply about Brocas aphasia.
CHAPTER II
A. Aphasia
1 Steinberg D, Danny. 1993. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. p. 186
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The word Aphasia is derived from the Greek word aphatos,
meaning speechless. Mentions of Aphasia in Greek Medicine are
evident in which speechlessness accompanied convulsions are
documented as resulting in paralysis of the right side of the body. 2
Aphasia is an acquired neurogenic language disorder resulting from
an injury to the brain, most typically the left hemisphere that affects
all language modalities. Aphasia is not a single disorder, but instead is
a family of disorders that involve varying degrees of impairment in
four primary areas:
spoken language expression
spoken language comprehension,
written expression, and
reading comprehension.
A person with aphasia often has relatively intact nonlinguistic
cognitive skills, such as memory and executive function skills,
although these and other cognitive deficits may co-occur with
aphasia. Sensory deficits such as auditory and visual agnosia and
visual field deficits (e.g., hemianopia or visual field cuts) may also be
present.
Because categorizing aphasia subtypes can be difficult, there is
debate over the terminology used to classify aphasia. While no single
classification system is completely adequate, some common
classifications of aphasia are based on the location of brain damage
or the patterns of impaired language abilities in fluency of verbal
expression, auditory comprehension, repetition, and word retrieval.
Sometimes the terms motor aphasia and sensory aphasia (or non-
fluent and fluent aphasia) are used. See the common classifications of
aphasia adapted from Aphasiology: Disorders and Clinical Practice
(Davis, 2007).
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It should be noted that a person's symptoms may not fit neatly
into a single aphasia type. Further, the initial presenting symptoms
can change with recovery, and consequently, the classification that
fits most accurately may shift. This is particularly true as a person's
communication improves. In addition, symptoms can co-occur with
other speech and language impairments such as dysarthria and/or
apraxia of speech, which can complicate assessment and treatment.
The outcome of aphasia is difficult to predict given the wide
variability of symptoms. Aphasia outcome varies significantly from
person to person, depending upon the lesion location and the severity
of the brain insult. The most predictive indicator of long-term recovery
is initial aphasia severity, along with lesion site and size (Plowman,
Hentz, & Ellis, 2011). Other factors that are often considered
regarding prognosis include the person's age, gender, education level,
and other comorbidities. When examined more closely, however,
these factors do not appear to be strong predictors of the extent of
recovery.
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some data suggest differences may exist by type and severity of
aphasia. For example, Wernicke's and global aphasia occur more
commonly in women and Broca's aphasia occurs more commonly in
men (Hier, Yoon, Mohr, & Price, 1994; National Aphasia Association,
2011).
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o Difficulty understanding spoken utterances
o Providing unreliable answer to "yes/no" questions
o Failing to understanding complex grammar (e.g., the dog was
chased by the cat.)
o Requiring extra time to understand spoken messages (e.g., like
translating a foreign language)
o Finding it very hard to follow fast speech (e.g., radio or television
news)
o Misinterpreting subtleties of language (e.g., takes the literal
meaning of figurative speech such as "it's raining cats and dogs.")
o Lacking awareness of errors.
Very often, a person with aphasia experiences both expressive
and receptive difficulties, but each to varying degrees. In addition, the
person with aphasia may have similar (parallel) difficulties in written
expression and reading comprehension (Dyslexias).
Reading Comprehension Impairments (Alexia)
Common reading comprehension impairments include
o Difficulty comprehending written material
o Difficulty recognizing some words by sight
o Inability to sound out words
o Substituting associated words for a word
o Difficulty reading non-content words (e.g., function words such as
to, from, the).
Written Language Impairments (Agraphia)
Common written language impairments include
o Difficulty writing or copying letters, words, and sentences
o Writing single words only
o Substituting incorrect letters or words
o Spelling or writing nonsense syllables or words
o Writing run-on sentences that don't make sense
o Writing sentences with incorrect grammar.
c. Causes
Aphasia is caused by damage to the language centers of the
brain. In most people, these language centers are located in the left
hemisphere, but aphasia can also occur as a result of damage to the
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right hemisphere; this is often referred to as crossed aphasia to
denote that the right hemisphere is language dominant in these
individuals. Common causes of aphasia are
o Stroke
Ischemic: blockage that disrupts blood flow to a region of the
brain
Hemorrhagic: a ruptured blood vessel that damages
surrounding brain tissue
o Traumatic brain injury
o Brain tumors
o Brain surgery
o Brain infections
o Other neurological diseases (e.g., dementia).
Stroke is the most common cause of aphasia. According to the
National Aphasia Association (2011), about 25% to 40% of stroke
survivors experience aphasia. Approximately 35%-40% of adults
admitted to an acute care hospital with a diagnosis of stroke are
diagnosed with aphasia by the time they are discharged (Dickey et
al., 2010; Pedersen, Jorgensen, Raaschou, & Olsen, 1995).
d. Kind of Aphasias
The theory of language localization gained furthur credit with
significant findings attributed to French physician: Pierre Paul Broca in
the 1860s. The beginning of comprehensive Aphasia understanding
came with Paul Brocas research and subsequent description of his
patient Laborgne's brain. In 1861, Broca published Remarques sur le
sige de la facult du langage articul: suivies d' une observation
d'aphmie in which he evidences for the localization of articulate
speech in the frontal lobe. Upon Leborgnes death, Broca performed
an autopsy and determined that the damage was suffered to the third
convolution of the left frontal lobe, which is now commonly referred to
as Brocas area. Stemming from his influential findings, was a
revolution in medical and physiological thinking as it pertained to the
brain and the establishment of cerebral localization.
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Less than a decade later, Wernicke identified sensory aphasia
as being localized to the temporal lobe. Ludwig Lichtheim then
branched off of Wernickes model, naming five other types of aphasia,
pure word deafness, conduction aphasia, apraxia of speech, trans
cortical motor aphasia, and trans cortical sensory aphasia. As the
mid-20th century approached, professionals specializing in language
began searching for a revised model of understanding normal and
abnormal language functioning. One professional by the name of
Norman Geschwind formed the Geschwind model. Revisiting language
localization theories, the model describes the interconnecting
functions of a normally working human brain to produce speech and
language comprehension. Aphasias were viewed as occurring along
these interconnecting lines, disrupting spoken speech or
comprehension, resulting in various symptoms. Although the
Geschwind model was a great contribution to the understanding of
language, problems with it have been uncovered in recent years and
a straying away from this understanding of language functioning has
occurred.
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Comprehensio
s Speech n g
n
Left frontal Nonfluent Relatively intact Poor Poor
Brocas cortex rostral to
aphasia base of motor
cortex
Anterior and Nonfluent Poor Poor Poor
Global
posterior
aphasia
language areas
Transcortical Areas anterior Nonfluent Relatively intact Intact Poor
motor and superior to
aphasia Brocas areas
Posterior part of Fluent Poor Poor Poor
the superior and
middle left
Wernickes
temporal gyrus
aphasia
and left
temporoparietal
cortex
Temporoparietal Fluent Relatively intact Poor Intact
Conduction region, above and
Aphasia below posterior
Sylvian fissure
Posterior part of Fluent Relatively intact Intact Poor
the superior and
Anomic middle left
Aphasia temporal gyrus
and left
temporoparietal
Posterior to Fluent Poor Intact Poor
Transcortical
Wernickes area
sensory
around boundary
aphasia
of occipital lobe
B. Brocas Area (Brocas Aphasia)
Broca's area is a region in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere (the dominant
hemisphere) of the hominid brain with functions linked to speech production. Language
processing has been linked to Broca's area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments
in two patients. The approximate region he identified has become known as Broca's
area, and the deficit in language production as Broca's aphasia, also called expressive
aphasia. There are three main functions of Brocas area3, as follows:
3 Luciano Fadiga and Laila Craighero. 2006. "Hand Actions and Speech
Representation In Broca's Area". pp. 486490.
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Language Comprehension
Action recognition and production
Speech-associated gestures (Related to motor cortex)
Regarding about the symptoms of Brocas Aphasia are also the same like another
aphasias. They have the same symptoms and also treatments (see page 8). The stroke
Broca's area (shown in red) patients have an opportunity to heal from the aphasias if they get treatments
sequently.
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Examination of the brains of Broca's two historic patients with high-resolution
MRI has produced several interesting findings. First, the MRI findings suggest that
other areas besides Broca's area may also have contributed to the patients' reduced
productive speech. This finding is significant because it has been found that, though
lesions to Broca's area alone can possibly cause temporary speech disruption, they do
not result in severe speech arrest. Therefore, there is a possibility that the aphasia
denoted by Broca as an absence of productive speech also could have been influenced
by the lesions in the other region. Another interesting finding is that the region, which
was once considered to be critical for speech by Broca, is not precisely the same region
as what is now known as Broca's area. This study provides further evidence to support
the claim that language and cognition are far more complicated than once thought and
involve various networks of brain regions.
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So it does not come as a surprise that Broca's Aphasia is a speech disorder which
leaves the patient unable or impaired in producing
language (oral and written). Interestingly, patients who
communicated in sign language before the onset of
Broca's Aphasia are also impaired in their production
of sign language. In this case Sarah Scott spoke
affluent, halting and with a poor grammatical sentence
building after her stroke. Since then she has made an
Sarah Scott
impressing recovery thanks to her great willpower and
persistence and thanks to a great support by friends, family and the research experts.
Although one might think that damage to Broca's Area might be the sole
underlying cause of Broca's Aphasia it is only true in a classical understanding.
Nowadays we know that related language structures may also contribute to the
condition. In addition, Broca's Aphasia may not only be caused by a stroke. A brain
tumor, cerebral hemorrhage or an extradural hematoma might just as well cause a
similar disorder. In certain cases the patient might not even be able to express one single
word. The original patient on which Paul Broca founded his observations was not able
to produce any other word than "tan". Hence, since then he is known in medical school
books as the patient "Tan". Generally, it is important to note that the patients are not
impaired in their intelligence and normally do know what they want to say, but are
unable to do so.
For more info about the progress of sarah scott can be seen on youtube :
https://www.youtube.com/user/SymphUK/videos?view=0&flow=grid
Gugun Gondrong
Gugun gondrong was diagnosed who has bacteria in his brain (2008). He did an surgery
in Singapore and lost some of the frontal lobe (replaced with
metal plate) and get little distraction with his vision. After
surgery, Gugun got difficulties to speak, He just could speak
single word and slowly. After getting treatment, he gets some
progress in speaking. He can connect the words even still have
trouble to pronounce it.
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Many aphasics do slowly recover their language ability as their brains -
remarkably resilient organs - heal from their injuries. Speech therapy and the support of
friends and family members help immeasurably in the healing process. Most will never
regain the level of language function they enjoyed before their injury, but any
improvement in their ability to communicate, improves their quality of life.
CHAPTER III
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A. Conclusion
The brocas aphasia is located in left hemisphere. The left hemisphere of the
brain seems to control most language functions, including speaking, writing and
comprehension. The right hemisphere handles more spatial things, including the
recognition of letters and melodies. Broca's area - which is, specifically, the third frontal
convolution in the left hemisphere - is in a region of the brain responsible for most of a
person's language functions. One of the characteristics of Broca's aphasia is that its
sufferers know that they have a problem. I, personally, cannot imagine the frustration of
having feelings and ideas to express, and knowing that, despite my best efforts, I could
not express them. Some other language disorders, such as Wernicke's aphasia, are more
merciful: Wernicke's sufferers are oblivious to the fact that their speech is
incomprehensible.
The symptoms of brocas aphasia is cannot recall words to communicate; broken
and jumbled speech. Some Broca's aphasics can still make themselves understood,
although their speech is slow and halting. Others lose the ability even to pronounce
different words; instead, they repeat one word (such as "tan" or "toto") over and over
again. Their intonation is generally flat - they do not raise and lower their voices as
people do in normal conversation. The aphasia affects gestures and writing as well as
speech, so sufferers have great trouble communicating.
Many aphasics do slowly recover their language ability as their brains -
remarkably resilient organs - heal from their injuries. Speech therapy and the support of
friends and family members help immeasurably in the healing process. Most will never
regain the level of language function they enjoyed before their injury, but any
improvement in their ability to communicate, improves their quality of life.
References
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Damasio, A. R. 1998. Signs of aphasia In M. T. Sarno (Ed.), Acquired aphasia (3rd ed.).
San Diego: Academic Press
Dronkers NF, Plaisant O, Iba-Zizen MT, & Cabanis EA. 2007. Paul Broca's historic
cases: high resolution MR imaging of the brains of Leborgne and Lelong.
Brain : a journal of neurology NSB: 1432-41 PMID: 17405763
Neely, J. H. 1977. Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of
inhibition less spreading activation and limited capacity attention. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General. Retrieved on June 2016.
Tesak, J., & Code, C. 2008. Milestones in the history of aphasia: Theories and
protagonists. New York: Psychology Press.
http://neuralethes.blogspot.com/2013/02/brocas-aphasia-story-of-sarah-scott.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_disorder
http://www.webmd.com/brain/aphasia-causes-symptoms-types-treatments?page=2
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