02/05/2014

Chapter 1 Electrons and Holes

in Semiconductors
1.1 Silicon Crystal Structure

Unit cell of silicon crystal is

cubic.

Each Si atom has 4 nearest

neighbors.

Slide 1-1

Silicon Wafers and Crystal Planes

The standard notation

z z z

for crystal planes is

y y y based on the cubic
x x
unit cell.
(100) x (011) (111)

Silicon wafers are

usually cut along the
(100) plane with a flat
or notch to help orient
Si (111) plane the wafer during IC
fabrication.
Slide 1-2

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1.2 Bond Model of Electrons and Holes

Si Si Si Silicon crystal in
a two-dimensional
Si Si Si representation.

Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

When an electron breaks loose and becomes a conduction

electron, a hole is also created.
Slide 1-3

Dopants in Silicon

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si As Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

As, a Group V element, introduces conduction electrons and creates

N-type silicon, and is called a donor.
B, a Group III element, introduces holes and creates P-type silicon,
and is called an acceptor.
Donors and acceptors are known m0 q4
as dopants. Dopant ionization Hydrogen: E = = 13.6 eV
ion
energy ~50meV (very low). 802h2

Slide 1-4

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GaAs, III-V Compound Semiconductors, and Their Dopants

Ga As Ga

As Ga As

Ga As Ga

GaAs has the same crystal structure as Si.

GaAs, GaP, GaN are III-V compound semiconductors, important for
optoelectronics.
Wich group of elements are candidates for donors? acceptors?

Slide 1-5

1.3 Energy Band Model

} Empty upper bands

(conduction band)
2p

2s
(valence band)

} Filled lower bands

(a) (b)

Energy states of Si atom (a) expand into energy bands of Si crystal (b).
The lower bands are filled and higher bands are empty in a semiconductor.
The highest filled band is the valence band.
The lowest empty band is the conduction band .

Slide 1-6

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1.3.1 Energy Band Diagram

Conduction band Ec

Band gap
Eg

Ev
Valence band

Energy band diagram shows the bottom edge of conduction band,

Ec , and top edge of valence band, Ev .
Ec and Ev are separated by the band gap energy, Eg .

Slide 1-7

Measuring the Band Gap Energy by Light Absorption

electron
Ec
photons
Eg
photon energy: h v > E g
Ev

hole

Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (h) of

photons that are absorbed by the semiconductor.
Bandgap energies of selected semiconductors
Semi
conductor InSb Ge Si GaAs GaP ZnSe Diamond

Eg(eV) 0.18 0.67 1.12 1.42 2.25 2.7 6

Slide 1-8

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1.3.2 Donor and Acceptor in the Band Model

Conduction Band Ec
Donor Level Ed
Donor ionization energy

Acceptor ionization energy

Acceptor Level
Ea
Ev
Valence Band

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon

Donors Acceptors
Dopant Sb P As B Al In
Ionization energy, E c E d or E a E v (meV) 39 44 54 45 57 160

Slide 1-9

1.4 Semiconductors, Insulators, and Conductors

Ec
Top of
conduction band
E g= 9 eV empty
Ec
E g = 1.1 eV filled
Ev Ev Ec

Si (Semiconductor) SiO (Insulator) Conductor

2

Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow

current flow. (Just as there is no motion of liquid in a
. totally empty bottle.)
totally filled or
Metal conduction band is half-filled.
Semiconductors have lower Eg 's than insulators and can be
doped.
Slide 1-10

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1.5 Electrons and Holes

electron kinetic energy

increasing electron energy

increasing hole energy

Ec

Ev

hole kinetic energy

Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

energy positions.
Electrons tend to fall in the energy band diagram.
Holes float up like bubbles in water.

Slide 1-11

1.5.1 Effective Mass

The electron wave function is the solution of the three
dimensional Schrodinger wave equation
2
2 V ( r )
2m 0
The solution is of the form exp( k r)
k = wave vector = 2/electron wavelength
For each k, there is a corresponding E.

qE d 2E F
acceleration
2 dk 2 m
2
effective mass 2
d E / dk 2
Slide 1-12

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1.5.1 Effective Mass

In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.

electrons

holes

Electron and hole effective masses

Si Ge GaAs InAs AlAs

mn/m0 0.26 0.12 0.068 0.023 2
mp/m0 0.39 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3

Slide 1-13

1.5.2 How to Measure the Effective Mass

Cyclotron Resonance Technique B

- -

Centripetal force = Lorentzian force

mn v 2
qvB Microwave
r
fcr is the Cyclotron resonance frequency.
qBr
v It is independent of v and r.
mn Electrons strongly absorb microwaves of
v qB that frequency.
f cr
2r 2mn By measuring fcr, mn can be found.

Slide 1-14

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1.6 Density of States

E
Dc

Ec Ec
D
Ev Ev

Dv

number of states in E 1
Dc ( E ) 3
E volume eV cm

8mn 2mn E Ec
Dc ( E )
h3
8m p 2m p Ev E Derived in Appendix I
Dv ( E )
h3
Slide 1-15

1.7 Thermal Equilibrium and the Fermi Function

1.7.1 An Analogy for Thermal Equilibrium

Sand particles

Dish

Vibrating Table

There is a certain probability for the electrons in the

conduction band to occupy high-energy states under
the agitation of thermal energy.

Slide 1-16

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Appendix II. Probability of a State at E being Occupied

There are g1 states at E1, g2 states at
E2 There are N electrons, which
constantly shift among all the states
but the average electron energy is
fixed at 3kT/2.
There are many ways to distribute
N among n1, n2, n3.and satisfy the
3kT/2 condition.
The equilibrium distribution is the distribution that
maximizes the number of combinations of placing n1 in g1
slots, n2 in g2 slots. :
ni/gi =

EF is a constant determined by the condition n i N

1.7.2 Fermi FunctionThe Probability of an Energy State

Being Occupied by an Electron
1 Ef is called the Fermi energy or
f (E) ( E E f ) / kT the Fermi level.
1 e
Boltzmann approximation:
E

EE f kT
f ( E) e

E E f kT f (E) e E E f kT
Ef + 3kT

Ef + 2kT

E
f

E f E kT E E f kT
f (E) 1 e
Ef + kT
Ef

Ef kT
Ef 2kT Remember: there is only
Ef 3kT

E f E kT
one Fermi-level in a system
f ( E) 1 e

f(E) at equilibrium.
0.5 1

Slide 1-18

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1.8 Electron and Hole Concentrations

1.8.1 Derivation of n and p from D(E) and f(E)
top of conduction band
n f ( E ) Dc ( E )dE
Ec

8mn 2mn kT

E E f
n 3
E Ec e dE
h Ec

8mn 2mn kT E Ec
E Ec e E Ec kT d ( E Ec)
Ec E f
3
e
h 0

Slide 1-19

Electron and Hole Concentrations

( Ec E f ) / kT
n Nce Nc is called the effective
32 density of states (of the
2mn kT
N c 2 2 conduction band) .
h
( E f Ev ) / kT
p Nve
Nv is called the effective
32
2m p kT density of states of the
N v 2 2 valence band.
h
Remember: the closer Ef moves up to N c , the larger n is;
the closer Ef moves down to Ev , the larger p is.
For Si, Nc = 2.8 1019 cm-3 and Nv = 1.04 1019 cm-3 .

Slide 1-20

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1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations

Where is Ef for n =1017 cm-3? And for p = 1014 cm-3?
( Ec E f ) / kT
Solution: (a) n N c e

Ec E f kT ln N c n 0.026 ln 2.8 1019 / 1017 0.146 eV
(b) For p = 1014cm-3, from Eq.(1.8.8),

E f Ev kT ln N v p 0.026 ln 1.04 1019 / 1014 0.31 eV
0.146 eV
Ec Ec
Ef

Ef
0.31 eV
Ev Ev
(a) (b)

Slide 1-21

1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations

Ec

( Ec E f ) / kT
n Nce
E f Ec kT ln N c n

Ev
1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020

N a or N d (cm-3)
Slide 1-22

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1.8.3 The np Product and the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

( Ec E f ) / kT ( E f Ev ) / kT
Multiply n N c e and p Nve

E g / kT
np N c N v e ( Ec Ev ) / kT N c N v e

2
np ni

E g / 2 kT
ni N c N v e

In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .

ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, ~1010 cm-3 for Si.

Slide 1-23

EXAMPLE: Carrier Concentrations

Question: What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor
with 1015 cm-3 of donors?

Solution: n = 1015 cm-3.

2
ni 10 20 cm -3
p 15 3 105 cm -3
n 10 cm

After increasing T by 60C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

E / kT
increases by about a factor of 2300 because ni 2 e g .
Question: What is n if p = 1017cm-3 in a P-type silicon wafer?

Solution: ni
2
10 20 cm -3
n 17 3 103 cm -3
p 10 cm

Slide 1-24

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1.9 General Theory of n and p

EXAMPLE: Complete ionization of the dopant atoms
Nd = 1017 cm-3. What fraction of the donors are not ionized?
Solution: First assume that all the donors are ionized.

n N d 1017 cm 3 E f Ec 146meV
45meV 146 meV
Ed Ec
Ef

Ev
1 1
Probability of not 0.04
being ionized 1 ( E E ) / kT 1
1 e d f 1 e((14645) meV ) / 26 meV
2 2
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd .
Slide 1-25

1.9 General Theory of n and p

Charge neutrality: n Na p Nd
2
np ni
1/ 2
N a N d N a N d
2
2
p ni
2 2
1/ 2
N N a N d N a
2
2
n d ni
2 2

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1.9 General Theory of on n and p

I. N d N a ni (i.e., N-type) n Nd Na
2
p ni n
2
If N d N a , n Nd and p ni N d

II. N a N d ni (i.e., P-type) p Na Nd

2
n ni p

2
If N a N d , p Na and n ni N a

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 1-27

EXAMPLE: Dopant Compensation

What are n and p in Si with (a) Nd = 61016 cm-3 and Na = 21016 cm-3
and (b) additional 61016 cm-3 of Na?
n = 41016 cm-3
(a) n N d N a 4 1016 cm 3 ++++++
......

2
Nd = 61016 cm-3
p ni / n 10 20 / 4 1016 2.5 103 cm 3
16 -3
. . . .N.a.=. .210
. . . cm

(b) Na = 21016 + 61016 = 81016 cm-3 > Nd

......
p N a N d 8 1016 6 1016 2 1016 cm 3 ++++++

Nd = 61016 cm-3
2
n ni / p 10 20 / 2 1016 5 103 cm 3 Na = 81016 cm-3
-------- ......
p = 21016 cm-3

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1.10 Carrier Concentrations at Extremely High

and Low Temperatures
intrinsic regime

ln n
n = Nd
freeze-out regime

1/T
High Room temp Cryogenic temp
temp
E g / 2 kT
high T: n p ni Nc Nv e
1/ 2
low T: n
N c N d ( Ec Ed ) / 2 kT
e
2
Slide 1-29

Infrared Detector Based on Freeze-out

To image the black-body radiation emitted by tumors
requires a photodetector that responds to hs around 0.1 eV.
In doped Si operating in the freeze-out mode, conduction
electrons are created when the infrared photons provide the
energy to ionized the donor atoms.
electron

photon Ec
Ed

Ev

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1.11 Chapter Summary

Energy band diagram. Acceptor. Donor. mn, mp.

Fermi function. Ef .
( Ec E f ) / kT
n Nce
( E f Ev ) / kT
p Nve
n Nd Na
p Na Nd
2
np ni

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