Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Constitutional Provisions
Constitutional Provisions
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Dictionary of Education is the study of a literary work for highlighting its special
means the collected data are organized and tabulated systematically in order to
determine the inherent facts. Usually, the data are studied from as many angles
as possible to explore the new facts or the relationships. The analysis process
involves breaking down of the existing complex factors into simpler parts and
careful, logical and critical examination of results obtained after analysis of any
research data. It plays a vital role in the research process, essentially of stating
what the results (Findings) show, what does they mean, what is their (results)
significance and what are the answers to the original problem. The task of
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through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and ii) to
considered as the device through which the factors what have been observed
research work. The process of analysis begins on the point when the skeleton
plans of the actual collected data are put/set properly or meaningful order
primary and secondary sources the researcher has arranged all the documents
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5.2 COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES BEFORE AND AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
education (classes I-V), upper primary (middle school) education (classes VI-
starts after passing the higher secondary education, also called intermediate
etc), doing graduation takes three to five years. Post-graduate courses are
scope for doing research in various educational institutes remains open. For
years of schooling.
the beginning of the nineteenth century when a controversy raged over the
issue -- whether oriental learning and science should be spread through the
central figure in this language debate. Though both the groups the Orientalists
other words, both the groups agreed that education would be conducted in the
vernacular during the initial years of education. Macaulay's Minute, 1835 did
finally pave the way for the continuance of schools and colleges where
indigenous learning was being imparted and also for promotion of European
literature and science among the natives of India. That marked the real
Despatch of the Court of Directors of the East India Company popularly known
as Woods Education Despatch of July 19, 1854 formed the basis for creating a
system of education, from the primary school to the University. Since then
levels.
government of India to establish and evolve a system that could satisfy every
the government did not seem to match their aspirations and expectations. As a
challenges of different sections of the society and the country as a whole. Some
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landmark developments in the history of modern Indian education during the
(1882)
(1944).
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times to survey, study, review and recommend improvements in the existing
system, policies and programmes of education. Reserving the net effect of all
these for later sections of this paper, it is appropriate here to recall the
and frameworks.
Radhaksrishan Commission
Mudaliar Commission
ShrimatiDurgabaiDeshmukh Committee
Committee
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University Grants Commissions Committee on Education as an Elective
Committee
Committee
Commission
(1971)
Shukla Committee
Jha Committee
96
Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah Committee
(1985)
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Framework (1988)
(1992)
Yashpal Committee
Committee
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Committee of National Council for Teacher Education on Different Modes
Committee
(1951-97)
(UGC) and the All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) (2008),
important to note that the NKC, a high-level advisory body to the Prime Minister
of India, was set up with the objective of transforming India into a knowledge
99
the NKC had reportedly submitted around 300 recommendations on 27 focus
areas during its three and a half year term. While the term of the NKC had
underway at the Central and State levels. The report with so many
recommendations itself speaks volumes about the need for revamping the
entire education system in India. The Report of NKC read with the latest
regulatory agencies including the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the
promote and develop the whole educational scenario of the country. Here the
these committees and commissions after independence; which are shown in the
following ways-
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Section-I
COMMITTEES
The task before independence India was to remove all infirmities of the
live, needs and aspiration of the society. Within such conceptual framework,
as one of its importance components. It took some time to clearly outline the
reads:
the commencement of this constitution, for free and compulsory education for
Social reformers and Indian national leaders had realized long before
for independence form colonial rule, they tried to expand educational facilities
in the country. When the colonial government prepared post war educational
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children upto the age of 14 years. This concern for rapid expansion of
and rare blue print of our democracy. As it embodies Indias full self-expression
and mirrors the hopes and aspirations of people, it is natural that education
programmes. It reads
India into a sovereign democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens-
102
5.5 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
institutions.
institutions.
Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they
We notice that the responsibility for universal elementary education lies with
the Central Government, the State Governments, the Local Bodies and
voluntary organizations.
and economic interests of the scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and the weaker
sections of society.
103
Article 350A: This article relates to facilities for instruction in mother
the Hindi language. The seventh schedule of the Indian Constitution contains
legislative powers under three lists viz. The Union List, the State List and the
Concurrent List
This list contains 97 subjects where the following entries are related to
education:
countries.
Museum, the Victoria Memorial, and Indian War Memorial. Any other such
the commencement of this Constitution as the BHU, AMU and Delhi University
104
Entry 64: The institution of scientific and technical education financed
officers.
State list consists of 66 entries, out of which the following is the entry
related to education:
Entry 12: According to this entry all libraries, museums and other
monuments and records other than those declared by or under law made by
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5.8 CONCURRENT LIST
education:
(ii) If any institution has been established under any endowment trust even if
receiving funds from state government shall be required to take part in any
any premises attached there to unless such person or if such person in a minor
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(B) Cultural and Educational Rights
viz.
(i) Article 29 (i): Any section of citizen residing in the territory of India
on any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice.
(iv) To make any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property
state shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for
acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict on abrogate the right
guaranteed to them.
(C) Admissions
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state or receiving aid out of state funds oil ground only of religion, race, caste,
For promotion of teaching of mother tongue the Constitution of India has made
authorities with the state to provide adequate faculties for instruction in the
linguistic minority groups : the President may issue directions to any state as he
slates that it shall be the duty of the Central Government to promote the
Article 41 of the Constitution provides that "All the citizens have equal right to
education ''. It states. "The state shall, within the limits of its economic capacity
and development, make effective provisions for the right to work, to education
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and to public assistance in cases of employment, old age, sickness and
disablement''.
Our Constitution has made some special provisions for the weaker sections of
Article 45: The state shall endeavour to provide within a period often
years from the commencement of the Constitution for the free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years.
Article 46:The state shall promote with special care the educational and
scheduled caste and scheduled tribes, and shall protect them social injustice
The Supreme Court of India has given the following guidelines to promote
of education.
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(iii) The state can take over the management of the institutions of
national Government put into operation four five year plans so far. These plans
aimed at speeding up the economic, social and cultural growth of the country
in the draft outline of the first five year plan: the problem before the country is
firstly to rectify the disequilibrium in the economy caused by the war and
finding solution to these two fold problems, consideration of social justice and
the need for progressive reorientation of the economy along the lines
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5.10 TARACHAND COMMITTEE, 1948
In view of its importance in the educational system in the country the Board
thereto.
under the Chairmanship of Dr. Tara Chand, the then Educational Adviser to the
meeting held at Allahabad in 1949 when it was resolved that the Government
referred and that it should, in addition to these items, go into the wider
question of the aim, objective and purpose of secondary education and the
again at its meeting held in January, 1951 reiterated its conviction that the
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reorganization of secondary education in the country was of such vital
early date.
College. The Commission thought it unfortunate that neither the public nor the
educational system, and remarked that "our Secondary Education remains the
EDUCATION, 1951
112
immediately resume all educational powers and that in order to retain local
interests, school boards for smaller areas be set up where some people with
1948 at the 18th meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education, the
1951. This committee was mainly constituted to examine, in detail, the present
different states, the experiments carried out in some of the states in the
recommend a more or less uniform pattern which may, with a few variations,
secondary level of education, but none devoted all the pages of their reports
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have two avenues, one leading to the entrance examination of the university
and the other of a more practical nature intended to fit the youths for
(1917) felt that the improvement of secondary education was the first to
high schools and intermediate education. The Hartog Committee in 1929 made
recommendations for more diversified curricula in the schools, and for the first
time emphatically observed that the pay of the teacher should be sufficient to
give him the status which his work demanded and to attract the best pupils to
(1948-49) which realized that Our Secondary Education remains the weakest
link in our educational machinery and needs urgent reforms. It also observed:
Our provincial governments are naturally keen on basic education and are
financing schemes for its wide extension, but unfortunately they do not seem to
be equally keen on secondary education which is the real weak spot in our
entire educational machinery. They have not fully realized that the army of
competent teachers needed for the rapid expansion of basic education must be
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university reform will remain largely ineffective unless the level of secondary
education. But this was not enough. The Report of the Committee on
Education at its 15th Session in 1949, when it was resolved that the
made in the report be referred, and that the proposed commission should, in
addition to this go into the wider question of the aim, objectives and purpose of
secondary education. Since nothing happened for some time, the Board in its
secondary education was so vital for the country that it should not be delayed.
115
Madras University. The Secondary Education Commission appointed by the
September 1952, having completed its labours, presents the following Report
submitted in June,1953. Among its nine members, two (John Christie, Principal
of Jesus college, Oxford, and Kenneth Rast Williams of U.S.A.) were outside
1) Dr. A. LakshmanswamiMudaliar,
6) Dr. K. L. Shrimali,
116
7) Shri M.T. Vyas,
officio Member).
Secretary).
Terms of Reference
particular reference to
The problem of the education of girls and women in our country have
117
an ever increasing realization, both in the minds of the people and the
government, that unless every effort is made to find solution for them, the
rapid progress of the country which is the aspiration of every one will be
seriously impleded. Planners and administrators, both at the centre and in the
states have been discussing these problems with this end in view.
appointed to go into the various aspects of the question relating to the nature
of education for girls at the elementary, secondary and adult stages and to
examine whether the present system was helping them to lead a happier and
more useful life. This recommendation was placed before the Conference of
the State Education Ministers (held in September 1957) who also agreed that a
womens education.
Committee were-
Chairman.
Member.
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(iii) Smt. KulsumSayani, Editor Rahber, Bombay-Member.
Member
Education-Secretary.
Chairman, West Bengal State Social Welfare Board, agreed to associate herself
levels;
(iv) To survey the nature and extent of material and other facilities
119
such women and to recommend steps necessary to enable
women.
education that the education system was not able to address effectively was
reiterated time and again. As the issue began to get more and more attention,
1959 called the Sri Prakasa Committee to study the question of such
singing, suitable books for every level, inclusion of stories about lives and
120
teachers such as the Muslim Maulvis, and physical education . It recommended
that content may include comparative and sympathetic study of the lives and
connected with religions across the world in the syllabi of Geography etc. Good
patriotism, duties they owe to themselves and others, self-sacrifice for the
cause of the country, spirit of sportsmanship are some of the values identified
with even when such institutions are ,helped by the State. It strongly states
question of conscience but that it is necessary for building the character, and
that it cannot injure the susceptibilities of any religious group. Religion and
religious teachings as being the source of morals (and values) was once again
emphasized. The Kothari Commission 1964-66, in its review observes that the
121
examine the role of education in promoting emotional integration in national life
and to suggest suitable programmes in this regard. The members were: Smt.
and
Second Plan (a) To see how far the objectives have been fulfilled; (b) To study
122
the importance of the Institutes in relation to the requirements of trained
personnel in rural areas and in other sectors of economy; and (c) To make
programmes.
differentiation of curricula for sexes, have been hotly debated for several
decades and formed an important part of review made by many expert bodies.
Differentiation of curricula for boys and girls was the main theme of a
committee set up by the National council for Womens Education authorized its
curricula for girls at all stages of education. The chairman Smt. Raksha Saran,
the extent to which they take care of the individual and social needs
(d) To review the content of courses under the group fine arts and home
(e) To examine the types of suitable occupations for which training should
1961 with Shri LalBahadur Shastri as its chairman. Its primary objective was to
formed a study group with Shri P.C. Dasappa M.P. as Chairman. The committee
had several meeting and members of parliament of both the houses took keen
(a) To study and examine early in 1962 the problem of Science education in
schools, and
(b) To find out the position of how science courses are organized in our
and decisions arrived at the centre and states when the Third plan
Commenced.
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5.20 EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-66)
the government India dated 14th July 1964. The commission was to advise the
policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects. Prof.
D.S. Kothari, chairman, University Grant Commission was the chairman and Mr.
J.P. Naik, advisor, Ministry of education, was the secretary of the commission.
memoranda and notes. The Commission spent about hundred days in visiting
14,97,169.18 was incurred on it. The Commission began its task on October 2,
Chairman
Members
125
2)Mr. H.L. Elvin,Director, Institute of Education, University of London.
Research,
New Delhi.
University, Tokyo.
Unit, London.
and Agriculture).
University, Dharwar.
126
11)Dr. K.G Saiyidian, formar Educational Adviser to the Government of
Delhi.
Member-Secretary
Associate-Secretary
education and on the general principles and policies for the development of
education at all stages and in all its aspects. It need not, however, examine the
Task Forces
127
2) Task Force on Higher Education
Working Groups:
era. The very timing of the decision to constitute the Commission lent a special
128
significance and critical perspective to the report. This was the time when the
emerging democratic society had gained the initial experience of five year
developmental planning. This was also the time when the agenda of ushering in
a scientific age was looked upon as a means to transform the traditional society
provided by a historic food crisis that called for questioning the very notion of
foreign aid, federal structure of Indian polity, religious and linguistic identities,
and status of women, caste conflicts and the medium of education were
sources of major tensions. These dilemmas and challenges faced by the nation
Commission. This is also the first Commission in the post Independence India
Firstly, India attained Independence from the British in 1947 and after
this it was hoped that the traditional system of education would undergo a
129
education, much change could not be achieved. Very naturally, a
took place in the field of education, but all this was at the expense of quality.
that they should also have a share in the reconstruction of the country through
this challenge.
sectors and specific aspects of education. The new commission was to survey
educational system strongly interact with and influence one another. Education
been altogether neglected. All these years, the teachers had been subjected to
130
5.21 COMMITTEE OF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT ON EDUCATION
(1967)
by the Government of India on 5th April, 1967, with the following objectives:
(1) To consider the Report of the Education Commission; (2) To prepare the
action. In view of main terms of reference and their urgency, the Committee
did not think it necessary, at this stage, to examine all the recommendations of
others thereon.
India and of the States has been to give increasing attention to education as a
these Commissions were taken; and with the passing of the Resolution on
131
science, technology and scientific research received special emphasis. Toward
the end of the third Five Year Plan, a need was felt to hold a comprehensive
review of the educational system with a view to initiating a fresh and more
education and on the general principles and policies for the development of
education at all stages and in all aspects." The Report of the Education
essential for economic and cultural development of the country, for national
integration and for realizing the ideal of a socialistic pattern of society. This will
the development of science and technology; and the cultivation of moral and
social values. The educational system must produce young men and women of
character and ability committed to national service and development. Only then
will education be able to play its vital role in promoting national progress,
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national integration. This is necessary if the country is to attain its rightful place
in the comity of nations in conformity with its great cultural heritage and its
unique potentialities.
of India in 1968 announced some important principles for the onward march of
Education which should provide guidance to the state Governments and the
Committee brought together the leading members of almost all the political
parties in the country and prepared a draft which was considered by the Central
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5.23 CURRICULUM COMMITTEE OF HIGHER SECONDARY
secondary education in April 1976, setting out a model for implementing the
and later enlarged and supported by the NCERT was entrusted to finalize the
SCHOOL 1977
The Review Committee on the Curriculum for the Ten Year School was
The Committee was appointed to develop a new scheme in view of the new
review stage wise and subject wise objectives identified in National Council of
Educational Research and Training document "The Curriculum for the Ten Year
134
syllabus and text books, review the present scheme of studies and the time
order to give this area of work its proper place in the school programme it is
recommended that:
(iii) There should be cells for Socially Useful Productive Work in the State
(iv) The course content of Socially Useful Productive Work for Teacher
Research and Training in collaboration with such other institutes which have
1977
135
Vocationalisation of Education under the Chairmanship of Shri P. Sabanayagam
responsibility among the centre, States and voluntary agencies. In the first
meeting of the working group held on 24th October 1977, two sub-groups were
constituted viz.:
VOCATIONALISATION 1978
136
5.27 DRAFT NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION 1979
design the curriculum for teacher education at Primary and Secondary level,
because in this stage of education the teacher needs to pay more attention to
curricular materials and teaching aids will be established especially for the
benefit of teachers in rural areas and for both formal and non-formal systems
of education.
rural and urban India. Maulana AbulKalam Azad, India's first Minister of
137
The Nehru government sponsored the development of high-quality scientific
policies.
national integration and greater cultural and economic development. The policy
called for fulfilling compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, as
stipulated by the Constitution of India, and the better training and qualification
education - the instruction of the English language, the official language of the
state where the school was based, and Hindi, the national language. Language
the intelligentsia and the masses. Although the decision to adopt Hindi as the
national language had proven controversial, the policy called for use and
for all Indians. The policy also encouraged the teaching of the ancient Sanskrit
138
language, which was considered an essential part of India's culture and
heritage. The NPE of 1968 called for education spending to increase to six
1985, the government of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced a new National
Policy on Education in May, 1986. The new policy called for "special emphasis
especially for Indian women, Scheduled Tribes (ST) and the Scheduled
Caste (SC) communities. To achieve these, the policy called for expanding
scholarships, adult education, recruiting more teachers from the SCs, incentives
for poor families to send their children to school regularly, development of new
institutions and providing housing and services. The NPE called for a "child-
University system with the Indira Gandhi National Open University, which had
been created in 1985. The policy also called for the creation of the "rural
India robin.
139
country.External evaluation of the scheme has indicated that lack of training of
and lack of provision for breakage of equipment have been some of the draws
ii) Expanding the scope of OB to provide three teachers and three rooms
toilet facilities for girls and boys, (d) essential teaching learning equipment
including a library, (e) at least one teacher for each class/section and (f) a
etc.
even till the 1990s. During the period 19912001, however, there has been a
substantial improvement in the literacy, which was over 75 per cent. Despite
such improvements, the enrolment rate in the state was as low as 60 per cent.
140
The proportionate share of girls in total enrolment in the pre-primary and
primary level education has been as low as 36.8 per cent even in 1995-96.
Another fact is the high drop-out rate of girl children. Several measures have
Karmi Project (SKP) in 1987 and The Lok Jumbish project (LJP) in 1992. These
and have transformed the delivery of education in the state. Both Shiksha
Karmi and the Lok Jumbish were initiated as micro-level initiatives and later
rural communities. Some of the objectives of the SKP were to achieve the
following:
conditions.
Improvement in enrolment of all boys and girls in the age group 6-14
years.
141
The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) literally means education worker and
aims to transform dysfunctional schools into more efficient ones through the
provision of quality education with the help of locally available youth albeit with
86, SWRC ran three experimental primary schools using local teachers and
related directly to life in a rural environment, and the education outcomes were
impressive. When the project was evaluated, these schools compared very
AT + 2 LEVEL
142
training manual, teacher training programme, strengthening technical support
system for research and development, training and evaluation etc. It also
courses.
grants released so far since the inception of the scheme is Rs. 765 crore. Based
scheme; there are some other centrally sponsored schemes were launched to
effect radical qualitative changes in the secondary school system in India. They
are-
143
Centrally scheme for Yoga Education
Pradesh, the APPEP Phase-I was carried out from 1984 to 1988. APPEP Phase II
was agreed to between the Government of India (GoI), and DFID in 1989 and
under Operation Blackboard and Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, this was considered
achieve.
space per child, light and ventilation, blackboard and storage provision together
with display facilities. Additional facilities were also required to enable a school
to function as a Teacher Centre (TC). In line with this strategy one school per
144
additional/new classrooms provided where needed most. 1104 teacher centres
were established in this period. The building programme was executed by PRED
The APPEP II programme was one of the biggest school resource and
monitored its progress. The APPEP Review Mission in 1993 drew attention to
The engineering sector with financial assistance and guidance from DFID
alliterative construction techniques on offer all over India using experts and
The areas identified (as a part of research findings) where savings were to be
made were:
Also a nation-wide survey of the various options available the technologies were
Durability
145
Availability of materials and skills
Energy consumption
Cost
Acceptability
Maintenance requirements
Ramamurti in May 1990 to review NPE and to make recommendations for its
request of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) a committee was set
report in January 1992. The report of the Committee was considered by the
assistance for primary education has been the most significant development, as
146
external assistance was not sought even for other levels of education for a long
time by the government of India. Rather for the first time, primary education
sector was opened to external assistance. Starting with World Bank assistance
for primary education in ten districts in Uttar Pradesh and that of UNICEF in
from the point of view of the government of India and governments of various
states in India on the one hand, and various international aid organisations on
evaluate the effectiveness of the New Education Policy 1986, a committee was
appointed by the Govt of India in 1990. A review of NPE, 1986 was conducted
during 1990 1992. The programme of Action, 1992 stressed the need of
1993. In December 1993 the Cabinet accorded its approval for the scheme in
planning at the district level. It is planned in such a way that it suits the
147
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
percent.
live in Uttar Pradesh (UP). With 160 million people, it is not only themost
populous Indian state but also one of the poorest. Despite its rich natural and
human resources, 42 percent of UP's rural population is below the poverty line.
UP also has a female literacy rate of 25.3 percent which is well below the
national average of 39.2 percent (Census, 1991).The low literacy rates are
rural population, gender and social groups such as scheduled castes (SC),
scheduled tribes (ST) and minorities. The keysector issues in UP are: (i)
girls, SC and ST children, working children and children with disabilities; (ii) low
efficiency resulting in low retention and high drop-out and repetition rates; (iii)
148
poor learning outcomes resulting in dismally low achievement rates in
mathematics and language; (iv) inadequate pedagogical support; and (v) weak
operations with the assistance of the Bank. The UP Basic Education Project
Project (DPEP II), with similar objectives, was approved in FY97and covers 18
Objectives were-
To assist GOUP in its efforts towards building capacity for ensuring that
all 6-10 year old children in 42 districts of the state, especially from socially
149
education, especially for children from disadvantaged groups. This project
component includes the filling of teacher vacancies (tobe fully financed by the
teachers to acquire and/or develop TLMs; providing book banks; and improving
teachers, and external, carried out by the district and state authorities.(iii)
150
Improving state, district and sub-district level capacity to manage primary
under the proposed credit: strengthening the current state project office;
building state and district capacity for monitoring, research and evaluation.
Public Disclosure
community and soliciting its involvement in the running of local schools. Lok
ensuring education for all in the Indian state of Rajasthan through mobilization
151
The activities of LJ have been in the villages and schools. They include
schools.
accountable and involves the community in achieving this. There have been
cases of community groups formed with the LJ who exert pressure on the
in the backward areas in each and every district of the country. The scheme
152
would be applicable only in those identified Educationally Backward Blocks
(EBBs) where, as per census data of 2001, the rural female literacy is below the
national average and gender gap in literacy is more than the national average.
tribal population, with low female literacy and/or a large number of girls out of
school; concentration of SC, OBC and minority populations, with low female
literacy and/ or a large number of girls out of school; areas with low female
not qualify for a school. The criteria for eligible EBB will be the same as in the
NPEGEL scheme of SSA. The main goal of the programme was to gender
primary levels.
India with a view to achieving UEE. These efforts were intensified in the 1980s
the Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP), the Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project
(APPEP), the Bihar Education Project (BEP), the UP Basic Education Project
(UPBEP), Mahila Samakhya (MS), the Lok Jumbish Project (LJP), and Teacher
153
through District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) and the District
UEE across the country. Due to these initiatives, over the years there has been
country. Today, access and enrolment at the primary stage of education have
the elementary level has reduced significantly. The gender gap in elementary
scheduled castes and tribes has increased successively. Despite this, the goal of
and weaker sections who drop out of school before completing upper
154
Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and
Hardest to Reach girls, especially those not in school. Launched in July 2003,
enhancing girls education over and above the investments for girls education
based incentives like escorts, stationery, workbooks and uniforms are some of
SECONDARY EDUCATION
Credit of funds under Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas) has inter-alia stated
155
as under: - The initial results of the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme
launched in 2004 are encouraging. 1,000 new residential schools for girls from
SC, ST, OBC and Minority communities will be opened in 2006-07. I have
Rs.172 crore during the year. I propose to provide a further Incentive to the girl
child who passes the VIII Standard Examination and enrolls in secondary
school. A sum of Rs.3, 000 will be deposited in her name, and she would be
The above announcement has been made to promote the girl childs
enrolment of 14-18 years age group at secondary stage, who passes class VIII
and subsequently drops out for various socio-economic reasons. The proposed
scheme is further intended to retain such girl child up to class XII. In the year
2004-05, the dropout rates of girls from classes I-VIII was about 50.8%. For
classes I-X the dropout rate of girls was about 64 % in the same year. Hence,
only 36% of the countrys girl students could be retained up to class-X. This is
the combined result of several socio economic factors, but a major contributor
is no doubt the inability of the parents to afford the cost of education of girl
156
5.41 RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT 2009 (RTE)
The milestone step has been taken up by the government of India in the
field of education i.e. Right to Education Act, 2009. The RTE has been
the road to the RTE Act has not been easy. The exercise of consulting all
stakeholders including the states and taking them on board has been time-
consuming. The main provisions in the RTE Act include the responsibilities of
the central and state governments; prohibition of capitation fee and screening
Children with disabilities and those belonging to minority communities are also
covered under the Act. As per the RTE Act, 2009, every child has the right to
school that satisfies certain essential norms and standards. The need to address
157
and the questions of quality are the most compelling reasons for the addition of
Article 21A in the Constitution of India. As has already been stated, even prior
education in the country. The SSA was the most prominent among all efforts
initiated by the GoI before 2010 and was approved by the union cabinet in
November 2000 as a centrally-sponsored scheme. The goals of the SSA are (a)
till the upper primary stage, (c) bridging of gender and social category gaps in
the learning achievement levels of children at the primary and upper primary
stages.
quality available, accessible and affordable to all young persons. The scheme
158
by 2017, i.e. by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. RMSA was launched in
European Union (EU). As part of the agreement for external aid from the DPs
which came into effect in November, 2012, the Joint Review Mission (JRM) is to
be conducted every six months in the months of January and July each year.
The January Mission undertakes States visits, while the July mission is a desk
review. The field visits to the selected States/UTs implementing RMSA will be
by a Joint team of nominees of both the GOI and the DPs, after which there will
be discussions on the findings of the State visits followed by report writing and
participating.
STAGE (IEDSS)
(IEDSS) has been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the
earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would
provide assistance for the inclusive education of the disabled children in classes
IX-XII. The main aim of the programme is to enable all students with
159
further four years of secondary schooling in an inclusive and enabling
disabilities as defined under the Persons with Disabilities Act (1995) and the
National Trust Act (1999) in the class IX to XII, namely blindness, low vision,
mental illness, autism and cerebral palsy, and may eventually cover speech
impairment, learning disabilities, etc. Girls with disabilities receive special focus
INSTITUTES (IDMI)
160
ii. The scheme will cover the entire country but, preference will be given to
iii. The scheme will inter alia encourage educational facilities for girls, children
with special needs and those who are most deprived educationally amongst
minorities.
(ii) science / computer lab rooms, (iii) library rooms, (iv) toilets, (v)
drinking water facilities and (vi) hostel buildings for children especially for
girls.
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SECCTION-II
EDUCATION IN INDIA
India was to remove all infirmities of the inherited educational system and
Indian society and relate education to live, needs and aspiration of the society.
components. It took some time to clearly outline the directive principles of state
the commencement of this constitution, for free and compulsory education for
Social reformers and Indian national leaders had realized long before
for independence form colonial rule, they tried to expand educational facilities
in the country. When the colonial government prepared post war educational
162
that it took a long period of 40 years to universalize elementary education for
children upto the age of 14 years. This concern for rapid expansion of
and rare blue print of our democracy. As it embodies Indias full self-expression
and mirrors the hopes and aspirations of people, it is natural that education
constitution, its ideals and aims are reflected in all the commissions and
this constitution has become the milestone to be achieved through the various
Banaras Hindu University, who later on became the President of India. The
guided the development of university education in India till the formation of the
education in India took place. This was the publication of the report of the
163
Education Commission 1964-66., popularly known as the Kothari Commission.
The report went into all aspects of education and at all levels and suggested a
blue print of educational reforms to be carried out during the coming twenty
Development begins with these words, The destiny of India is now being
guidelines to the State Governments and the local authorities in preparing and
Education. Dr. Triguna Sen, the Union Education Minister was the chairman of
the Committee which included 29 leading members of all the different political
these commissions and committees have not been implemented in toto because
discussed.
164
5.45 IMPLEMENTATION OF TARA CHAND COMMITTEE (1948)
the secondary stage. It gave emphasis on the pay and condition of service of
implemented.
(1948-49)
secondary education was really the weakest link in our educational machinery
COMMISSION 1952-53
of crafts in middle schools and conversion of high schools into higher secondary
165
schools by increasing the duration of secondary stage by one year to give a
new shape. The Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education appointed
that were started with the help of the Central Government. The Government of
It had decided to do away with the diverse patterns of education in India and
establish a uniform structure for the whole country. It had been pointed out
that the recommendations of the previous Commissions have not been given
effect to largely because the necessary financial resources could not be made
available either by the state or by the Centre. It is an irony of fate that the
recommendations of this Commission also met the same fate. The Secondary
Education Commission did not give sufficient thought to the financial aspect of
proposed to commence at the end of class VIII. This was criticized as early
pushing and was not acceptable to the middle class which constitutes the most
proposed by it was not put into practice with vigor and commitment.
166
recommendations of the previous commissions have not been given
that the recommendations of this commission have also met the same
b) The Secondary Education Commission did not suggest any short term
education but it did not suggest concrete measures for introducing it.
Education in the U.S.A. by Dr. K.R. Williams. This note should have been
167
(i) The Middle or Senior Basic or Junior Secondary Stage of three
years; and
not state in clear and unambiguous language what the total duration of the
schools into higher secondary pattern in every state were not worked
out.
teaching in the last two years of the higher secondary school were and
certain subject.
forcing with the result that out of 22581 higher secondary schools in
1963-64, there were only 2000 multipurpose schools. Thus we find that
168
recommendations of the secondary education commission. One may
aptly put this question: what has been the impact of the secondary
i) The multipurpose school have benefited neither the school live us nor
the facilities that are necessary for the imparting of this education to a
large number of the students population. Our zeal for implementing the
level.
k) The commission did not give a clear cut path of vocationalized education
other services.
169
The Reasons for Unsatisfactory Implementation
(a) There is a variety of school patterns in the country. The primary or junior
basic stage covers a period of four years in some states and five years in
others. There is a variation in the high school stage from two to four
years. The age of admission to class I is 5 plus in some states and 6 plus
in the others and this has increased the confusion all the more. It is felt
that the mere addition of one year to the school course is not helpful in
(b) The pattern of the school course which existed in Delhi seems to have
followed by a University course of four years for the first degree, this
reorganization meant in effect either the transfer of one year from the
college to the secondary school so that the high school became a higher
period of school and college education required for the first degree is
170
generally 15 years (eleven years in school and four years in college) the
reform implied the reduction of one year in the 15 years school and
prepared to extend the duration of the school course from eleven years
to twelve. Madras tried to compress its old 11 years school course into a
ten years course for the purpose of bringing it s school system into the
recognized pattern, but when it was about to reach its goal, it went back
(c) From the very beginning the old Bombay state (now Maharashtra and
Gujarat) did not agree with the proposed pattern of reorganization and
Pradesh may also be regarded as a state which has not accepted the
new pattern.
(d) While undertaking the reforms the financial implications of the upgrading
pattern were not worked out. Even with Central aid the states that
accepted the pattern could convert not more than a certain number of
(e) The selection of high schools for conversion into higher secondary
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The commissions report stated that only those schools would develop
staff, salaries and grades and adequate finances, and that such
prestige for the people concerned. Social and political pressures were
been effected it has not led to any marked improvement in the quality of
required for teaching in the last two years of the higher secondary
school were an M.A. degree or a first class B.A degree with a degree in
were not available for the few courses. Moreover, the introduction of
172
core subjects like crafts and general science in the curriculum of the
personnel the standards of the higher secondary school have not been
(g) In view if the fact that it was not possible to convert all the high schools
secondary education that has taken place during the last few years
over the country. The one year pre-university course has not served the
months to the students out of this short period for adjusting themselves
173
5.48 IMPLEMENTATION OF KOTHARI COMMISSION 1964-66
Education, to the, Government of India, on June, 29, 1966. Perhaps the most
significant feature of the report was its emphasis on the social process of
view that all education is necessarily good, both for the individual and for
shows numerous instances where small social groups and elites have used
hegemony and perpetuating the values upon which it rested. On the other
hand, there are cases in which a social and cultural revolution has been brought
deliberately used to developed more and more potential talent and to harness it
to the solution of the national problems. It further stated: judged from this
set by a feudal and traditional society, will need radical changes if it is to meet
174
A. Education and National Objectives
the people and thereby make it a powerful instrument of social, economic and
cultural transformation necessary for realisation of the national goal. For this
programmes;
175
(b) Social and national integration
over 20 years.
with academic studies in schools and colleges and to make them obligatory for
(iv) Continuance of N.C.C. on its present basis till the end of the Fourth
system;
176
(viii) Continuance of the use of English as the medium of instructions in
right from the stage. Special attention to be given to the study of Russian;
language of the majority of our people and also adoption of all measures for
(xii) Combining two modern Indian languages at the B.A and M.A level;
and
(i) Provision of free and compulsory education of good quality for all
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(ii) Promotion of programmes of adult education aiming not only at
liquidation of illiteracy, but also at raising the civic and vocational efficiency and
and higher education and providing equal opportunities for all children of merit
residence;
for public interest and public service, self -discipline, self reliance,
fundamental social, moral and spiritual values. From this point of view the
in moral, social and spiritual values in all institutions under their(or local
and values and the building up of such essential skills as independent study and
178
(ii) Creation of an intelligentsia of adequate size and competence.
(i) The new educational system should consist of (a) one to three years
years or more for the first degree and followed by course for the second or
years.
179
Commission should be responsible for affecting the transfer of all pre-university
(i) Duration of the first degree should not be less than three years and
(ii) Some universities should start graduate schools with 3 years Master
(iii) Three year special courses for the first degree which begin at the
end of the first year of the present 3 year degree courses should be started in
available facilities:
(ii) Standard calendar in the worked out by the Ministry of Education and
Universities respectively.
C. Teacher Status
The Commission has emphasised that the most urgent need was to
180
stages, and recommended that the Government of India should lay dawn for
the school stage, minimum scales of pay for teachers and assist the States and
Scales of pay of schools teachers belonging to the same category but working
D. Teacher Education
teacher education must be brought into the mainstream of the academic life of
the Universities. On the one hand, and of the school life and educational
improved;
181
prepare personnel for special fields of education, requiring special knowledge
now exist, the Commission has stressed the need for the following
programmes:
which no fees would be charged, where access to good schools will be open to
all children on the basis of merit, and where the standard maintained would be
high enough to make the average parent feel no need to send his child to an
independent institution;
stages which will include free supply of books and writing materials at the
primary stage, the provision of book banks and textbooks, libraries in all
study centres or hostels, and the institution of guidance facilities and health
services;
182
of quality institutions, to ensure that the brighter children at least will have
access to good education and that their further education will not be
classes;
Revision of curricula should be based on such research; (c) Basic to the success
courses;
183
(ii) Schools should be given the freedom to devise and experiment with
new curricula suited to their needs. A lead should be given in the matter of
curricula.
The following has been suggested for the study of languages at school
stage:
(i) The language study at the school stage needs review and a new
policy requires to be formulated particularly in view of the fact that English has
indefinite period;
following principles:
(a) Hindi as the official language of the Union enjoys an importance next
students.
184
(c) The proficiency gained in a language depends as much upon the
types of teachers and facilities as upon the length of time in which it is learned.
(d) The most suitable stage for learning these languages is the lower
compulsory.
(ii) The official language of the Union or the associate official language
(iii) A modern Indian or Foreign Language not covered under (a) and (b)
Commission and had played a leading role in preparing its report, published The
Education Commission and After in 1982. The book written in 1979, examined
the Report of the Education Commission and the steps taken give effect to its
185
illuminating for its in formativeness as for the deep perception it exhibits of the
finally, the drafting of the resolution issued by the Government of India on the
report of the Education Commission, which was the first statement on the
illustrates the seriousness with which issues of education are deliberated and
political and economic circumstances of the period and the violent eruption of
above that the Education Commission had covered every aspect of education in
main issue was, not the principle of selective approach which had became
on the nature of this selection, the whole objective of the commission would be
186
circumstances. There are some important recommendations provided by the
follows-
pre-occupation with the national system of education was not a mere hangover
of the past, whether the concept was still valid in the post independence
defined.
Commission had observed that Indian education will have to be related both to
the past and the future of the country. This raised a discussion on several
underplayed the language issue but it did say that the regional languages
years.
formal system of full-time education and to emphasize the need for non-formal
highlighted the need to move form a single point to a multi-point entry system.
187
e) Education for the people: Report of the commission did succeed in
inviting the attention of the country to the massive problem of the education of
our people. This is but right because it is the only commission after 1882 to
deal with elementary education and the only commission ever to deal with adult
education.
f) Pattern of school and college classes: The idea that the country
should adopt a common pattern of 10+2+3 was first put forward by the
toyed with the idea. It was also highlighted by the Education Commission,
programme since 1947. It, however, goes without saying that perhaps the
maximum in the field have been made in the period following the report of the
Education Commission.
to the segregation that now takes place between the education of the children
of the upper and middle classes who generally attend private, fee charging and
good quality institution and children of the poor who can only avail themselves
188
Besides the above recommendations the commission had also provided
some recommendations which were attract the less attention of the public.
improvement,
189
xv) Increase of educational expenditure from 3% in 1965-66to 6% in
1985-86.
The report received wide attention and aroused great hopes. Though the
national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the
development of education at all stages and in all aspects." The Report of the
Education Commission has since been widely discussed and commented upon.
Since the adoption of the 1968 policy on Education, there had been
considerable expansion in educational facilities all over the country at all levels.
However, the general formulation incorporated in the 1968 policy did not get
quality, quantity, utility and financial outlay, accumulated over the years,
assumed such massive proportions that they must be tackled with the utmost
urgency. Accordingly, Shri Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister, announced in
January 1985, that a New Education Policy would be formulated in the country.
190
the Ministry of Education, Government of India in which comprehensive
appraisal of the existing system of education was made. There was a country
wide debate on educational reforms in the country. Finally the New National
1986
Twenty one years after becoming independent, the nation had its first
Government (DOE 1979). After sixteen years of this attempt, in 1985, the
1986, a new National Policy on Education (NPE 1986) was formulated. In 1990,
1986. During the period 1986-1992, the Central Government brought out a few
Programme of Action documents. It has been more than seventeen years since
191
the modified NPE Policy document was published. During these seventeen
years, a plethora of changes have taken place. Early childhood care and
principles of the Constitution. The NPE 1986 had stated that The
every five years. Appraisals at short intervals will also be made to ascertain the
progress of implementation and the trends emerging from time to time. Hence,
for the Central Government to take necessary steps for formulating a new
policy on education. Some of the issues that the new policy may need to
modified in 1992 are yet to be implemented. Some of the strategies which may
+2 as part of school education (In 2010, many States have +2 as part of higher
education and teachers teaching these classes need not have a B. Ed. degree
and the concerned State government approved general class size is more than
(d) Spending six per cent of national income for education; (e) Operationalising
192
Existing provision is inadequate), (h) Creating Indian Education Service, (i)
college and does not assess classroom teaching performance of teachers and
salary to teachers and banning part time appointment in regular posts and
enforcing teacher accountability, (k) De-linking of degrees from jobs, (l) Making
Organisation, etc..
A few new issues that may be considered while formulating a new NPE
may be (a) Establishing world class universities ( It may take many years to get
educational programmes for SC & ST under one umbrella, (c) Making initial
teacher training and study for first degree in medical education free and
introducing grant in aid system for private institutions, (d) Utilising non
government schemes, (e) Banning open university and other distance education
service, (f) Ensuring regular inspection of teaching; (g) Making provision for
193
special coaching facilities for first generation learners, (h) Having teaching
competency test included in existing NET and SETs, (i) Considering the
learning and private coaching, making university and board examinations open
lieu of teaching days lost due to strikes and late admissions and providing
proportionate benefit to the concerned teachers, (k) Making month wise time
tables to give scope for flexibility in curricula and teaching techniques, (l)
(m) Ensuring maintenance of record for daily activities for all categories of
programmes of the previous academic session and make it available for public
use by placing these in their web sites, (p) Abolishing statutory bodies like
(a) Modifying the National Council for Teacher Education Act so as to make it
applicable to all States and the Union Territories and making it compulsory for
all the members of the General Council and Regional Committees to have
194
educators, instituting teacher educator selection tests at national and state level
government and private without bothering for NCTE norms), (c) Modifying
numbers of IASEs, CTEs and DIETs being funded by the Central Government
scheme do not maintain adequate staff and material resources and in many
cases there have been large scale wastage of human and material resources),
(d) Making provision for special initial teacher training for teaching gifted
specified by the UGC and by the NCTE same, (f) Instead of extending duration
of B. Ed. programme from one year to two years, providing increased duration
education offering such programmes function without long holidays and giving
standards for various types of school teachers and teacher educators, (h)
Developing and notifying standards for teacher trainees for various types of
initial teacher training programmes, (i) Making school teaching for a specific
195
teachers with provision for selection and training of mentors for training new
teachers, (k) Making provision for National level and State level school teacher
and teacher educator selection tests and making such tests open for persons
of many States having no B. Ed. or M. Ed. degrees), (l) Allowing States, having
case of the UK and the USA, (m) Modifying EGS & AES to have regular teachers
instead of para teachers, (n) Making child labour punishable and abolishing
schools for child labour, (o) Converting all Anganwadis to preschool centres and
programmes, and (p) Bringing all types of teacher training under higher
education.
brought out the Challenge of Education document that highlighted pros and
necessity for developing such a publication in 2010 that may generate effective
dialogue over various issues and provide inputs for formulating a new NPE.
Education, 1986 in its budget session of 1986. During the course of the debate
196
the Minister of Human Resource Development promised to preset the
constituted and each was assigned a specific subject of the policy. Each Task
Central and several State Governments. One Task Force dealt with Secondary
The Task Force was requested to examine the present situation relating to
statements contained in the NPE. It was also expected to project the actions
that would be necessary and indicate the broad financial implications.... Such
detailed exercises had not been undertaken earlier; and that is one of the
major reasons for the non-implementation of the earlier policies with rigour.
The Reports of the Task Forces were ready by July, 1986. These
1986.
197
5.51 MAJOR INITIATIVES TAKEN FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
The POA for the revised NPE was evolved by constituting twenty-two
Backward Sections.
c) Minorities Education.
g) Elementary Education.
h) Secondary Education.
i) Navodaya Vidyalaya.
j) Vocational Education.
198
q) Development of Languages.
Elementary.
Education.
(NPEGL) Scheme
been adopted in all the states of the country. At the initial stage it was guided
199
that the implementation of SSA programme would be universal in the country
writing.
Society.
d) The support for teacher salary appointed under the SSA programme
200
e) All legal agreements regarding externally assisted projects will continue
National Bal Bhawan and NCTE ) will coverage after the IX Plan. The
specified transportation costs being met by the Centre and the cost of
continue to be funded under the State Plan. They will not be funded
201
5.54 IMPLEMENTATION OF RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT 2009
After enacting the RTE Act, 2009, the state governments have taken
steps for implementing the same. All state and union territory governments
have issued the RTE Rules, or adopted the Central RTE Rules, except for Goa
and Karnataka, which are yet to notify the state RTE rules. Several states have
(b) specifying working days/instructional hours; and (c) constituting the SCPCR
also taken several steps for implementation of the RTE Act. The National
Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) and the NCERT have been notified as the
academic authorities under Sections 23(1) and 29(1) of the RTE Act
respectively. The NAC has been constituted under Section 33(1) of the Act. The
NCTE has laid down the minimum qualifications for a person to be eligible for
appointment as a teacher in schools. The main challenges under the RTE Act
include bringing out-of-school children into the schools, filling up the large
schools to the norms and standards specified in the Schedule of the RTE Act.
The central government, along with the state governments, is taking several
steps for addressing these issues, including resource allocation for meeting the
202
5.55 IMPLEMENTATION OF RASHTRIYA MADHYAMIK SHIKSHA
with the main objective to make secondary education a good quality available,
accessible and affordable to all young persons. The scheme seeks to enhance
i.e. by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. RMSA was launched in 2009, funded
has tied up for external funding by Development Partners (DP) World Banks
agreement for external aid from the DPs which came into effect in November,
2012, the Joint Review Mission (JRM) is to be conducted every six months in
the months of January and July each year. The January Mission undertakes
States visits, while the July mission is a desk review. The field visits to the
both the GoI and the DPs, after which there will be discussions on the findings
203
of the State visits followed by report writing and wrap up in which the
Education for the Disabled Children, etc. have been implemented and running
suggestions for the growth and development of school education and its
were not fully implemented just after the programmes. But there are some
and suggestions were implemented soon after the programmes. Again, some of
the programmes are still continuing and whose impacts are being observed day
by day.
204
SECTION-III
promote the school education in India. And each and every commissions and
particular have been observed from the very beginning. In the present section
commissions.
205
During the first decade preceding the attainment of independence,
efforts were made to prepare a plan of educational development for the whole
country, both at the official and non-official levels. It was in 1938 that the
committees, one for General education and other for Technical Education and
Development Research. Unfortunately, the struggle for political freedom did not
allow any time to the chairman and other members of the committee to do
justice to the work. The result was a sketchy document. This, however,
the post war plan of educational development (1944), popularly known as the
Sargent Report. Much spade work had gone before it. The Board, ever since its
development. In the field of education, as a part of the overall plan, the Board
was required to prepare a plan for education. The Board made good use of the
several reports it had prepared so far, and consolidated all its findings in the
206
objects was to create, in India, in a period of not less than forty years, the
every 21 in the age group 3-6; primary 6-14; secondary education, both
academic and technical, to the extent of one child selected out of every 5 who
completed the junior primary school; and higher education to one students out
to assess the cost of plan, no measures were taken to relate the proposals to
Education between the centre and the states, ours being a quasi federal
constitution. The seventh and eight schedules are of special importance to us.
The seventh schedule lists out the division of responsibilities in all matters
including Education. The eighth schedule lists out the languages recognized by
the constitution.
amendment act of 1976, this entry in list II was deleted and Education was
207
5.58 PROGRESS OF SCHOOL EDUCATION JUST AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
comprised the school system and the college/university level of studies. The
Certificate examination. The primary sections in school were and are, generally
from class I to IV, upper primary or middle school from class V to VIII and high
on the dividing lying between primary and upper primary, say Class I to V
(instead of I to IV) and VI to VIII (instead of V to VIII). But the total numbers
of school years remain 10 years. At the time of independence, there was a two
year course, called intermediate at college level, i.e., after matriculation and
before the Bachelor of Arts/Science (BA, B.Sc which was also of two years
duration), the intermediate course was a bridge between school education and
system. The intermediate course was later abolished and instead of that we
now have what is called plus 2 which is really the Higher Secondary classes of
Eleven and twelve which belong to the school system. At the university level,
the first degree can be obtained only after a minimum period of study of three
208
In 1946-47, the number of primary schools was 1,72,000, with 13 million
students and the total expenditure was Rs. 15.48 crores. There were 17,258
secondary schools and the number of students 3.6 million, with expenditure at
Rs.17.9 crores. There were less than 20 universities and these had a student
strength of 16,000,297 Arts and Science Colleges, had 96,000 students; there
AFTER
and which had recommended few suggestions for the development of school
education also; but these were not implemented properly. So it is observed that
far. Here after the Central government and state governments have been
Year Plans. After independence The first four years of independence witnessed
great educational expansion on a year to year budgetary planning till the birth
of the National Planning Commission in 1951, the year of launching the First
Five Year Plans that form the content of this Section provide a graphic
209
1956-61 and 1969-74. In the years from 1966 to 1969 the general economic
conditions in the country were very difficult. The country had to divert her
energies to fight drought and near famine and their aftermath. This resulted in
The achievements of the three Five Year Plans and three annual Plans in
the field of education have been very significant. There has been expansion at
all level of education. The enrolment in classes I-V increased from 19.1 million
million; in classes IX-XI from 1.2 million to 6.6 million. The total educational
expenditure from all sources is estimated to have increased from Rs. 1,144
million in 1950-51 to Rs. 8,500 million in 1968-69. During these years, many
educational problems were overcome. And yet, fresh challenges face us.
210
Table 5.1 Progress of school education during the period of
Planning
A. Number of Institutions
The above figures indicate the gradual upward trend in the number of
institutions and students and the amount spent by the government. The
number of institutions since 1950-51 has increased from 2.31 lakhs to 5.72
lakhs in 1973-74. Their number grew up to 6.07 lakhs in 1976-77. Similarly, the
number of student at every level is surging forward. From about 2.4 corers in
1950-51 their number swelled up to 8.8 corers in 1973-74 and 9.86 corers in
1976-77. It may further rise up to 11.41 corers at the end of 1978-79. There
211
has been an increase in governmental spending on education from mere Rs. 71
constantly on increase.
found that the number of schools has increased from 7,288 in 1950-51 to
increased from 12.2 lakhs and 1.27 lakhs to 8.75 million and 7.95 lakhs
and state evaluation organizations in all the state and the development of
sector with a view to improve the standard of education at the secondary level.
aspiration for secondary education during the post independence period has
212
most important events that have taken place in the realm of secondary
have been carried out in the wake of the recommendations of the Secondary
Education Commission with the object of making the secondary education self
below:
class to the high school and making it higher secondary course of 11 years
core of studies, a group of three subjects from any one of seven, namely,
Science.
213
(v) The implementation of a long range programme of examination
The Central Board of secondary Education has since been set up for
the needs of children of Union Government employees and will make its
The Third Five Year Plan made a provision for a large-scale conversion of
high schools into higher secondary schools. But in certain States this
programme was not implemented successfully. There have been difficulties due
self contained stage. A large number of courses have been provided for at this
tremendous demand for skilled and semi-skilled man power created in the
214
context of the development and construction activities going on in the country.
vocational courses to 20 per cent of the total enrolment at the lower secondary
stage and 50 per cent at the higher secondary stage. This might, apart from
changing the out moded pattern of education, lead to making the secondary
stage a self-contained one in itself and related more and more to the needs of
efforts were made during the fourth and fifth Plans to see how far these diverse
courses could be offered in the same institutions and to what extent they
required the setting up of specialized institutions. A greater stress was also laid
their knowledge of the subject and skill to teach. Attempts are also being made
to upgrade high schools into higher secondary schools in at least those States
which have already made significant progress in this direction. The government
secondary education and diverse a system to prevent the current rush to the
universities and, at the same time, give to the secondary schools leavers a
215
training which has an employment value and would make them productive
middle schools and conversion of high schools into higher secondary schools by
new shape. The Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education appointed
science, social studies and of crafts-at the rate of Rs. 15,000 per
school;
216
(3) Improvement of school libraries at the rate of Rs. 2,500 per library if
the library belongs to an ordinary school; and at the rate of Rs. 5,000
(4) Introduction of crafts in middle schools at the rate of Rs. 3,000 non-
at the rate of Rs. 60,000 non-recurring and Rs. 20,000 recurring per
On the basis of the principles laid down above, financial assistance has
been given for the various schemes and as such during the Five-Year Plans
liberal grants were given to various states for the purpose. All these efforts of
well as in the number of students receiving education therein and also in the
In the year 1950-51 the number of pupils in the secondary schools was
12.2 lakhs, which became 18.8 lakhs in 1955-56, 28.9 lakhs in 1960-61, 50.4
lakhs in 1965-66 and 87.0 lakhs at the end of the 1978. At present, of the total
about six fold increases. This number of schools does not include about 2.5
217
thousand multipurpose schools. The number of teachers engaged at the
secondary stage has increased from 1.27 lakhs in 1950-51 to 7.95 lakhs in
1977-78 showing about seven fold increase during a little more than a quarter
of a country.
during the four five year plans was Rs.366.6 crores, while in the fifth and sixth
Five Plans the total outlays have been Rs. 250 crores and Rs. 300 Crores
respectively. The anticipated expenditure during the Fifth Plan however, had
been Rs. 156 crores. But one thing that has to be marked here is the relative
lowering percentage of outlay from 19.5 in the Fifth Plan to 15.00 in the Sixth
we should not conclude that the growth is rapid enough, for a vast sub-
continent like India where only a small minority of boys and girls get the
218
5.62 IMPACT OF 10+2+3 STRUCTURE
of 15 years duration leading to the first degree (10 years of high school and 2
years of higher secondary education +3 years of the first degree course). The
10+2+3 structure. This would mean that school education would compromise
new structure has been adopted in Andhra, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jammu
Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, U.P, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and
rest of the Union Territories. The States of Haryana and Punjab had adopted it
by the end of 1980. The states of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh have agreed to
adopt it in principle, but no final dates have yet been determined. The Union
Education Ministry had appointed two Committees in 1977 to review the Higher
Gujarat University, laid stress on the need for the all-round development of the
childs personality, while the second Committee under the chairmanship of Dr.
comprehensive view of several important issues like giving work a central place
in education and learning, course- pattern for both general as well as vocational
219
education curriculum and text books and nature of vocational courses, etc. both
levels. These objectives are not being achieved in the implementation of the
Secondary Education Commission, the All India Council for Secondary Education
was set up in August 1955. Its main functions are to review from time to time
expert as an expert body to advise the State and Central Governments on the
text-books. In most of the cases, the text books used are entirely unsatisfactory
and of a low standard both with regard to the quality of the contents and also
the standard of printing and set up. In order to do away with these defects by
undertaking research and giving guidance to the state in the production of the
right type of text-books, the Central Bureau has helped some State
the text-books and rendered advice on the choice of illustrations and other
220
The Secondary Education Commission had recommended establishment
the special needs of the students of the secondary schools. Consequently, this
Bureau was established in October 1954. Since the establishment of the Central
Bureau, the states of Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh have set
in the states of Punjab, U.P., Bombay, Madras and Mysore etc. have also
Besides the above mentioned major schemes, that have either been
higher secondary school. But most of the schemes were in experimental stage.
This commission had covered almost all aspects and levels of education and
extended every possible suggestion for the development. The impact of the
221
primary education institutions, middle schools and the enrollments in various
classes.
General Observations
The period of twelve years between 1965-66 and 1977-78 falls naturally
(3) The truncated Fifth Plan which consisted of four years only (1974-78)
66) or the first three Five -Year Plans, the post-Commission period of twelve
high priority in the educational development in the first three Plans. This
222
The goal of universalizing elementary education for children in the age-
group 6-14 is being pursued since 1950-51. As may be readily seen, the
progress was comparatively easy in the first three Plans when we were
because of rising costs and because we are now working at higher levels
control in the first two Plans (1950-51 to 1961-62). But since the third
plan, they have come to the surface and have assumed an increasingly
acute form which has led, during the past seventeen years, to continued
complicated.
the first three Plans when we really spent our time in dealing with less
223
far stronger investment of funds. Unfortunately, we do not have even
the same political, economic and social support that we had in the first
1977-78 is therefore one of a growing gap between the big challenges which
are becoming increasingly complex and our attempts to deal with them which
education. The education Commission (1964-66) was the first to discuss the
issue and support the idea that the state should accept a limited responsibility
for pre-school education, especially among the underprivileged groups. But this
is one of those recommendations with which everyone agrees and no one does
before and after 1965-66, in response to market forces rather than to planned
action. The principal demand for it has come from the urban upper and middle
(because of women working outside home). The data to Table 5.2 show its
224
Table 5.2 Pre-school Education (1965-66 to 1977-78)
do not include the data about unrecognized pre-schools (the most numerous
Welfare. Even if due allowance is made for all such inadequacies, pre-school
education was available to only about one million children or to about 2 per
cent of the total population in the age-group 3-6 in 1971. The position has not
altered materially since then; and the target suggested by the Commission that
education should be provided for all children till they complete the age of 14
years. Since independence, they had been trying to reach the goal, and our
primary and middle schools in all areas so that an elementary school becomes
225
available to every child within easy distance from home; and (2) they were
trying to enroll every child in school so that the total enrolments in the age-
group 6-11 (to allow for over-age and under-age children admitted to these
classes) and those in classes VI-VIII would be about 90 per cent of the children
all what they had been doing. Table 5.3 shows the number of primary and
quick survey for the same purpose was also attempted during 1979. The rough
estimate was that they had need about 600,000 primary schools and about
200,000 middle schools to reach the goal of universal education. The rate of
period. But in spite of the long distance they had yet to travel, it is not beyond
226
them, if they make the effort, to reach the target in a period of five years or so
from now. But the Sixth Five -Year Plan has fought shy of the target and one is
one quite sure whether they will reach it even by 1985-86. The date relating to
enrolments in classes I-V or children in the age-group 6-11 are given in table
000.
I-V increased at an average of two million per year. In spite of all the talk and
debates on the subject since the Report of the Commission, the enrolments at
this stage have increased only by about 1.6 million a year, a level of
performance which is even lower than that between 1950-51 and 1965-66. We
have run very hard indeed not even to keep where we are, but to fall a little
227
behind. The position of enrolments in classes VI-VIII is also somewhat similar.
classes VI-VIII in the post-Commission period (1966-78) are slightly larger than
those in the first three Plans. But the journey they had yet to complete is very
long; and what is worse, the additional enrolments in these classes in some
areas are not even keeping pace with the growth of population. One must also
note that this game of enrolments does not always tell the truth. Bogus and
inflated enrolments have become a routine and these unfortunately are the
enrolments in Classes I-VIII do not tell whole story. The following related facts
228
The rate of drop-outs is very high: out of every 100 children enrolled in
class I only about 50 reach class V and only about 25 reach class VIII.
million (or 37 per cent of the total) in 1975-76. The very large increase in
teachers. But it is also evident that the low priority accorded to elementary
schools, the teachers salaries constitute about 98 per cent of the total
expenditure. The condition of the school plant has deteriorated; and even
The revised enrolment target for the Sixth Plan shows that it will not be
6-14 was 90 million, of whom 61 million were enrolled and 29 million were not
expected to be 131.50 million, of whom 83.21 million are enrolled and 48.29
million are not attending. In other words, the children out of school even in
229
1977-78 are more numerous than those in 1965-66, showing that, as a country,
period are not keeping pace even with the growth of population! If the
increases in costs and deterioration in standards are also taken into account, it
is obvious that the task of reaching the goal of universal elementary education
has become more difficult in 1977-78 than it was in 1965-66. The crisis of non-
Commission period is larger than that prior to 1965-66. During the recent years,
give permission to start new secondary schools. This has slowed down
a rapid increase in keeping with the earlier policies of providing access to all
230
students who desire to join secondary schools policies which have continued
contrary. The details are given in Table 000.It will be noticed that there is no
in the fifteen years before the Education Commission and the twelve Years after
it.
Corresponding age-group.
1977-78, due mainly to the adoption of the new pattern; and this represents
more an adjustment than a real increase. The obvious implication and its
1965-66.
231
(3) Expenditure: The expenditure on secondary education increased
from Rs. 1,377 million in 1965-66 (or 22.2 per cent of the total expenditure) to
Rs. 4,936 million (or 23.5 per cent of the total expenditure) which implies that
its overall priority also did not change to any significant extent.
vocational education at the secondary stage, one finds that the progress has
been disappointing. Owing to the failure to promote industry in a big way, there
industry. Opportunities for employment in other sectors also did not show any
rapid increase. On the whole, the employment profile remained in a low key so
that vocational secondary education also showed a recession. Table 9.7 shows
1965-66 1975-76
expenditure
system of educational statistics adopted during this period, the figures for
232
1975-76 are not strictly comparable to those of 1965-66. For example,
But even after due allowance is made for these changes, it is still found that the
marginal. At any rate, there is hardly any increase in the proportion of students
compare with that in 1965-66 and what difference did the Report of the
the damage which had been done by the concept of the multipurpose
streamed into Arts, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, etc. and a student was
called upon to decide his future career at the end of class VIII or the age of 12
or 13. Dr. D.S. Kothari said that was as bad as child-marriage. All this has now
end. On the positive side, the adoption of the new pattern of 10 + 2 + 3 + has
233
added to schools. These have definitely been changes for the better. The basic
(more than 50 per cent of the secondary schools have small enrolments of less
than 250); poor standards; lack of diversification (i.e., more than 90 per cent of
the students take up only the academic courses leading to the university);
lack of relevance. The Report of the Commission did not make any meaningful
dent on these issues to which the educational planner of tomorrow will have to
address himself.
education system, to improve its quality at all stages, and gave, much greater
Since the adoption of the 1968 Policy, there has been considerable
expansion in educational facilities all over the country at all levels. More than 90
percent of the countrys rural habitations now have schooling facilities within a
the other stages also. The government of India accordingly resolves to promote
234
the development of education in the country in accordance with the following
principles:
(i) Free and compulsory Education for all children upto the age of 14;
language formula;
the 10+2+3 system by most states. The higher secondary stages of two years
are being located in schools and colleges or both according to local conditions.
235
5.69 IMPACT OF NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL POLICY 1986
process of education at all levels are themes of national endeavor in the field of
retention and achievement a shift which reflects the renewed concern for
alone. The focus also shifted from exclusive concern with schooling to a holistic
of comparable quality to working children and girls whom the schools cannot
reach.
(UEE)
236
State Policy, that the State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.
Indeed, over the years, the Centre and the States have made considerable
education have grown from about 2.34 lakh to 7.05 lakh schools, enrolment
from 22.28 million to 132.4 million children (Table 5.8) and outreach of primary
walking distance of their houses. Over the last five years in pursuant of the
NPE, effort has been made to focus attention on the quality of educational
being provided by this vast and possibly the largest, educational network of the
world. Several schemes have been launched to improve retentions and reduce
these schemes are ambitious in target and scope, and require sustained efforts
237
Table 5.8 Expansion of Elementary Education since 1950-51
1950-51 1990-91
238
(ii) At least two teachers in every school, as far as possible one of
mainly from rural development schemes. Funds for the other two
a phased manner.
per cent of the blocks in the country comprising 64 per cent primary schools.
Education. Of this Rs. 150.09 crore was released in 1990.01. There was a
provision of Rs. 100 crore for Opeation Blackboard during 1991-92. The scheme
In order to move towards a position where every class has a class room
and a teacher, it has been proposed to expand Operation Blackboard during the
Eighth Plan to provide a third teacher and a third class room to every primary
school where enrolment warrants it. Central assistance will be provided for the
third teacher, while State Government will be expected to find resources for the
construction of class rooms from the Jawahar Rozgar Yojna and State Plan
239
budgets. Data on achievements under Operation Blackboard till 1991-92 is
No. of schools covered (in lakhs) 1.13 1.40 0.52 0.39 0.76
strategy to impart education to children, who for various reasons cannot attend
formal schools. The NPE envisaged a large and systematic programme of NFE
to achieve UEE. The scheme was revised in its content and emphasis in 1987-
88. Although its focus is on the ten educationally backward States, namely,
Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya
240
Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, it has been
extended to cover urban slums, hilly, tribal & desert areas and areas with
50:50 for general (co-educational) and 90:10 for girls NFE centres. Assistance
to the extent of 100 per cent is provided to voluntary agencies for running NFE
society. Other features of the scheme are its organisational flexibility, relevance
241
Table 5.10 Non-Formal Education -Achievements
1991-92
During the year 1991-92, action was initiated to improve the technical
aspect of the scheme. The NCERT and voluntary agencies have been involved
April, 1989. This programme seeks to mobilize rural women for education
242
Sector scheme where 100 per cent financial assistance is provided to Mahila
Samakhya Societies in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, set up under the
programme it receives 100 per cent assistance from the Government of the
Netherlands.
women are mobilised around issues like access to health, education, water,
immediate environment, and above all, issues related to their personality and
self-image in society.
mission for bringing about fundamental change in the basic mission for bringing
about fundamental change in the basic education system and through it the
The BEP will cover all components of basic education and will be expanded
in a phased manner to cover 20 districts over a period of five years. The outlay
will be Rs. 360 crore of which the UNICEF will contribute Rs. 180 crore,
243
Government of India Rs. 120 crore and Government of Bihar Rs. 60 crore. A
registered body namely Bihar Shiksha Pariyojana Parishad (BSPP) which has
been constituted having two bodies-a Council with the Chief Minister as
the State.
of the primary school teacher in single teacher schools by a team of two locally
insisted upon in the selection of Shiksha Karmis. But they are provided training
244
and academic support on a sustained and intensive basis to enable them to
Shiksha Karmis is called a Day Centre. Besides, each Shiksha Karmi also runs a
Prehar Pathshala (Night Centre) for children who cannot attend the day
Centre. The project also lays emphasis on recruitment of female Shiksha Karmis
Shiksha Karmis was 750 and amongst them, they were looking after 359 Day
second half of 1990. The study revealed that the achievement levels of the
children in Shiksha Karmi Schools compared favorably with the children in the
245
Table 5.11 Growth of Recognized Educational Institutions and
Year Hig/Hr. Secondary Schools, Inter/Pre Degree Jr. Colleges Enrolment in Lakhs
1950-51 7416 13 2 15
1960-61 17329 27 7 34
1970-71 37051 57 19 76
Secondary Education was started in February, 1988. The main objectives of the
ensures, to some extent, that students are trained in those occupational areas
246
wherein self or wage employment opportunities are assured. On-the-job
the study of language and general foundation course. Under the scheme, a
Joint Council of Vocational Education (JCVE) has been set up at the national
level, with counterpart bodies at the State level, for laying down policy
Committee of the JCVE has also been set up under the Chairmanship of the
Union Education Secretary to ensure that the tasks laid down by JCVE are
effectively performed.
end of the Seventh Plan 7888 Vocational sections had been approved with an
enrolment capacity of 3.9 lakh students in classes XI and XII together. During
proposed to sanction another 1400 vocational sections. Thus by the end of 191-
92 facilities would have been created for 5.85 lakh students in the vocational
stream. The estimated enrolment during 1991-92 at +2 level was 66.05 lakh.
This would mean a diversion of about 8.7 per cent to the vocational stream.
247
The actual enrolment is however likely to be less as optimum utilisation of
training of Science and Mathematics teachers. The scheme also provides for
education.
248
Table 5.12 Educational Technology - Achievements
88 90 92 on
12.12.91)
Amount Spent (Rs in crore) 14.14 16.20 16.50 14.57 3.15 64.56
No. of Radio cum Cassette Players 37562 67735 49963 72883 3115 231228
distributed
Continuing Schemes
1. Amount released to CIET (Rs. in 5.28 3.10 3.146 2.37 2.00 15.89
crores)
2. Amount Released to SIETs (Rs. in 1.40 1.53 2.20 0.44 0.63 6.65
4. Amount released to States/UTs. For 7.15 11.19 10.60 11.66 0.33 40.93
(Rs. in crores)
249
5.80 IMPACT ON COMPUTER EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS
students and teachers with the range of computer applications and its potential
secondary schools all over the country. However, due to paucity of funds and
other administrative reasons, the proposal to cover 13,000 schools was not
presented.
Amount spent Rs. in crore 5.39 5.98 6.00 5.86 6.00 29.23
1980 with the main objective of institutionalizing population education into the
formal and non-formal education system. The programme activities have been
250
developed in collaboration with the United Nations Fund (UNPFA) and UNESCO
and also with the active involvement of the Ministry of Health and Family
Resource Development has decided to extend the NPEP into the Eighth Five
Year Plan. Population Education aims at making young students aware of the
towards population issue and to foster in them positive value orientation so that
they may take informed decisions which, in turn, would promote the small
CHILDREN
251
and wherever necessary, hostel charges. Besides, the scheme also provides for
meeting the cost of salary and incentives for teachers, setting up of resource
special instructional materials for disabled children, etc. Assistance is also given,
through the UGC, to selected universities and institutions for running training
facilities are also provided by the NCERT and the four Regional Colleges of
Education.
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Daman & Diu, Delhi and A & N
Islands.
the States/Union Territories implementing this project also for meeting the
Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu and the Municipal Corporations of
252
About 28,000 children spread over 6000 schools are presently receiving benefits
under this scheme. A much large number are receiving indirect benefit through
to investigate into the malaise afflicting the education system in the country.
Remedial measures have also been identified but the desired results are still
elusive. In this context, an editorial of The Hindustan Times dated May 25,1992
undue haste in rejecting the 1986 National Policy on Education (NPE) even
without giving it a proper trial and appointed a committee to review the NPE.
The Narasimha Rao Government was equally keen to review the review
endorsed the basic thrust of the NPE and recommended only minor changes.
Thus it has taken full six years for the Government to realize that the 1986
253
reviews is the inevitable drift. As a result of such tinkering with education even
yield the desired result. Now the target of achieving universalisation of primary
education by 1995 has once again been extended by five years. The malaise
afflicting the education system has been diagnosed more or less accurately.
Even the corrective measures have been identified by various committees from
time to time. What is indeed missing is the necessary political will to make the
has been as indicated in Table 5.14 which shows that while it has increased, as
1950-51 1.2
1960-61 2.5
1970-71 3.1
1984-85* 3.7
1985-86** 4.0
1986-87@ 3.9
254
The Central Statistical organization has recently released the quick
estimates of National Income (GNP) for the year 1988-89 which has been
placed at Rs. 3,06,822 crores at current prices on the basis of which the plan
and non-plan budget of Education Departments at the Centre and the States as
above, India is at the very bottom, barring Bangladesh. That Indias educational
countries, but in the 1980s it slipped back to the level of early 1970s mainly as
255
Table 5.15 Share of Education in Five Year Plan Outlays/Expenditures
(%)
The share of Elementary Education has come down from the level of
56% in First Plan to 29% in the Seventh Plan. The share of secondary
education with 46.97% of them dropping out by class V. At the middle Level,
256
about 62% of the children who began education at class I drop out before
reaching class VII. This percentage is 67% in the case of girls at the middle
stage. Similarly, the children of SC/ST communities drop out at a faster rate
257
17 Orissa 4.05 37.32 38.97 60.28 71.25 64.86
27 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 29.37 45.58 36.14 63.98 70.52 66.81
258
Table 5.17 Intra-Sectoral Resource Allocation for Education in
EXPENDITURE OUTLAY
1st Plan 2nd 3rd Plan Plan 4th Plan 5th Plan 6th Plan 7th Plan
Plan Holiday
Elementary 85 (56) 95 (35) 201 (34) 75(24) 239(30) 317(50) 906(36) 1830(29)
Secondary 20 (13) 51 (19) 103 (18) 53(16) 140 (18) 156 (17) 398 (16) 1000 (16)
**
University 14(9) 48 (18) 87(15) 77(24) 195 (25) 205 (22) 486 (19) 750 (12)
General
Total 133(87) 224(82) 464(79) 241(75) 680 (87) 805 (88) 2247(89) 5710(89)
General
plan outlay
259
5.87 UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Elementary.
Scheme
(DPEP)
covering Classes I to V. The three major objectives of the DPEP are to (i)
reduce drop-out rates to less than 10 per cent, (ii) reduce disparities among
gender and social group in the areas of enrolment, learning achievement, etc.
260
To less than 5 per cent and (iii) improve the level of learning achievement
interventions for education of girls, SC/ST, working children, etc. Initiatives for
over and above the provisions made under Central and State Sector Schemes
female literacy below the national average, and (b) Districts where Total
cent of the project cost is met by the Government of India and the remaining
261
India share is resourced through external assistance. External assistance of
about Rs. 6938.00 crore, comprising Rs. 5137.00 crore as credit from IDA and
Rs. 1801.00 crore as grant from BC/DFID/UNI CEF/Netherlands has been tied
covering 129 districts. DPEP at its peak, was operational in 273 districts in 18
Phase-I, II and III states have also been carried out by the Join Review
studies of the programme have brought out that the programme has resulted in
Revised Estimates and Actual Expenditure for last three years is given as under:
262
Table 5.18Allocation of Funds under DPEP (Rs. in crore)
Year BE RE Actual
February 2004, works out to Rs. 6076.75 crore and the cumulative
year 2003-04 is Rs. 847.68 core and reimbursement Rs. 609.57 crore.
of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was approved by the Cabinet in its meeting held on
85:15 sharing arrangement during the Ninth Plan, 75:25 sharing arrangement
during the Tenth Plan, 50:50 sharing thereafter, between the Central
The programme covers the entire country and addresses the needs of
192 million children in 11 lakh existing primary and upper primary schools and
263
33 lakh existing teachers would b covered under the scheme. The programme
seeks to open new schools in habitations which do not have schooling facilities
initiatives, including free textbooks, target these children under the programme.
SSA also seeks to provide computer education even in rural areas, to bridge the
digital divide.
prepared in consultation with Panchayati Raj Institutions, will form the basis of
district elementary education plans. The Sarve Shiksha Abhiyan covers the
entire with a special focus on educational needs of girls, Scheduled Castes and
264
Goals of SarvaShikshaAbhiyan
All 6-14 age children complete five year primary education by 2007.
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at
Plan, an allocation of Rs. 17,000 crore has been made for SSA. For 2003-04, BE
is Rs. 1951.25 crore, RE is Rs. 2732.32 crore and the final grant is Rs. 2732.32
crore. The total expenditure under SSA for the year 2003-04 was Rs. 3,650
crore.
level, at the state level and the national level. The community, through its
entrusted with the primary level of ensuring that the schools are functioning
265
effectively. Being local stakeholders, they are best placed to ensure quality
year with 30 September as the record date. This was first developed in DPEP in
1995 for capturing school-level information from primary sections. Starting from
42 districts, it grew to 273 districts during the peak of DPEP programme. With
the advent of SSA, the system was expanded to the upper primary sections also
and to all districts in the country. The data, as on 30 September 2002, was
received from 459 districts in the 18 DPEP states. It is expected that the data
from 30 September 2003 would become available for all the 600 districts in the
country.
and 2003-04
2002-2003 2003-04
Amount Approved under SSA (Rs. in crore) 3411 crore 8547 crore
Amount Approved under DPEP (Rs. in crore) 2291 crore 1253 crore
266
made, towards the implementation of the annual plans, as well as to capture
the quality of the education process. The system has been developed with the
levels. Only the abstract useful at the national level is received nationally under
the system.
different universities and the ICSSR. These institutions have been allocated
on the size of the State and the extent of monitoring required. They not only
267
Table 5.20 Physical Items approved in 2002-2003 and 2003-
2004
2002-2003 2003-2004
School grant (No. of schools) 5,61,558 3,07,414 8,68,972 6,33,303 1,46,143 8,29,446
schools)
Free text books (No. of 31139754 14086909 45226663 4,60 1.21 5.81
the programme. The selected institutions make field and send their reports
every quarter. Their quarterly visits to select districts help in assessing the
ground-level realities.
Apart from the above, an independent agency has also been engaged to
monitor the programme from the financial management aspect. The agency
selected is the Institute of Public Auditors of India (IPAI) whose patron is CAG,
268
and which consists of personnel formerly working with the Audit and Accounts
Department. They take up six states every year for monitoring the financial
procurement, etc. this monitoring is apart from the statutory audit of the State
Implementation of SSA in the first two years of the Tenth Plan has seen
particular emphasis in these two years to ensure that all out-of- school children
are brought to school through multi-pronged strategies. The focus has been on
strategies for mainstreaming children who are left out of the schooling process
have been made to open more than 80,000 new schools and appointing around
4.5 lakh teachers in the last two years. Further, physical infrastructure has been
classrooms, around 60,000 school buildings, 1 lakh toilets and 75,000 drinking
water facilities. With the objective of improving the quality of teaching and
classroom atmosphere, grants are given to all teachers for developing teaching-
269
Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In addition, maintenance grant for civil repairs
For children who are difficult to bring to school, SSA has relied on the
these children to school. In the last two years approvals have been given for
has come down from 3.5 crore in 2001 to 2.3 crore in the beginning of 2003-
04.
INNOVATIVE EDUCATION
proactive and proactive and provides avenues to children in the age group of 6-
14 years. This component was designed to cover those children who are
EGS & AIE is, therefore, a vital component of SSA for achieving Universalisation
270
Interventions for mainstreaming of out-of-school children through
camps, etc.
education.
FGS & AIE programme also envisages centres for street and a state on
(VAs), Central Government bears 100 per cent cost (within the overall cost
ceiling). The EGS & AIE, being a part of SSA, has no separate budget provision
SSA.
societies set up for SSA by the State/UT Governments, which have powers to
voluntary sector.
and a Hand Book for EGS/AIE, in order to encourage the participation of NGOs.
The GIACs have already been constituted in 22 states. The States of Bihar,
Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh have processed 289,272 and 425 proposals
271
In order to enhance state capacities for implementation of the EGS/AIE
experiences and good practices are shared and the issues concerning the
PRIMARY EDUCATION
1995, with the objectives to give a boost to UPE and simultaneously impacting
local body and government-aided schools. During the current year, the
programme has also been expanded to children of EGS centres which are being
272
The programme aims to provide wholesome cooked/processed food
through local bodies/authorities such as Panchayats and Nagar Palikas who are
expected to develop institutional arrangement has not taken place, food grains
(wheat/rice) at the rate of 3kg per month are distributed to the targeted
expanded in a phased manner and has seen all-India coverage during 1997-98
except for Lakshadweep, which runs its own programme. The Central Support
under this programme is to provide food grains free of cost to children through
the Food Corporation of India. The cost is being reimbursed at BPL rate. The
year-wise details of children targeted for coverage and quantity of food grains
allocated and lifted by state agencies and expenditure incurred is given below.
2001 directed that under the Scheme, cooked meals be provided in a time
273
Table 5.21 National Programme Of Nutritional Support To
Primary Education
Allocated Lifted
Backward Blocks (EBBs) where the level of female literacy is below, and the
gender gap is above the national average in blocks of districts which are not
274
covered under EBBs but have at least 5 per cent SC/ST population and where
SC/St female literacy is below 10 per cent, also in select urban slums.
An estimated provision of Rs. 1064.80 crore has been kept for the Tenth
Plan. Apart from NPEGEL, a new scheme called Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Vidyalaya (KGBV) was approved for launching during 2004-05 for setting up
750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level for girls
minorities in difficult areas. a provision of Rs. 489 crore has been made for the
Tenth Plan; and Annual Plan allocation for the year 2004-05 is Rs. 100 crore.
An education cess of 2 per cent on all direct and indirect Central taxes
has been imposed through the Finance (No. 2) Act, 2004. Soon after he
relevant Bill was introduced in Parliament on July 8, 2004, action was initiated
roolover basis for the schemes of Basic Education and the Mid-day Meal
Scheme. Budget provision for the Mid-day Meal Scheme during 2004-05 was
Rs. 1,675 crore. In addition Rs. 1,232 crore has been provided to the
275
States/UTs as Additional Central Assistance (ACA) under State Sector as
Table 5.22 Gross Enrolment Ratios at the Elementary Stage (GER) (in per cent)
(VI-VIII) (I-VIII)
1950-51 60.6 24.8 42.6 20.6 4.6 12.7 46.4 17.7 32.1
1960-61 82.6 41.4 62.4 33.2 11.3 22.5 65.2 30.9 48.7
1970-71 95.5 60.5 75.6 46.5 20.8 33.4 75.5 44.4 61.9
1980-81 95.8 64.1 80.5 54.3 28.6 41.9 82.2 52.1 67.5
1990-91 114.0 85.5 100.1 76.6 47.0 62.1 100.0 70.8 86.0
1991-92 112.8 86.9 100.2 75.1 49.6 61.4 101.2 73.2 87.7
1993-94 90.0 73.1 81.9 62.1 45.4 54.2 80.2 63.7 72.3
1994-95 96.6 78.2 87.7 68.9 50.0 60.0 87.2 68.8 78.4
1995-96 97.1 79.4 88.6 67.8 493.8 59.3 86.9 69.4 78.5
1996-97 97.0 80.1 88.8 65.8 49.2 58.0 85.9 69.4 78.0
1997-98 99.3 82.2 91.1 66.3 49.7 58.5 87.4 70.7 79.4
1998-99* 100.9 82.9 92.1 65.3 49.1 57.6 87.6 70.6 79.4
1999- 104.1 85.2 94.9 67.2 49.7 58.8 90.1 72.0 81.3
2000
2000-01* 104.9 85.9 95.7 66.7 49.9 58.6 90.3 72.4 81.6
2001-02* 105.3 86.9 96.3 67.8 52.1 60.2 90.7 73.6 82.4
2002-03* 97.5 93.1 95.4 65.3 56.2 60.9 85.4 79.3 82.5
Provisional
276
Source: Selected Education Statistics 2002-03, Ministry of Human
Resource Development.
Drop-out Rates
Of the estimated population of 205 million in the age group of 6-14 years
on March 1, 2002, nearly 82.5 per cent was enrolled in schools, compared to
82.4 per cent in 2001-02. The retention rate of students at the primary school
The rates of drop out decreased from 64.5 per cent in 1960-6 to 39.0
per cent in 2001-02 primary classes. The rate of dropouts which was 78.3 per
cent in 1960-61 came down to 54.6 per cent in 2001-2002 in the Classes I-VIII.
Similarly the rate of dropouts which was 82.5 per cent in 1980-81, decreased to
277
Table 5.23 Dropout rates from Class I to X
Classes I-V
Classes I-VIII
Classes I-X
Provisional
to ensure that the Students once enrolled in the school do not drop out.
Teacher pupil ratio of 1.43 at the primary stage is very high. It leaves very little
Expenditure on Education
education at 6 percent of the GDP. As against the target, the combined total
278
Table 5.24 Expenditure on Education in India (1951-52 to 2001-
Years Total expr. Total expr. on all GDP at current % of Edu. % of Edu.
on education sectors (Rev.) prices (at factor Exp. To all Exp. To GDP
1993-94
279
1970-71 892.36 8787.12 42222 10.16 2.11
280
1996-97 43896.48 329389.92 1243546 13.33 3.53
(R. E.)
0.77% in 1990-91 shows a gradual decrease to 0.62% during 1997-98 and rise
to 0.88% in 2000-2001.
sectors was 6.19% during 1990-91 and which shows irregular rise and fall and
finally settled at 6.61% during 2001-2002. The share of Secondary and Higher
281
2000 i.e. 4.97% and the lowest (4.09%) during 2001-2002. The share of adult
education in India may be observed in overall basis from the following tables.
282
Table 5.25 Development of Enrolment by stages since
Middle/Upper High/Hr.Sec./Inter/Pre-
Primary (I-V)
year Primary (VI-VII) Degree (IX-XII)
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
1950-51 13.8 5.4 19.2 2.6 0.5 3.1 1.3 0.2 1.5
1955-56 7.1 7.5 24.6 3.8 1 4.8 2.2 0.4 2.6
1960-61 23.6 11.4 35 5.1 1.6 6.7 2.7 0.7 3.4
1965-66 32.2 18.3 50.5 7.7 2.8 10.5 4.4 1.3 5.7
1970-71 35.7 21.3 57 9.4 3.9 13.3 5.7 1.9 7.6
1975-76 40.6 25 65.6 11 5 16 6.5 2.4 8.9
1980-81 45.3 28.5 73.8 13.9 6.8 20.7 7.6 3.4 11
1985-86 52.2 35.2 87.4 17.7 9.6 27.1 11.5 5 16.5
1990-91 57 40.4 97.4 21.5 12.5 34 12.8 6.3 19.1
1991-92 58.6 42.3 100.9 22 13.6 35.6 13.5 6.9 20.4
1992-93 57.9 41.7 99.6 21.2 12.9 34.1 13.6 6.9 20.5
1993-94 55.1 41.9 97 20.6 13.5 34.1 13.2 7.5 20.7
1994-95 60 45.1 105.1 22.1 14.3 36.4 14.2 7.9 22.1
1995-96 60.9 46.2 107.1 22.7 14.8 37.5 14.6 8.3 22.9
1996-97 61.4 46.8 108.2 22.9 15.2 38.1 15.3 8.7 24
1997-98 62.3 48 110.3 23.6 15.9 39.5 16.1 9.3 25.4
1998-99 62.7 48.2 110.9 24 16.3 40.3 17.3 10.5 27.8
1999-00 64.1 49.5 113.6 25.1 17 42.1 17.2 11 28.2
2000-01 64 49.8 113.8 25.3 17.5 42.8 16.9 10.7 27.6
2001-02 63.6 50.3 113.9 26.1 18.7 44.8 18.4 12.1 30.5
2002-03 65.1 57.3 122.4 26.3 20.6 46.9 19.5 13.7 33.2
2003-04 68.4 59.9 128.3 27.3 21.4 48.7 20.3 14.5 35.4
2004-05 70.1 61.5 131.6 28.7 22.9 51.6 20.9 14.8 36.1
283
Table 5.26 Growth of recognized Educational Institutions
High/Hr.Sec./Inter/Pre.Jr.
year Primary Upper Primary
Coleges
284
Table 5.27 Number of teachers engaged in different types of
High/Hr.
Primary Upper Primary Secondary/Intermidate
Year Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
1965-66 764 180 944 389 139 528 368 111 479
1970-71 835 225 1060 463 175 638 474 155 629
1975-76 955 283 1248 554 224 778 559 200 759
1980-81 1021 342 1363 598 253 851 669 257 926
1985-86 1094 402 1496 663 305 968 793 339 1132
1990-91 1143 473 1616 717 356 1073 917 417 1334
1991-92 152 492 1644 714 365 1079 931 450 1381
1992-93 1137 514 1651 709 376 1085 941 454 1395
1993-94 1110 513 1623 723 406 1124 953 492 1445
1994-95 1157 531 1688 746 410 1156 986 495 1481
1995-96 1176 558 1734 758 424 1182 1030 519 1549
1996-97 1190 566 1756 769 431 1200 1069 544 1613
1997-98 1226 597 1823 640 597 1237 1086 558 1644
1998-99 1246 658 1904 814 464 1278 1168 579 1747
1999-
2000 1236 683 1919 829 469 1298 1142 578 1720
2000-
2001 1221 675 1896 820 506 1326 1184 577 1760
2001-
2002 1213 715 1928 921 547 1468 1157 620 1777
2002-
2003 1167 746 1913 936 645 1581 1221 812 2033
285
5.95 IMPACT ON RASHTRIYA MADHYAMIK SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
(RMSA)
with the main objective to make secondary education a good quality available,
accessible and affordable to all young persons. The scheme seeks to enhance
i.e. by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. RMSA was launched in 2009, funded
has tied up for external funding by Development Partners (DP) World Banks
agreement for external aid from the DPs which came into effect in November,
2012, the Joint Review Mission (JRM) is to be conducted every six months in
the months of January and July each year. The January Mission undertakes
States visits, while the July mission is a desk review. The field visits to the
both the GoI and the DPs, after which there will be discussions on the findings
286
of the State visits followed by report writing and wrap up in which the
India with a view to achieving UEE. These efforts were intensified in the 1980s
the Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP), the Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project
(UPBEP), Mahila Samakhya(MS), the Lok Jumbish Project (LJP), and Teacher
UEE across the country. Due to these initiatives, over the years there has been
country. Today, access and enrolment at the primary stage of education have
the elementary level has reduced significantly. The gender gapin elementary
scheduled castes and tribes has increased successively. Despite this, the goal of
287
stage. The number of children particularly those from disadvantaged groups
and weaker sections who drop out of school before completing upper
elementary education. With a view to address these issues, the RTE has been
the road to the RTE Act has not been easy. The exercise of consulting all
stakeholders including the states and taking them on board has been time-
consuming. The main provisions in the RTE Act include the responsibilities of
the central and state governments; prohibition of capitation fee and screening
Children with disabilities and those belonging to minority communities are also
288
As per the RTE Act, 2009, every child has the right to full-time
that satisfies certain essential norms and standards. The need to address
and the questions of quality are the most compelling reasons for the addition of
As has already been stated, even prior to the RTE, the GoIs efforts were
the most prominent among all efforts initiated by the GoI before 2010 and was
scheme. The goals of the SSA are (a) enrolment of all children in schools,
camps, (b) retention of all children till the upper primary stage, (c) bridging of
gender and social category gaps in enrolment, retention and learning, and (d)
at the primary and upper primary stages. There is little difference between the
objectives of the RTE and those under the SSA. Yet, there are fundamental
variations between the two. While the provisions under the SSA were not part
provisions form an integral part. Under the RTE, free education has been
defined, and it states that no child, other than one who has been admitted by
289
government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which
may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
elementary education by all children in the age group of 614 years. With this,
India has moved forward to a rights-based framework under the RTE Act that
casts a legal obligation on the central and state governments to implement this
derived from the definite timeframes mandated in the RTE Act; it prescribes a
(30:1). Further, the RTE Act stipulates that all untrained teachers in the system
must be trained within a period of five years from the date of enforcement of
the Act. The rest of the provisions are required to be implemented with
immediate effect. The RTE Act has had considerable implications for the overall
approach and implementation strategies of the SSA. With the enactment of the
RTE, there was a need to review the interventions under the SSA and align its
norms with the RTE mandate. Today, the SSA is the main implementation
vehicle for the RTE Act, 2009: the Implementation Framework of the SSA has in
fact been revised to coordinate with the provisions of the RTE Act. A
290
smooth implementation of the SSA. The major changes in the SSA norms
effected by the executive committee of the SSA in January 2010 are:(a) School
the state government pursuant to the RTE Act;(b) All existing EGS centres that
have been functioning for two years or more to be upgraded to regular schools,
grant for books worth `3,000 for primary schools and `10,000 for upper
the existing schools for each district in a particular year, which inhibited the
demand for repairs, removed;(f) School grant to be utilized for play material
trainers, and Block Resource Centre (BRC) and Cluster Resource Centre (CRC)
coordinators for up to10 days each year at `100 per person per day;(h)
Financial provisions for children with special needs increased from `1,200 to
`3,000 per child per year, provided that at least `1,000 per child will be used
291
from two to six, comprising three-day residential and three-day non-residential
training. Financial limits for training also hiked, from `30 to `100 per day per
person for residential training and `50 per day per person for non-residential
training;(j) Management cost for districts with small annual plan and size
increased from `2 million per district to `4million subject to the overall ceiling
system. The central government has via notification dated 29 March 2010
constituted the National Advisory Council (NAC) under the RTE Act, 2009 (PIB
2010).The RTE Act provides for mechanisms for monitoring its implementation,
including the following. (a) The National Commission for Protection of Child
Rights (NCPCR) and the State Commissions for Protection of Child Rights
under the Act; (b) in States where the SCPCR is not constituted, the state
under the Act; (c) any person with any grievance relating to right of the child
under the Act can make a written complaint to the local authority, which shall
decide the matter within a period of three months; and (d) the School
monitor the working of the school. As per the RTE Act, 2009, every school
other than an unaided private school shall constitute an SMC, which will
292
perform various functions including preparation of the school development plan.
belonging to disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, and 50 per cent of the
adoption/adaption inter alia specify the manner of constituting the SMCs and
the additional functions that they should perform. States and union territories
have undertaken the process of constituting SMCs in schools. The SMC is likely
to take care of local needs and act as a body ensuring checks and balances.
This will also strengthen the efficiency of the scheme at the grassroots level. In
Institutions (MIs)submit reports every six months to the central authority. The
half-yearly reports submitted by the MIs are shared with the concerned State
Project Directors of the SSA of states and union territories for appropriate
follow-ups and remedial action. The reports of the MIs are posted on the SSA
(IPAI), has also been appointed for concurrent financial review to cover all the
states and union territories. It submits reports to the Ministry annually which
are further shared with the concerned states and union territories for taking
293
through independent agencies for civil work taken up in the states of Andhra
The design of the school information system has, therefore, been accorded
priority from the very beginning of the DPEP, as a result of which the District
When the SSA was launched in 2001, not only was the cover age extended to
all states and districts of the country, its scope was also expanded to include
private schools. Today, among various other sources, DISE data are used for
From the above it is revealed that RTE Act has been launched very
recently in the country wide; hence its impact may be observed after few years.
294
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