How has the industrial revolution and the increase

of anthropogenic noise in the ocean impacted whale

species?

Emily Vierling

Senior Project Advisor: Tina Hott

12th Grade Humanities

Animas High School
27 February 2017
 Introduction

The ocean is a symphony, where marine sounds orchestrate the way of life. Put your head

underwater and listen - you become enveloped in an ecosystem that sports the sound of reef fish

trying to find food, the snaps of crabs claws as they slowly back into their dark caves, and of

course the call of a blue whale, hundreds of miles away. Recently, however, the beautiful,

complex sounds of the ocean have been disappearing, overridden by the sudden advancement

and industrialization of society.

Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) are some of the worlds most vocal animals,

sending their deep echoing songs throughout the serene waters. Each their own unique

instrument, they add to the grandeur of ocean symphonies. The growing din of human society is

like a percussion section, overwhelming the more serene and quieter, but just as important,

cetacean instruments. The abilities of cetaceans are being compromised by the growth of human

technology. From naval sonar impacting their navigational and hearing abilities to shipping

traffic cutting their effective communication range, the effect has been disastrous to cetaceans.

Thus, although the industrial revolution has benefited human societies, it has negatively

impacted whale species and their highly adapted social skills, increasing the number of

human-caused whale deaths and in order to pursue a future of coexistence with whale species,

we need to change our industry, taking cetaceans into consideration.

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 Historical Context

The ocean was once absent of thudding motors and man-made frequencies. It was a filled

with the sounds of marine life; whale species flourished and traveled in large pods, the sounds of

their social songs echoing for miles. Habitats were safe and not exposed to human activity.

In the mid-1800s, a new way of life emerged. The Industrial Revolution marked a

transition, when machines started to change the way people lived their lives. Manufacturing

became less of a human job and transitioned to automated and faster processes through the use of

advancements in technology. What many people do not attribute to the industrial revolution was

the rapid rise in commercial whaling. Many species were hunted for their fat and blubber, which

contained essential oils that fueled lamps and powerful weapons of mass destruction. The

introduction and advancement of motorized ships and harpoon guns made it easier, and more

profitable, to find and hunt pods.

Whaling is an ancient activity, but the massive expansion of the industry pushed many

species to near extinction, including the blue whale, humpback whale, and North Atlantic right

whale. In the 20th century, whaling was one of the largest industries in New England.

Commercial whaling quite literally and figuratively fueled the industrial revolution.

The advancement in naval sonar happened post-WWII in order to equip U.S. Navy ships

and submarines with more effective technologies to navigate the ocean waters. Naval sonar is a

technique used by the military that projects frequencies to navigate, communicate with, or detect

objects on or under the surface of the water. Submarines are the vessels that are most commonly

equipped with sonar. Ship traffic also started to increase after 1950, and whale communication

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frequencies shifted up to be heard over the motors of vessels. Migration patterns also started to

change to avoid shipping routes. However, the increased effects of industrialized machines on

cetaceans went unnoticed until the early 21st century, when a mass stranding event in the

Bahamas coincided with a naval sonar blast. Seventeen cetaceans were stranded on the shores,

and most ended in mortality, due to dehydration. After performing autopsies on the bodies,

scientists found hemorrhaging in the brain and perforated ear drums, injuries that only a loud and

strong frequency could cause (Balcomb). This event sparked a new form of study: the effects of

anthropogenic noise on cetaceans, and some of the first research projects started to emerge in late

2000. Today, the effects of noise pollution on cetaceans is a hot-button topic for many scientists

interested in the marine world, and every year more evidence is presented to suggest that the

industrialized machines that we produce have harmful effects on whale species.

Research and Analysis

Vocal communication is the way of life in the ocean with sound having the ability to

travel and be heard clearly from far away. Whales have evolved over millions of years to take

advantage of this unique acoustic environment and have exceptional hearing and communication

abilities. Echolocation gives them sight, by sending and receiving sound frequencies that tell

them how far, fast, hollow, or big an object is. Whale communication is highly advanced to serve

a social setting in a pod (a small herd or school of marine animals). Contact calls, like names to

humans, are a way to identify one another, and songs in each pod are passed down through

generations.

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 Whales hearing is a thing of wonder, being able to detect other whale calls from up to

500 miles away. However, their exceptional and sensitive hearing can become a curse when it

comes to industrialized machinery and human-societal practices. Pods communicate between one

another, and members rely on social communication to be able to migrate, mate, and live

together. Whale species rely on sound for orientation, feeding, mating and keeping in touch with

the rest of their pod. Without communication and the ability to hear, life in the ocean becomes

much more burdensome, almost impossible. Our artificial machines are interfering with whales

amazing, natural abilities. Noise in the ocean is almost irrelevant to humans, but detrimental to

the animals whose livelihood is in these waters.

Sonar and Military Testing

Noise Avoidance

Sonar, in recent years, has been identified to have a dramatic affect on whale behaviour.

A study conducted by Lise D. Sivle and Peter L. Tyack on the identified responses of humpback

whale, minke whale, and Northern bottlenose whale to Naval Sonar found that the main reaction

observed was noise avoidance. Noise avoidance is when the whale species has to deliberately

leave the scene or avoid an area because a distressing noise is being emitted. In her article

summarizing the study, Severity of Expert-Identified Behavioural Responses of Humpback

Whale, Minke Whale, and Northern Bottlenose Whale to Naval Sonar she states, The most

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common response scored in all three species to all exposures was horizontal avoidance of the

sound source or from its projected future path (Sivle 479).

Noise avoidance can be fatal, as it displaces whales from their habitat, forcing them into

areas that may be less able to support the pod. Whether it be feeding, breeding, or other

important social or behavioural patterns cetaceans have, it is pertinent for them to have access to

and remain in a habitat that is suitable to them - without the ability to stay or have access to it,

the whales lives are immediately at stake.

Strandings

Cetacean strandings have become increasingly common in todays world. Stranding

occurs when cetaceans travel into shallow waters, trapping themselves on land, usually on a

beach. Stranded whales often die from dehydration, collapsing under their own weight, or

drowning when high tide covers their blowhole. They can be caused by a variety of scenarios

including solar storms and disease, but recently this phenomenon started to be partially attributed

to the use of naval sonar. The pioneer stranding that launched research into the connection

between naval sonar and strandings occurred in the Bahamas in 2000, where 17 cetaceans were

found stranded, following naval sonar activity by the USA.

Kenneth Balcomb was one of the first people to analyze the catastrophe, and in his

article, A Mass Stranding of Cetaceans Caused by Naval Sonar in the Bahamas, he discusses

the relation between sound avoidance (caused by the avoidance of naval sonar) and mass

stranding events. He states, For industrial scenarios (seismic exploration, oil rig operation,

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shipping, underwater detonations, etc.), it has been assumed that whales may flee from loud

sound, searching for quieter waters. This leads them to shallow coves or coastal areas, causing

them to become stranded (Balcomb 2).

Most recently, in 2017, 416 pilot whales were found stranded in New Zealand.

Researchers are investigating the event, but many scientists are hypothesizing that it was due to

naval sonar practices, which drove the whales into a sloped bay where they could not navigate.

Strandings are often disregarded, and sometimes considered to be natural. Although some

may be of natural cause, strandings always happen because a force is driving cetaceans out of the

water, whether it be a solar storm, disease, loss of navigation, or sonar activity. However, since

the introduction of naval sonar (~1950), studies have shown a correlation between the increase of

anthropogenic noise polluting our oceans and the amount of illogical strandings. In the article,

Beaked Whale Strandings and Naval Exercises by Angela D. Amico, it states, Of 136 beaked

whale mass stranding events reported from 1874 to 2004, 126 occurred between 1950 and 2004,

after the introduction and implementation of modern, high-power mid-frequency active sonar

(MFAS) (Amico 452). If that is just beaked whales, one can imagine what numbers must look

like across all whale species.

Changes in Behavior

Naval sonar has the ability to alter natural behaviors that have evolved to suit cetaceans

in the underwater world. One of the most alarming changes is in dive behavior. A study

conducted by L. S. Weilgart suggests that whales are staying too long at depth (chronic

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deep-diving) or at the surface, which leads to tissue damage. In her article, The Impacts of

Anthropogenic Ocean Noise on Cetaceans and Implications for Management she summarizes

her argument, Alternatively, the sonar alone may interact with tissues that are supersaturated

with nitrogen gas (as is possible in deep- diving whales), causing the expansion of in vivo bubble

precursors or gas nuclei. The bubbles seen in the veins are consistent with, but not diagnostic of,

decompression sickness (Weilgart 1098).

A study conducted by Crum and Mao (1996) on bubble growth in cetaceans supported

Weilgarts hypothesis, arguing that extensive bubble production resulted when exposed to short

pulses of low-frequency sound, supporting the possibility that sound sources could cause gas

emboli syndrome in cetaceans under the right conditions (Weilgart 1098). Another common

behavioural change is the cessation of feeding. This is when the animal stops feeding entirely,

which could kill them. In the study conducted by Sivle Lise and Peter L. Tyack, Severity of

Expert-Identified Behavioural Responses of Humpback Whale, Minke Whale, and Northern

Bottlenose Whale to Naval Sonar, they found that cessation of feeding occurred in two out of

the three species they studied, the humpback whale and the minke whale. Throughout their

research, they studied the severity of whale behavioural responses to naval sonar and scaled them

severity 1-9. In the article, it states, The most severe responses (with a score of 8) were

progressive high-speed avoidance by the minke whale, long-term avoidance by the bottlenose

whale, prolonged avoidance and cessation of feeding (score of 7) (Sivle 479). Cessation of

feeding can not only be harmful to the individual, but to the pod as well, as calves and other

members usually follow the behavioural habits of others.

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 Naval sonar is one of the inventions of the Industrial Revolution that has wreaked havoc

on whale species around the world. The Navy does acknowledge its impact, and in 2014 released

a statement determining over 340 dolphins and whales would die between 2014 and 2019 as a

result of training procedures. However, the Navy claims its actions are justified because this

training is essential to national security and cannot be simulated.

Military Bomb Tests

Military bomb testing is detrimental to whale species. Bombs set off in the oceans

reverberate for miles. If any species, including whales, is within a certain radius of the bomb, it

is almost certainly faced with death. The blasts are so powerful that they can also damage the

eardrums of the whales nearby. Whales depend entirely upon their ability to hear in order to

navigate, communicate with others, and for echolocation. Bomb blasts, along with sonar, have

also been linked to mass strandings. Without the ability to navigate in both instances, whales

may accidently, or purposefully, end up trapped in quieter, shallower waters trying to avoid the

agonizing sounds projected. In the report, Investigation into the Long-Finned Pilot Whale Mass

Stranding Event Andrew Brownlow analyzed the mass stranding in Scotland in 2011, he

discusses the effects military testing bombs had on the pilot whales. In this particular instance, 4

military bombs were detonated Brownlow states, ...the three initial explosions could have had a

significant detrimental effect on the hearing and therefore navigational competence of any

cetaceans in proximity. The fourth bomb might have served to drive the animals further inland

(Brownlow 40).

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 Bomb blasts kill or severely injure an estimated 20-60 whales every year. The military

conducts approximately 100 bomb testings every year and this can consequently bring unwanted

harm, specifically, to endangered species.

Shipping Vessels

Changes and Blocks in Communication

The ocean has an incredible environment that can transmit sound from hundreds of miles

away. It takes about three hours for a frequency to travel halfway around the world through the

water columns. A blue whale call can be heard from 500 miles away. However, when whale calls

can travel this far, the constant hum of shipping motors can too. Shipping vessels operate at

approximately the same frequency range (50-100 Hz) as whale species. In the pre-industrial

ocean, a whale call could be easily detected by others. Motor noise from shipping vessels are

competing with whales, cutting the effective range of communication.

Shipping vessels essentially cut communication range down from a thousand kilometers

to 10 kilometers. If a mother needs to

communicate with a calf, or male or females

need to find each other for mating, and theyre

separated, imagine the impact of not being able

to effectively communicate could have on

social groups and endangered species (Tyack).

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However, whales as adaptive and intelligent as they are, have figured a couple ways around the

human influence in the sea.

Whales can compensate for lost noise by communicating at a louder and higher

frequencies, much like humans do when they are calling to someone far away. Susan Parks, a

professor at Pennsylvania State University conducted a study looking at how whale

communication frequencies have changed and shifted up since the 1970s. Her data is shown in

Figure 11 (above). The graph compares frequency ranges at which right whales communicated in

1977 versus 2000 and 1956 versus 2000 in the South Atlantic and North Atlantic, respectively. It

shows that in 1956 and 1977, the frequencies were much lower than they are today. The

frequency range has shifted from ~100 Hz to ~225 Hz.

Over the past 50 years, we have added more noise into the ocean, causing whales to shift

their communication frequencies upward, which could have unintended consequences. Scientists

are looking into how raising communication frequency could hurt some whale species. As of

now, there is little evidence to support that the action has consequences, but future studies may

show otherwise. Shipping vessels can also cause cetaceans to miss crucial opportunities to

communicate, having to wait for silence. The noise in habitats has degraded the habitat enough

that the animals either have to risk too much to be able to communicate, or are not able to

perform critical functions (Tyack).

Chronic Stress Syndrome

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Figure 1: Susan Parks
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 The sounds emitted by shipping vessels are not merely an annoyance, they are actually

having mental and physical effects. Because whales are mammals and have active brains,

intelligence, and emotions, they develop mental mindsets or mental illnesses much like those of

humans. In 2001, there was a temporary decrease in the amount of ship traffic throughout the

Bay of Fundy, Canada due to the events of 9/11. Compared to past observed behaviour and

stress levels in right whales, behaviour returned to normal conditions and migratory and breeding

stress were reduced. The noise reduction was specifically associated with decreased baseline

levels of stress-related faecal hormone metabolites in North Atlantic right whales (Rolland).

Rosalind M. Rolland was one of the lead scientists that looked at the sudden decrease in

stress levels by collecting faecal balls from the whales and analyzing the levels of stress

hormones present. In her report Evidence That Ship Noise Increases Stress in Right Whales it

states, Even with relatively small sample sizes after 11 September in 2001, the decrease in fGCs

after 9/11 was highly significant compared with other years. To our knowledge, there were no

other factors affecting the population that could explain this difference besides the decrease in

ship traffic and concomitantly reduced underwater noise disturbance after 9/11 (Rolland 5).

Chronic stress can be detrimental to an individuals health, leading to paranoia, cessation of

eating, and unusual or little physical movement.

Strikes

Every year, there are on average 300 large-vessel collisions with whale species. Ship

strikes are a leading cause of whale deaths around the world. These collisions can kill one or

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more members of the pods. The strikes are usually catastrophic, ending in death or severe injury.

Any size or type of vessel may be involved in a collision, but risk of injury or fatality appears to

correlate with vessel speed and mass. As shipping vessels have gotten bigger, it is harder to

maneuver around whale pods and similarly harder for whale pods to move around the ships,

resulting in collision. Endangered whale species are especially at risk, as Peter Tyack explains in

his TED Talk, The Intriguing Sound of Marine Mammals:

But there's also another problem from ships that I'm illustrating here, and that's the

problem of collision. This is a whale [image] that just squeaked by a rapidly moving

container ship and avoided collision. But collision is a serious problem. Endangered

whales are killed every year by ship collision, and it's very important to try to reduce this.

(Tyack)

Because of the probability of collision and the noise produced, whales have changed their

migration routes as ship traffic has increased. The whale species are specifically avoiding

pockets of heavy ship traffic that could result in deaths. These routes that are being changed

could have beneficial habitats and sanctuaries along the way that, by changing the route, they no

longer have access to, putting them at risk for starvation, separation, predation, and habitat

displacement.

Shipping vessels are the number one source of noise pollution in the ocean. Humans are

negatively affecting vocal species. Trade routes and the sounds of shipping vessels are

compromising the future of these majestic and acoustically amazing creatures. Whales have

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evolved over tens of millions of years to take advantage of the acoustics in the ocean, and we

need to be very attentive and vigilant to thinking about unintentional prevention from being able

to achieve their important activities. At the same time, we need to be thinking of solutions to be

able to help reduce these problems and take into account the lives impacted.

Hunting

One of the most inhumane ways industrialization has impacted whale species is hunting.

Hunted for their fat and blubber, which contain essential oils, whale populations were decimated

in the 19th and 20th century. Many species were driven to near extinction. Today, whaling is still

happening, and the modern whaling industry is equipped with advanced and industrialized

machines built specifically to target whale pods. The issue of modern whaling was first brought

to light when a team of scientists confronted a group of Russian whalers in 1975. The team,

formally known now as the founding members of Greenpeace, video-taped the moment the

Russians threw harpoons over the desperate little boats that were trying to stop the attack, and

into the flesh of one of the whales. Paul Watson explains the horrifying scene:

Suddenly there was this sudden explosion as one of the harpoons flew over our heads and

slammed into the back-side of one of the sperm whales and she screamed...when the bull

whales came towards the ship to attack, the shooter was waiting for them and he

nonchalantly pulled the trigger and sent a second harpoon into the head of the whale and

he screamed and fell back...as this whale lay and rolled in agony on the surface of the

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 ocean, I caught his eye and he looked straight at me. I watched his eye sink below the

surface and he...he died. (Watson 1975)

Watson found himself questioning the event - why would Russians want sperm whale

meat? They dont eat sperm whale, but they did use the oil to make high heat-resistant

lubricating oil for machinery...one of the machinery they used it in was intercontinental ballistic

missiles...here we are destroying these incredibly beautiful, intelligent, socially complex,

creatures for the purpose of making a weapon for the mass destruction of humanity (Watson).

Japan has one of the largest whaling industries in the world, reaching a high point in

1980, before the International Whaling Commission (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling

went into effect in 1986. However, Japan continues to hunt whales using the scientific research

provision in the agreement. Japan is hiding behind the Institute of Cetacean Research, claiming

that the thousands of whales they slaughter each year are purely for scientific research.

Sadly, the whale meat from these scientific whale hunts is sold in shops, restaurants

and at a Japanese food festival where foreigners are introduced to whale meat dishes. The

festival, in 2014, attracted 13.4 million visitors. In 2014, the International Court of Justice argued

that Japan was not conducting scientific research and its hunting was not in accordance with the

scientific research provision. The Court ordered Japan to cease all current operations, however,

in December of 2015, Japan resumed hunting and is continuing their commercial whaling

industry. In one season, 2015-16 (6 months), Japanese whalers killed 333 minke whales,

including over 200 pregnant females. It is a horrifying immoral activity without justification, yet

has been the fate for thousands of whales.

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 Conclusion

Why should we care? Cetaceans are intriguing, intellectually and socially complex

creatures, they benefit the natural environment, and are valued in cultures around the world.

Cetaceans are responsible for the movement of nutrients in the ocean when they eat and excrete

in different areas. When whales die naturally, they become a miniature ecosystem, serving as a

deep water habitat which contributes a large amount of the total nutrients supporting important

micro-organisms of the deep. Cetaceans are also top predators, and as such contribute greatly to

the stability of the ecosystem of which they are a part. Whales usually prey on other smaller

predators keeping their populations in check and so protecting the prey populations from

decimation. If they were suddenly removed, it is likely that many ocean ecosystems would

collapse due to a break in the balance of life.

Cetaceans are also extremely complex and intelligent, and we can learn a lot about

ourselves through studying their cognitive and emotional abilities. Already, they are helping us

to understand more about brain function, learning, culture and communication in the animal

kingdom. John Ford, a curator of marine mammals at the Vancouver Public Aquarium is

astounded by their abilities stating,

They seem to have a very highly developed, efficient way of communicating that is

something we can only partly understand at this point. I think as time goes on, well get a

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 much better appreciation of just how remarkably adapted whales are to their unique

environment...we can learn so much from the social and communicative behaviours of

whale species and then implement their strategies into our own human societies. (Ford)

Ironically, humans have based advanced systems, such as sonar, off of the abilities of

whale species. By studying their ability to echolocate (ability to see by the reflection of sound),

researchers have been able to improve and implement these methods into our own technology in

order to test various ways on how we can improve our own sonar abilities. Unfortunately, we

didnt take into account how this could affect whale species and they are now educating us on

how man-made sounds may be affecting the echolocation abilities of other marine animals so

that we can try to develop ways to better protect them from harmful man made noise.

Anthony Douglas Williams says, Dont treat animals as animals. Treat them as living

beings. Thats what they are. Intrinsic value is immeasurable for a beautiful and intelligent

cetacean. Without whales, the world would be devoid of their intelligence, of their mystery, and

missing a magnificent being.

Solutions

In order to coexist with cetaceans, we need to understand the complexity behind their

social, communicative, and cognitive functions so we can shape our industry to consider our

impacts we make both on cetaceans and other marine mammals. Regarding shipping noise, the

International Maritime Organization (IMO) of the United Nations has formed a group whose job

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is to establish guidelines for quieting ships. They have already found that by taking a different

approach to propeller design, noise can be reduced by 90 percent. By insulating and isolating the

machinery of the ship from the hull, that noise can be reduced by 99 percent. However, the main

issue is that of cost and industry standards. If the IMO can establish standards, it is possible the

shipbuilding industry could adopt them and build more more efficient and preferable ships which

would cause a gradual decline in the problem of loud machinery in our oceans (Tyack).

Another less costly and simple solution is to just slow down. In our modern society, time

is money. Shipping vessels rush ahead, arriving before schedule, often just to wait at the port -

this is all at the cost of the whales. The Maersk Line implemented this protocol and worked out

ways to slow down. Ships could slow down by about 50 percent, and in turn this reduced fuel

consumption by about 30 percent, which saved money and at the same time benefited whales.

Slowing down reduces the amount of noise made and reduces the risk of collision (Tyack).

Unfortunately, because our industries are built around speed, this solution is not really plausible

in our current economy, but if our industry was changed and our economy started to embrace the

idea of slowing down, this protocol could be implemented in the future.

In terms of naval sonar use, in 2015, the U.S. Navy announced its intention to limit sonar

and other activities that unintentionally harm whale species. David Henkin, an attorney in the

Honolulu office of Earthjustice, one of the environmental organizations that challenged the

Navys sonar training and testing stated, [b] y agreeing to this settlement, the Navy

acknowledges that it doesnt need to train in every square inch of the ocean and that it can take

reasonable steps to reduce the deadly toll of its activities (Henkin). The agreement indicated

that the Navy could no longer carry out tests or training exercises, nor set off explosives, in

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specific habitats around the Hawaiian Islands and Southern California. The forbidden areas are

known to be vital to marine mammals for reproducing, feeding, and migrating. The decision was

a step in the right direction towards whale conservation and the limiting of noise in our oceans.

Whales live in an amazing acoustic environment, and it is being compromised. The

industrialization of society has negatively impacted and changed the way cetaceans behave,

communicate, and live. By putting anthropological noise into our oceans, we are jeopardizing the

abilities and lives of these gentle and stunning creatures, and by putting them at risk, we are

putting ourselves at risk. The industrial revolution has made a significant impact on whale

species, not just in their communication and social skills, but their lives as well. Humans have

made the ocean a dangerous place for many, but especially cetaceans.

Take a moment to imagine the deep ocean waters devoid of white-splashed humpbacks or

the blue whales. An entire civilization of living, intelligent, emotionally complex, and simply

beautiful creatures just gone, disappeared. Imagine how empty the ocean as a symphony would

sound without the strings or the soft, yet strong, songs of the winds and brass flowing through

the stands into the open hall. Then, the once grand symphony suddenly is just a percussion

section, a constant drumming noise that masks all that was ever there before. It is our moral

obligation to adopt cetacean-friendly technologies so that we can coexist and the music of whales

can be heard by all. The ocean is big enough for all species if we choose to make it so.

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