Freud - Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

Freud, S. (1926). Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety.
The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological

Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XX (1925-1926): An Autobiographical Study, Inhibitions, Symptoms and
Anxiety, The Question of Lay Analysis and Other Works, 75-176
Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

Sigmund Freud
ThisPageLeftIntentionallyBlank
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Editor's Introduction to "Inhibitions, Symptoms

and Anxiety"
James Strachey
(a)GermanEditions:
1926Hemmung,SymptomUndAngstLeipzig,ViennaandZurich:
InternationalerPsychoanalytischerVerlag.Pp.136.
1928Hemmung,SymptomUndAngstG.S.,11,23115.
1931Hemmung,SymptomUndAngstNeurosenlehreundTechnik,20599.
,14,113205.
1948Hemmung,SymptomUndAngstG.W.
(b)EnglishTranslations:
Inhibition,SymptomandAnxiety1927Stamford,Conn.:Psychoanalytic
Institute.Pp.vi+103.(Tr.supervisedL.PierceClark;Pref.S.Ferenczi.)
,4(4),61625;
Inhibitions,SymptomsandAnxiety19356Psychoanal.Q.
5(1),128;(2)26179;(3)4153.(Tr.H.A.Bunker.)
TheProblemofAnxiety1936NewYork:PsychoanalyticQuarterlyPress
andW.W.Norton.Pp.vii+165.(Theabovereprintedinvolumeform.)
Inhibitions,SymptomsandAnxiety1936London:HogarthPressandInstitute
ofPsychoAnalysis.Pp.179.(Tr.AlixStrachey.)
AnextractfromChapterIoftheoriginalappearedintheViennaNeueFreie
PresseofFebruary21,1926.ApartofthefirstAmericantranslationwasreprinted
intheArchivesofPsychoanalysis,1(1927),461521.Allthreeofthetranslations
wereauthorizedbyFreud,and,asErnestJonespointsout(1957,13940),the
translatorsofthelasttwopreparedtheirworksimultaneously,andincomplete
ignoranceofeachother'sactivities.
Thepresenttranslationisaconsiderablymodifiedversionoftheone
publishedinLondonin1936.
WelearnfromErnestJonesthatthisbookwaswrittenin
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July,1925,andthatitwasrevisedinDecemberofthesameyearandpublishedin
thethirdweekofthefollowingFebruary.
Thetopicswithwhichitdealsrangeoverawidefield,andtherearesignsthat
Freudfoundanunusualdifficultyinunifyingthework.Thisisshown,for
instance,inthewayinwhichthesamesubjectoftencomesupfordiscussionat
morethanonepointinverysimilarterms,inthenecessityunderwhichFreud
foundhimselfoftidyingupanumberofseparatequestionsinhisAddenda',and
evenintheactualtitleofthebook.Itisneverthelesstruethatinspiteofsuch
importantsideissuesasthedifferentclassesofresistance,thedistinctionbetween
repressionanddefence,andtherelationsbetweenanxiety,painandmourning
theproblemofanxietyisitsmaintheme.AglanceatthelistgiveninAppendixB
(p.175below)willbeenoughtoshowhowconstantlypresentitwastoFreud's
mindfromthebeginningtotheendofhispsychologicalstudies.Thoughonsome
aspectsofthesubjecthisopinionsunderwentlittlemodification,onothers,ashe
tellsusinthesepages,theywereconsiderablyaltered.Itwillperhapsbeofinterest
totrace,ifonlyroughly,thehistoryofthesechangesintwoorthreeofthemore
importantissuesinvolved.
(a) Anxiety as Transformed Libido
ItwasinthecourseofinvestigatingtheactualneurosesthatFreudfirstcame
upontheproblemofanxiety,andhisearliestdiscussionsofitwillbefoundinhis
firstpaperontheanxietyneurosis(1895b)andinthememorandumonthesubject
whichhesenttoFliessalittleearlier,probablyinthesummerof1894(Freud,
1950a,DraftE).Atthattimehewasstilllargelyundertheinfluenceofhis
neurologicalstudiesandhewasdeepinhisattemptatexpressingthedataof
psychologyinphysiologicalterms.Inparticular,followingFechner,hehadtaken
asafundamentalpostulatetheprincipleofconstancy,accordingtowhichthere
wasaninherenttendencyinthenervoussystemtoreduce,oratleasttokeep
constant,theamountofexcitationpresentinit.When,therefore,hemadethe
clinicaldiscoverythatincasesofanxietyneurosisitwasalwayspossibleto
discoversomeinterferencewiththedischargeofsexualtension,itwasnaturalfor
himtoconcludethattheaccumulated
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excitationwasfindingitswayoutinthetransformedshapeofanxiety.He
regardedthisasapurelyphysicalprocesswithoutanypsychologicaldeterminants.
Fromthefirsttheanxietyoccurringinphobiasorinobsessionalneuroses
raisedacomplication,forherethepresenceofpsychologicaleventscouldnotbe
excluded.But,asregardstheemergenceofanxiety,theexplanationremainedthe
same.Inthesecasesinthepsychoneurosesthereasonfortheaccumulationof
undischargedexcitationwasapsychologicalone:repression.Butwhatfollowed
wasthesameasintheactualneuroses:theaccumulatedexcitation(orlibido)
wastransformeddirectlyintoanxiety.
SomequotationswillshowhowloyallyFreudmaintainedthisview.InDraft
E(c.1894),referredtoabove,hewrote:Anxietyarisesbytransformationoutof
theaccumulatedtension.InTheInterpretationofDreams(1900a):Anxietyisa
libidinalimpulsewhichhasitsoriginintheunconsciousandisinhibitedbythe
preconscious.(StandardEd.,4,3378.)InGradiva(1907a):Theanxietyin
anxietydreams,likeneuroticanxietyingeneral,arisesoutoflibidobythe
processofrepression.(StandardEd.,9,601.)Inthemetapsychologicalpaperon
Repression(1915d):Afterrepressionthequantitativeportion[oftheinstinctual
impulsei.e.itsenergy]hasnotvanished,buthasbeentransformedintoanxiety.
(StandardEd.,14,155.)Finally,aslateasin1920,Freudaddedinafootnoteto
thefourtheditionoftheThreeEssays:Oneofthemostimportantresultsof
psychoanalyticresearchisthisdiscoverythatneuroticanxietyarisesoutoflibido,
thatitisatransformationofit,andthatitisthusrelatedtoitinthesamekindof
wayasvinegaristowine.(StandardEd.,7,224.)Itiscurioustonote,however,
thatatquiteanearlystageFreudseemstohavebeenassailedbydoubtsonthe
subject.InalettertoFliessofNovember14,1897(Freud,1950a,Letter75),he
remarks,withoutanyapparentconnectionwiththerestofwhathehasbeen
writingabout:Ihavedecided,then,henceforthtoregardasseparatefactorswhat
causeslibidoandwhatcausesanxiety.Nofurtherevidenceisanywheretobe
foundofthisisolatedrecantation.IntheworkbeforeusFreudgaveupthetheory
hehadheldforsolong.Henolongerregardedanxietyastransformedlibido,but
asareactiononaparticularmodelto
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situationsofdanger.Butevenherehestillmaintained(p.141)thatitwasvery
possiblethatinthecaseoftheanxietyneurosiswhatfindsdischargeinthe
generatingofanxietyispreciselythesurplusofunutilizedlibido.Thislastrelicof
theoldtheorywastobeabandonedafewyearslater.Inapassageneartheendof
hisdiscussionofanxietyinLectureXXXIIofhisNewIntroductoryLectures
(1933a)hewrotethatintheanxietyneurosis,too,theappearanceofanxietywasa
reactiontoatraumaticsituation:weshallnolongermaintainthatitisthelibido
itselfthatisturnedintoanxietyinsuchcases.
(b) Realistic and Neurotic Anxiety
Inspiteofhistheorythatneuroticanxietywasmerelytransformedlibido,
Freudwasfromthefirstatpainstoinsistonthecloserelationbetweenanxietydue
toexternalandtoinstinctualdangers.Inhisfirstpaperontheanxietyneurosis
(1895b)hewrote:Thepsycheisovertakenbytheaffectofanxietyifitfeelsthat
itisincapableofdealingbyanappropriatereactionwithatask(adanger)
approachingfromoutside.Inneurosesitisovertakenbyanxietyifitnoticesthatit
isincapableofallayinga(sexual)excitationthathasarisenfromwithin.Thusit
behavesasthoughitwereprojectingthisexcitationtotheoutside.Theaffect
[normalanxiety]andthecorrespondingneurosisstandinafirmrelationtoeach
other:theformeristhereactiontoanexogenousexcitationandthelattertoan
analogousendogenousone.
Thisposition,especiallyinconnectionwithphobias,waselaboratedlaterin
manyofFreud'swritingsforinstance,inthemetapsychologicalpaperson
Repression(1915d)andTheUnconscious(1915e),StandardEd.,14,1557
and1824andinLectureXXVoftheIntroductoryLectures.Butitwasdifficultto
maintainthesamenessoftheanxietyinthetwoclassesofcasesolongasthe
directderivationofanxietyfromlibidowasinsisteduponfortheactualneuroses.
Withtheabandonmentofthisviewandwiththenewdistinctionbetween
automaticanxietyandanxietyasasignal,thewholesituationwasclarifiedand
thereceasedtobeanyreasonforseeingagenericdifferencebetweenneuroticand
realisticanxiety.
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(c) The Traumatic Situation and Situations of Danger

Itaddstothedifficultiesofthisbookthatthedistinctionbetweenanxietyasa
directandautomaticreactiontoatraumaandanxietyasasignalofthedangerof
theapproachofsuchatrauma,althoughtouchedonatseveralearlierpoints,is
onlyclinchedintheverylastchapter.(Alaterandshorteraccount,givenin
LectureXXXIIoftheNewIntroductoryLectures,mayperhapsbefoundeasierto
grasp.)
Thefundamentaldeterminantofautomaticanxietyistheoccurrenceofa
traumaticsituation;andtheessenceofthisisanexperienceofhelplessnessonthe
partoftheegointhefaceofanaccumulationofexcitation,whetherofexternalor
ofinternalorigin,whichcannotbedealtwith(pp.137and166).Anxietyasa
signalistheresponseoftheegotothethreatoftheoccurrenceofatraumatic
situation.Suchathreatconstitutesasituationofdanger.Internaldangerschange
withtheperiodoflife(pp.1467),buttheyhaveacommoncharacteristic,namely
thattheyinvolveseparationfrom,orlossof,alovedobject,oralossofitslove(p.
151)alossorseparationwhichmightinvariouswaysleadtoanaccumulationof
unsatisfieddesiresandsotoasituationofhelplessness.ThoughFreudhadnot
broughtallthesefactorstogetherbefore,eachofthemhasalongprevioushistory.
Thetraumaticsituationitselfisclearlythedirectdescendantofthestateof
accumulatedandundischargedtensioninFreud'searliestwritingsonanxiety.
Someoftheaccountsofitgivenheremightbequotationsfrom1894or1895.For
instance,sufferingapainwhichwillnotstoporexperiencinganaccumulationof
instinctualneedswhichcannotobtainsatisfaction'onp.168belowmaybe
comparedwithapsychicalaccumulationofexcitationduetodischargebeing
heldup,fromDraftE(Freud,1950a).Atthisearlyperiodtheaccumulated
excitations,itistrue,werealmostinvariablythoughtofaslibidinal,butnotquite
invariably.LateroninthesameDraftE;isasentencewhichpointsoutthat
anxietymaybeasensationofanaccumulationofanotherendogenousstimulus
thestimulustowardsbreathinganxietymaythereforebecapableofbeingused
inrelationtoaccumulatedphysicaltensioningeneral.Again,intheProject;of
1895(Freud,1950a,PartI,Section1)Freudenumeratesthemajor
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needswhichgiverisetoendogenousstimulicallingfordischargehunger,
respirationandsexuality,andinalaterpassage(PartI,Section11)remarksthat
insomeconditionsthisdischargerequiresanalterationintheexternalworld(e.g.
thesupplyofnourishmentortheproximityofthesexualobject)whichatearly
stagesthehumanorganismisincapableofachieving.Tobringthisabout
extraneoushelpisneeded,whichthechildattractsbyhisscreams.Andhere
Freudcommentsontheoriginalhelplessnessofhumanbeings.Thereisasimilar
referenceinPartIII,Section1,ofthesameworktothenecessityofattractingthe
attentionofsomehelpfulpersonage(whoisusuallythewishedforobjectitself)to
thechild'slonginganddistress.Thesepassagesseemtobeanearlyhintatthe
situationofhelplessnessdescribedhere(pp.1368),inwhichtheinfantmisseshis
motherasituationthathadbeenclearlystatedinthefootnotetotheThree
Essays(1905d)inwhichFreudexplainedachild'sanxietyinthedarkasbeingdue
totheabsenceofsomeoneheloved(StandardEd.,7,224).
Butthishastakenusontothequestionofthevariousspecificdangerswhich
areliabletoprecipitateatraumaticsituationatdifferenttimesoflife.Theseare
briefly:birth,lossofthemotherasanobject,lossofthepenis,lossoftheobject's
love,lossofthesuperego'slove.Thequestionofbirthisdealtwithinthenext
sectionandwehavejustmentionedsomeearlyreferencestotheimportanceof
separationfromthemother.Thedangerofcastrationwithitsdevastatingeffectsis
nodoubtthemostfamiliarofallthesedangers.Butitisworthrecallingafootnote
addedin1923tothecasehistoryofLittleHans(1909b),inwhichFreud
deprecatestheapplicationofthenamecastrationcomplextotheotherkindsof
separationwhichthechildmustinevitablyexperience(StandardEd.,10,8n).We
maypossiblyseeinthatpassageafirsthintattheconceptofanxietydueto
separationwhichcomesintoprominencehere.Thestresslaidonthedangerof
losingtheloveofthelovedobjectisexplicitlyrelated(onp.143)tothe
characteristicsoffemalesexuality,whichhadonlyrecentlybeguntooccupy
Freud'smind.1Finally,thedangeroflosingtheloveofthe
1InhispapersonTheDissolutionoftheOedipusComplex(1924d)andonthe
physiologicaldistinctionbetweenthesexes(1925j),Freudhadbeguntoemphasizethe
differencesbetweenthesexualdevelopmentofboysandgirlsandatthesametimeto
insistonthefactthatinbothsexesthemotheristhefirstloveobject.Thehistoryofthis
shiftofemphasisinhisviewswillbefounddiscussedintheEditor'sNotetothesecond
ofthesetwopapers.
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superegocarriesusbacktothelongdebatedproblemsofthesenseofguilt,which
hadbeenrestatedonlyshortlybeforeinTheEgoandtheId(1923b).
(d) Anxiety as a Signal

Asappliedtounpleasureingeneral,thisnotionwasaveryoldoneofFreud's.
InSection6ofPartIIoftheposthumousProjectof1895(Freud,1950a)thereis
anaccountofamechanismbywhichtheegorestrictsthegenerationofpainful
experiences:Inthiswaythereleaseofunpleasureisrestrictedinquantity,andits
startactsasasignaltotheegotosetnormaldefenceinoperation.Similarlyin
TheInterpretationofDreams(1900a),StandardEd.,5,602,itislaiddownthat
thinkingmustaimatrestrictingthedevelopmentofaffectinthoughtactivityto
theminimumrequiredforactingasasignal.InTheUnconscious(1915e),
StandardEd.,14,183,theideaisalreadyappliedtoanxiety.Discussingthe
appearanceofsubstitutiveideasinphobia,Freudwrites:Excitationofanypoint
inthisouterstructuremustinevitably,onaccountofitsconnectionwiththe
substitutiveidea,giverisetoaslightdevelopmentofanxiety;andthisisnowused
asasignaltoinhibitthefurtherprogressofthedevelopmentofanxiety.
SimilarlyinLectureXXVoftheIntroductoryLecturesthestateofanxious
expectancy'isdescribedinoneortwoplacesasofferingasignaltopreventan
outbreakofsevereanxiety.Fromthisitwasnotalongsteptotheilluminating
expositioninthesepages.Itmayberemarkedthatinthepresentworktoothe
conceptisfirstintroducedasasignalofunpleasure(p.92)andonly
subsequentlyasoneofanxiety.
(e) Anxiety and Birth
Thereremainsthequestionofwhatitisthatdeterminestheforminwhich
anxietyismanifested.This,too,wasdiscussedbyFreudinhisearlywritings.To
beginwith(consistentlywithhisviewofanxietyastransformedlibido)he
regardedthemoststrikingofitssymptomsthebreathlessnessandpalpitations
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aselementsintheactofcopulation,which,intheabsenceofthenormalmeansof
dischargingtheexcitation,madetheirappearanceinanisolatedandexaggerated
shape.ThisaccountwillbefoundinDraftEoftheFliesspapers,referredto
above,andprobablydatingfromJune1894,andattheendofSectionIIIofthe
firstpaperonanxietyneurosis(1895b);anditisrepeatedintheDoracase
history(1905e[1901]),whereFreudwrote:Imaintainedyearsagothatthe
dyspnoeaandpalpitationsthatoccurinhysteriaandanxietyneurosisareonly
detachedfragmentsoftheactofcopulation.(StandardEd.,7,80.)Itisnotclear
howallthisfittedinwithFreud'sviewsontheexpressionoftheemotionsin
general.TheseseemcertainlytohavebeenultimatelyderivedfromDarwin.Inthe
StudiesonHysteria(1895d)hetwicequotedDarwin'svolumeonthesubject
(Darwin,1872),andonthesecondoccasionrecalledthatDarwinhastaughtus
thattheexpressionoftheemotionsconsistsofactionswhichoriginallyhada
meaningandservedapurpose(StandardEd.,2,181).Inadiscussionbeforethe
ViennaPsychoAnalyticalSocietyin1909,FreudisreportedbyJones(1955,494)
ashavingsaidthateveryaffectisonlyareminiscenceofanevent.Muchlater,
inLectureXXVoftheIntroductoryLectures(191617),hetookupthispoint
again,andexpressedhisbeliefthatthenucleusofanaffectistherepetitionof
someparticularsignificantexperience.Herecalled,too,theexplanationhehad
earliergivenofhystericalattacks(1909a,StandardEd.,9,232)asrevivalsof
eventsininfancy,andaddedhisconclusionthatahystericalattackmaybe
likenedtoafreshlyconstructedindividualaffect,andanormalaffecttothe
expressionofageneralhysteriawhichhasbecomeaheritage.Herepeatsthis
theoryinalmostthesametermsinthepresentwork(pp.93and133).
WhateverpartthistheoryoftheaffectsplayedinFreud'searlierexplanation
oftheformtakenbyanxiety,itplayedanessentialoneinhisnewexplanation,
whichemerged,apparentlywithoutwarning,inafootnoteaddedtothesecond
editionofTheInterpretationofDreams(StandardEd.,5,400.)1.Attheendof
somediscussionofphantasiesaboutlifeinthewomb,hewenton(andprintedthe
sentenceinspacedtype):Moreover,theactofbirthisthefirstexperienceof
anxiety,andthusthesourceandprototypeoftheaffectofanxiety.Theedition
waspublished
1ItappearsthatthishypothesisofFreud'swasknowntotheViennaPsychoAnalytical
Societysometwoyearsbeforeitsfirstpublication.SeeanEditor'sfootnotetothe
IntroductoryLectures(191617),StandardEdition,16,3978n.
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in1909,buttheprefaceisdatedSummer1908.Apossiblecluetothesudden
emergenceatthatmomentofthisrevolutionarynotionistobefoundinthefact
thatFreudhadonlyrecentlycontributedapreface(datedMarch,1908e)to
Stekel'sbookonanxietystates(Freud,1908f).Thepreface,itistrue,containsnot
thefaintesthintatthenewtheory,whileStekel'sbookitselfseemsexplicitlyto
acceptFreud'searlieroneoftheconnectionbetweenanxietyandcopulation.
Nonetheless,Freud'sinterestmustnodoubthavebeenfocusedonceagainonthe
problem,anditmaybethatatthatpointanoldmemorymayhavebeenrevivedof
aneventwhichhedescribedlater,inthecourseofhisdiscussionofanxietyinthe
IntroductoryLectures.Thismemorywasofwhathadbeenintendedasacomic
anecdote,toldtohimwhenhewasahousephysicianbyanotheryoungdoctor,of
howamidwifehaddeclaredthatthereisaconnectionbetweenbirthandbeing
frightened.Thememorymusthavegonebacktoabout1884,thoughFreudseems
nottohavementionedittillthislecturein1917.Itseemspossiblethatithadin
factbeenstirredupbyhisreadingofStekel'sbookandhadprovokedthe
appearanceofthenewtheoryin1908.Thereafterthattheorywasneverdropped.
Hegaveitspecialprominenceinthefirstofhispapersonthepsychologyoflove
(1910h),StandardEd.,11,173.Thoughthiswasnotpublishedtill1910,welearn
thatthegistofitwasgivenbeforetheViennaPsychoAnalyticalSocietyinMay,
1909;whileinNovemberofthesameyeartheminutesofthesociety(quotedby
Jones,1955,494)reporthimashavingremarkedthatchildrenbegintheir
experienceofanxietyintheactofbirthitself.
Afterthelecturein1917thesubjectlayfallowforsomeyears,tillitsuddenly
reappearedattheendofthelastparagraphbuttwoofTheEgoandtheId
(1923b),whereFreudspokeofbirthasthefirstgreatanxietystate'.Thiscarries
usuptothetimeofthepublicationofRank'sbookTheTraumaofBirth.The
chronologicalrelationbetweenthissentenceofFreud'sandRank'sbookisnot
entirelyclear.TheEgoandtheIdwaspublishedinApril,1923.Thetitlepageof
Rank'sbookbearsthedate1924butonitslastpageappearthewordswrittenin
April,1923,andthededicationdeclaresthatthebookwaspresentedtoFreudon
May6,1923(Freud'sbirthday).
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AlthoughErnestJones(1957,60)saysspecificallythatFreudhadnotreadit
beforeitspublicationinDecember,1923,hehadneverthelessbeenawareofthe
generallineofRank'sideasasearlyasinSeptember,1922(StandardEd.,61),and
thisisnodoubtenoughtoaccountforthereferencetobirthinTheEgoandthe
Id.1
Rank'sbookwasfarmorethananadoptionofFreud'sexplanationoftheform
takenbyanxiety.Hearguedthatalllaterattacksofanxietywereattemptsat
abreactingthetraumaofbirth.Heaccountedforallneurosesonsimilarlines,
incidentallydethroningtheOedipuscomplex,andproposedareformedtherapeutic
techniquebasedontheovercomingofthebirthtrauma.Freud'spublished
referencestothebookseemedatfirsttobefavourable.2Butthepresentwork
showsacompleteandfinalreversalofthatopinion.HisrejectionofRank'sviews,
however,stimulatedhimtoareconsiderationofhisown,andInhibitions,
SymptomsandAnxietywastheresult.
Extractsfromtheearlier(1936)Londontranslationofthisworkwere
includedinRickman'sAGeneralSelectionfromtheWorksofSigmundFreud
(1937,275291).
1Itmayberemarked,incidentally,thatthissamesentenceinTheEgoandtheIdincludes
ahintattheimportanceattributedhere(pp.1368)toanxietyduetoseparationfromthe
mother.(ThishadalreadybeenemphasizedinLectureXXVoftheIntroductory
Lectures.)
2See,forinstance,afootnoteaddedtotheLittleHansanalysisin1923(StandardEd.,
10,116.)andanotheraddedtotheThreeEssaysataboutthesamedate(StandardEd.,7,
226).AfullaccountofFreud'sfluctuatingattitudeappearsinJones,1957,61ff.
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Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

I
Inthedescriptionofpathologicalphenomena,linguisticusageenablesusto
distinguishsymptomsfrominhibitions,without,however,attachingmuch
importancetothedistinction.Indeed,wemighthardlythinkitworthwhileto
differentiateexactlybetweenthetwo,wereitnotforthefactthatwemeetwith
illnessesinwhichweobservethepresenceofinhibitionsbutnotofsymptomsand
arecurioustoknowthereasonforthis.
Thetwoconceptsarenotuponthesameplane.Inhibitionhasaspecial
relationtofunction.Itdoesnotnecessarilyhaveapathologicalimplication.One
canquitewellcallanormalrestrictionofafunctionaninhibitionofit.A
symptom,ontheotherhand,actuallydenotesthepresenceofsomepathological
process.Thus,aninhibitionmaybeasymptomaswell.Linguisticusage,then,
employsthewordinhibitionwhenthereisasimpleloweringoffunction,and
symptomwhenafunctionhasundergonesomeunusualchangeorwhenanew
phenomenonhasarisenoutofit.Veryoftenitseemstobequiteanarbitrary
matterwhetherweemphasizethepositivesideofapathologicalprocessandcall
itsoutcomeasymptom,oritsnegativesideandcallitsoutcomeaninhibition.But
allthisisreallyoflittleinterest;andtheproblemaswehavestateditdoesnot
carryusveryfar.
Sincetheconceptofinhibitionissointimatelyassociatedwiththatof
function,itmightbehelpfultoexaminethevariousfunctionsoftheegowitha
viewtodiscoveringtheformswhichanydisturbanceofthosefunctionsassumesin
eachofthedifferentneuroticaffections.Letuspickoutforacomparativestudyof
thiskindthesexualfunctionandthoseofeating,oflocomotionandofprofessional
work.
(a)Thesexualfunctionisliabletoagreatnumberofdisturbances,mostof
whichexhibitthecharacteristicsofsimpleinhibitions.Theseareclassedtogether
aspsychicalimpotence.Thenormalperformanceofthesexualfunctioncanonly
come
[PEP]ThispagecanbereadinGermaninGESAMMELTEWERKEVol14,Page113
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aboutastheresultofaverycomplicatedprocess,anddisturbancesmayappearat
anypointinit.Inmenthechiefstagesatwhichinhibitionoccursareshownby:a
turningawayofthelibidoattheverybeginningoftheprocess(psychical
unpleasure);anabsenceofthephysicalpreparationforit(lackoferection);an
abridgementofthesexualact(ejaculatiopraecox),anoccurrencewhichmight
equallywellberegardedasasymptom;anarrestoftheactbeforeithasreached
itsnaturalconclusion(absenceofejaculation);oranonappearanceofthe
psychicaloutcome(lackofthefeelingofpleasureinorgasm).Otherdisturbances
arisefromthesexualfunctionbecomingdependentonspecialconditionsofa
perverseorfetishistnature.
Thatthereisarelationshipbetweeninhibitionandanxietyisprettyevident.
Someinhibitionsobviouslyrepresentarelinquishmentofafunctionbecauseits
exercisewouldproduceanxiety.Manywomenareopenlyafraidofthesexual
function.Weclassthisanxietyunderhysteria,justaswedothedefensive
symptomofdisgustwhich,arisingoriginallyasadeferredreactiontothe
experiencingofapassivesexualact,appearslaterwhenevertheideaofsuchan
actispresented.Furthermore,manyobsessionalactsturnouttobemeasuresof
precautionandsecurityagainstsexualexperiencesandarethusofaphobic
character.
Thisisnotveryilluminating.Wecanonlynotethatdisturbancesofthesexual
functionarebroughtaboutbyagreatvarietyofmeans.(1)Thelibidomaysimply
beturnedaway(thisseemsmostreadilytoproducewhatweregardasan
inhibitionpureandsimple);(2)thefunctionmaybelesswellcarriedout;(3)it
maybehamperedbyhavingconditionsattachedtoit,ormodifiedbybeing
divertedtootheraims;(4)itmaybepreventedbysecuritymeasures;(5)ifit
cannotbepreventedfromstarting,itmaybeimmediatelyinterruptedbythe
appearanceofanxiety;and(6),ifitisneverthelesscarriedout,theremaybea
subsequentreactionofprotestagainstitandanattempttoundowhathasbeen
done.
(b)Thefunctionofnutritionismostfrequentlydisturbedbyadisinclination
toeat,broughtaboutbyawithdrawaloflibido.Anincreaseinthedesiretoeatis
alsoanotuncommonthing.Thecompulsiontoeatisattributedtoafearof
starving;butthisisasubjectwhichhasbeenbutlittlestudied.The
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symptomofvomitingisknowntousasahystericaldefenceagainsteating.
Refusaltoeatowingtoanxietyisaconcomitantofpsychoticstates(delusionsof
beingpoisoned).
(c)Insomeneuroticconditionslocomotionisinhibitedbyadisinclinationto
walkoraweaknessinwalking.Inhysteriatherewillbeaparalysisofthemotor
apparatus,orthisonespecialfunctionoftheapparatuswillbeabolished(abasia).
Especiallycharacteristicaretheincreaseddifficultiesthatappearinlocomotion
owingtotheintroductionofcertainstipulationswhosenonobservanceresultsin
anxiety(phobia).
(d)Ininhibitioninworkathingwhichwesooftenhavetodealwithasan
isolatedsymptominourtherapeuticworkthesubjectfeelsadecreaseinhis
pleasureinitorbecomeslessabletodoitwell;orhehascertainreactionstoit,
likefatigue,giddinessorsickness,ifheisobligedtogoonwithit.Ifheisa
hysterichewillhavetogiveuphisworkowingtotheappearanceoforganicand
functionalparalyseswhichmakeitimpossibleforhimtocarryiton.Ifheisan
obsessionalneurotichewillbeperpetuallybeingdistractedfromhisworkor
losingtimeoveritthroughtheintroductionofdelaysandrepetitions.
Oursurveymightbeextendedtootherfunctionsaswell;buttherewouldbe
nothingmoretobelearntbydoingso.Forweshouldnotpenetratebelowthe
surfaceofthephenomenapresentedtous.Letusthenproceedtodescribe
inhibitioninsuchawayastoleaveverylittledoubtaboutwhatismeantbyit,and
saythatinhibitionistheexpressionofarestrictionofanegofunction.A
restrictionofthiskindcanitselfhaveverydifferentcauses.Someofthe
mechanismsinvolvedinthisrenunciationoffunctionarewellknowntous,asisa
certaingeneralpurposewhichgovernsit.
Thispurposeismoreeasilyrecognizableinthespecificinhibitions.Analysis
showsthatwhenactivitieslikeplayingthepiano,writingorevenwalkingare
subjectedtoneuroticinhibitionsitisbecausethephysicalorgansbroughtintoplay
thefingersorthelegshavebecometoostronglyerotized.Ithasbeen
discoveredasageneralfactthattheegofunctionofanorganisimpairedifits
erotogenicityitssexualsignificanceisincreased.Itbehaves,ifImaybe
allowedaratherabsurdanalogy,likeamaidservantwhorefusestogooncooking
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becausehermasterhasstartedaloveaffairwithher.Assoonaswriting,which
entailsmakingaliquidflowoutofatubeontoapieceofwhitepaper,assumesthe
significanceofcopulation,orassoonaswalkingbecomesasymbolicsubstitute
fortreadinguponthebodyofmotherearth,bothwritingandwalkingarestopped
becausetheyrepresenttheperformanceofaforbiddensexualact.Theego
renouncesthesefunctions,whicharewithinitssphere,inordernottohaveto
undertakefreshmeasuresofrepressioninordertoavoidaconflictwiththeid.
Thereareclearlyalsoinhibitionswhichservethepurposeofselfpunishment.
Thisisoftenthecaseininhibitionsofprofessionalactivities.Theegoisnot
allowedtocarryonthoseactivities,becausetheywouldbringsuccessandgain,
andthesearethingswhichtheseveresuperegohasforbidden.Sotheegogives
themuptoo,inordertoavoidcomingintoconflictwiththesuperego.
Themoregeneralizedinhibitionsoftheegoobeyadifferentmechanismofa
simplekind.Whentheegoisinvolvedinaparticularlydifficultpsychicaltask,as
occursinmourning,orwhenthereissometremendoussuppressionofaffector
whenacontinualfloodofsexualphantasieshastobekeptdown,itlosessomuch
oftheenergyatitsdisposalthatithastocutdowntheexpenditureofitatmany
pointsatonce.Itisinthepositionofaspeculatorwhosemoneyhasbecometied
upinhisvariousenterprises.Icameacrossaninstructiveexampleofthiskindof
intense,thoughshortlived,generalinhibition.Thepatient,anobsessional
neurotic,usedtobeovercomebyaparalysingfatiguewhichlastedforoneormore
dayswheneversomethingoccurredwhichshouldobviouslyhavethrownhiminto
arage.Wehavehereapointfromwhichitshouldbepossibletoreachan
understandingoftheconditionofgeneralinhibitionwhichcharacterizesstatesof
depression,includingthegravestformofthem,melancholia.
Asregardsinhibitions,then,wemaysayinconclusionthattheyare
restrictionsofthefunctionsoftheegowhichhavebeeneitherimposedasa
measureofprecautionorbroughtaboutasaresultofanimpoverishmentof
energy;andwecanseewithoutdifficultyinwhatrespectaninhibitiondiffers
fromasymptom:forasymptomcannotanylongerbedescribedasaprocessthat
takesplacewithin,oractsupon,theego.
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II
Themaincharacteristicsoftheformationofsymptomshavelongsincebeen
studiedand,Ihope,establishedbeyonddispute.1Asymptomisasignof,anda
substitutefor,aninstinctualsatisfactionwhichhasremainedinabeyance;itisa
consequenceoftheprocessofrepression.Repressionproceedsfromtheegowhen
thelatteritmaybeatthebehestofthesuperegorefusestoassociateitselfwith
aninstinctualcathexiswhichhasbeenarousedintheid.Theegoisablebymeans
ofrepressiontokeeptheideawhichisthevehicleofthereprehensibleimpulse
frombecomingconscious.Analysisshowsthattheideaoftenpersistsasan
unconsciousformation.
Sofareverythingseemsclear;butwesooncomeupondifficultieswhichhave
notasyetbeensolved.Uptillnowouraccountofwhatoccursinrepressionhas
laidgreatstressonthispointofexclusionfromconsciousness.2Butithasleft
otherpointsopentouncertainty.Onequestionthatarosewas,whathappenedto
theinstinctualimpulsewhichhadbeenactivatedintheidandwhichsought
satisfaction?Theanswerwasanindirectone.Itwasthatowingtotheprocessof
repressionthepleasurethatwouldhavebeenexpectedfromsatisfactionhadbeen
transformedintounpleasure.Butwewerethenfacedwiththeproblemofhowthe
satisfactionofaninstinctcouldproduceunpleasure.Thewholemattercanbe
clarified,Ithink,ifwecommitourselvestothedefinitestatementthatasaresult
ofrepressiontheintendedcourseoftheexcitatoryprocessintheiddoesnotoccur
atall;theegosucceedsininhibitingordeflectingit.Ifthisissotheproblemof
transformationofaffectunderrepressiondisappears.3Atthesametimethisview
impliesaconcessiontotheegothatitcanexertaveryextensive
1[See,forinstance,theThreeEssays(1905d),StandardEd.,7,164.]
2[Cf.Repression(1915d),StandardEd.,14,147.]
3[Theproblemgoesbackaverylongway.See,forinstance,alettertoFliessof
December6,1896(Freud,1950a,Letter52).ThequestionwasdiscussedbyFreudinthe
Doracasehistory(1905e),StandardEd.,7,289,whereanEditor'sfootnotegivesa
numberofotherreferencestothesubject.Thepresentsolutionwasindicatedinashort
footnoteaddedbyFreudin1925toBeyondthePleasurePrinciple(1920g),Standard
Ed.,18,11.]
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influenceoverprocessesintheid,andweshallhavetofindoutinwhatwayitis
abletodevelopsuchsurprisingpowers.
Itseemstomethattheegoobtainsthisinfluenceinvirtueofitsintimate
connectionswiththeperceptualsystemconnectionswhich,asweknow,
constituteitsessenceandprovidethebasisofitsdifferentiationfromtheid.The
functionofthissystem,whichwehavecalledPcpt.Cs.,isboundupwiththe
phenomenonofconsciousness.1Itreceivesexcitationsnotonlyfromoutsidebut
fromwithin,andendeavours,bymeansofthesensationsofpleasureand
unpleasurewhichreachitfromthesequarters,todirectthecourseofmentalevents
inaccordancewiththepleasureprinciple.Weareveryapttothinkoftheegoas
powerlessagainsttheid;butwhenitisopposedtoaninstinctualprocessintheid
ithasonlytogiveasignalofunpleasure2inordertoattainitsobjectwiththeaid
ofthatalmostomnipotentinstitution,thepleasureprinciple.Totakethissituation
byitselfforamoment,wecanillustrateitbyanexamplefromanotherfield.Let
usimagineacountryinwhichacertainsmallfactionobjectstoaproposed
measurethepassageofwhichwouldhavethesupportofthemasses.Thisminority
obtainscommandofthepressandbyitshelpmanipulatesthesupremearbiter,
publicopinion,andsosucceedsinpreventingthemeasurefrombeingpassed.
Butthisexplanationopensupfreshproblems.Wheredoestheenergycome
fromwhichisemployedforgivingthesignalofunpleasure?Herewemaybe
assistedbytheideathatadefenceagainstanunwelcomeinternalprocesswillbe
modelleduponthedefenceadoptedagainstanexternalstimulus,thattheego
wardsoffinternalandexternaldangersalikealongidenticallines.Inthecaseof
externaldangertheorganismhasrecoursetoattemptsatflight.Thefirstthingit
doesistowithdrawcathexisfromtheperceptionofthedangerousobject;lateron
itdiscoversthatitisabetterplantoperformmuscularmovementsofsuchasortas
willrenderperceptionofthedangerousobjectimpossibleevenintheabsenceof
anyrefusaltoperceiveitthatitisabetterplan,thatis,toremoveitselffromthe
sphereofdanger.Repressionisanequivalentofthisattemptatflight.Theego
withdrawsits(preconscious)
1[Cf.BeyondthePleasurePrinciple(1920g),StandardEd.,18,24.]
2[SeeEditor'sIntroduction,p.83.]
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cathexisfromtheinstinctualrepresentative1thatistoberepressedandusesthat
cathexisforthepurposeofreleasingunpleasure(anxiety).Theproblemofhow
anxietyarisesinconnectionwithrepressionmaybenosimpleone;butwemay
legitimatelyholdfirmlytotheideathattheegoistheactualseatofanxietyand
giveupourearlierviewthatthecathecticenergyoftherepressedimpulseis
automaticallyturnedintoanxiety.IfIexpressedmyselfearlierinthelattersense,I
wasgivingaphenomenologicaldescriptionandnotametapsychologicalaccount
ofwhatwasoccurring.
Thisbringsustoafurtherquestion:howisitpossible,fromaneconomic
pointofview,foramereprocessofwithdrawalanddischarge,likethe
withdrawingofapreconsciousegocathexis,toproduceunpleasureoranxiety,
seeingthat,accordingtoourassumptions,unpleasureandanxietycanonlyariseas
aresultofanincreaseincathexis?Thereplyisthatthiscausalsequenceshould
notbeexplainedfromaneconomicpointofview.Anxietyisnotnewlycreatedin
repression;itisreproducedasanaffectivestateinaccordancewithanalready
existingmnemicimage.Ifwegofurtherandenquireintotheoriginofthatanxiety
andofaffectsingeneralweshallbeleavingtherealmofpurepsychologyand
enteringtheborderlandofphysiology.Affectivestateshavebecomeincorporated
inthemindasprecipitatesofprimaevaltraumaticexperiences,andwhenasimilar
situationoccurstheyarerevivedlikemnemicsymbols.2IdonotthinkIhavebeen
wronginlikeningthemtothemorerecentandindividuallyacquiredhysterical
attackandinregardingthemasitsnormalprototypes.3Inmanandthehigher
animalsitwouldseemthattheactofbirth,astheindividual'sfirstexperienceof
anxiety,hasgiventheaffectofanxietycertaincharacteristicformsofexpression.
But,whileacknowledgingthisconnection,wemustnotlayunduestressonitnor
overlookthefactthatbiologicalnecessitydemands
1[I.e.whatrepresentstheinstinctinthemind.ThistermisfullydiscussedintheEditor's
NotetoInstinctsandtheirVicissitudes(1915c),StandardEd.,14,111ff.]
2[ThistermwasusedbyFreudthroughouttheStudiesonHysteria(1895d)inexplaining
hystericalsymptoms.See,forinstance,StandardEd.,2,297.Averyclearaccountofthe
conceptwillbefoundinthefirstoftheFiveLectures(1910a),StandardEd.,11,16f.]
3[SeetheEditor'sIntroduction,p.84andalsobelow,pp.1334.]
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thatasituationofdangershouldhaveanaffectivesymbol,sothatasymbolofthis
kindwouldhavetobecreatedinanycase.Moreover,Idonotthinkthatweare
justifiedinassumingthatwheneverthereisanoutbreakofanxietysomethinglike
areproductionofthesituationofbirthgoesoninthemind.Itisnotevencertain
whetherhystericalattacks,thoughtheywereoriginallytraumaticreproductionsof
thissort,retainthatcharacterpermanently.
AsIhaveshownelsewhere,mostoftherepressionswithwhichwehaveto
dealinourtherapeuticworkarecasesofafterpressure.1Theypresupposethe
operationofearlier,primalrepressionswhichexertanattractiononthemore
recentsituation.Fartoolittleisknownasyetaboutthebackgroundand
preliminarystagesofrepression.Thereisadangerofoverestimatingthepart
playedinrepressionbythesuperego.Wecannotatpresentsaywhetheritis
perhapstheemergenceofthesuperegowhichprovidesthelineofdemarcation
betweenprimalrepressionandafterpressure.Atanyrate,theearliestoutbreaksof
anxiety,whichareofaveryintensekind,occurbeforethesuperegohasbecome
differentiated.Itishighlyprobablethattheimmediateprecipitatingcausesof
primalrepressionsarequantitativefactorssuchasanexcessiveforceofexcitation
andthebreakingthroughoftheprotectiveshieldagainststimuli.2
Thismentionoftheprotectiveshieldsoundsanotewhichrecallstousthe
factthatrepressionoccursintwodifferentsituationsnamely,whenan
undesirableinstinctualimpulseisarousedbysomeexternalperception,andwhen
itarisesinternallywithoutanysuchprovocation.Weshallreturntothisdifference
later[p.156].Buttheprotectiveshieldexistsonlyinregardtoexternalstimuli,not
inregardtointernalinstinctualdemands.
Solongaswedirectourattentiontotheego'sattemptatflightweshallgetno
nearertothesubjectofsymptomformation.Asymptomarisesfromaninstinctual
impulsewhichhasbeendetrimentallyaffectedbyrepression.Iftheego,by
makinguseofthesignalofunpleasure,attainsitsobjectofcompletelysuppressing
theinstinctualimpulse,welearnnothingofhow
1[SeeRepression(1915d),StandardEd.,14,148.]
2[Cf.BeyondthePleasurePrinciple(1920g),StandardEd.,18,27ff.]
- 94 -
thishashappened.Wecanonlyfindoutaboutitfromthosecasesinwhich
repressionmustbedescribedashavingtoagreaterorlessextentfailed.Inthis
eventtheposition,generallyspeaking,isthattheinstinctualimpulsehasfounda
substituteinspiteofrepression,butasubstitutewhichisverymuchreduced,
displacedandinhibitedandwhichisnolongerrecognizableasasatisfaction.And
whenthesubstitutiveimpulseiscarriedoutthereisnosensationofpleasure;its
carryingouthas,instead,thequalityofacompulsion.
Inthusdegradingaprocessofsatisfactiontoasymptom,repressiondisplays
itspowerinafurtherrespect.Thesubstitutiveprocessisprevented,ifpossible,
fromfindingdischargethroughmotility;andevenifthiscannotbedone,the
processisforcedtoexpenditselfinmakingalterationsinthesubject'sownbody
andisnotpermittedtoimpingeupontheexternalworld.Itmustnotbe
transformedintoaction.For,asweknow,inrepressiontheegoisoperatingunder
theinfluenceofexternalrealityandthereforeitdebarsthesubstitutiveprocess
fromhavinganyeffectuponthatreality.
Justastheegocontrolsthepathtoactioninregardtotheexternalworld,soit
controlsaccesstoconsciousness.Inrepressionitexercisesitspowerinboth
directions,actingintheonemannerupontheinstinctualimpulseitselfandinthe
otheruponthe[psychical]representativeofthatimpulse.Atthispointitis
relevanttoaskhowIcanreconcilethisacknowledgementofthemightoftheego
withthedescriptionofitspositionwhichIgaveinTheEgoandtheId.Inthat
bookIdrewapictureofitsdependentrelationshiptotheidandtothesuperego
andrevealedhowpowerlessandapprehensiveitwasinregardtobothandwith
whataneffortitmaintaineditsshowofsuperiorityoverthem.1Thisviewhasbeen
widelyechoedinpsychoanalyticliterature.Manywritershavelaidmuchstresson
theweaknessoftheegoinrelationtotheidandofourrationalelementsinthe
faceofthedaemonicforceswithinus;andtheydisplayastrongtendencytomake
whatIhavesaidintoacornerstoneofapsychoanalyticWeltanschauung.Yet
surelythepsychoanalyst,withhisknowledgeofthewayinwhichrepression
works,should,ofallpeople,berestrainedfromadoptingsuchanextremeandone
sidedview.
1[TheEgoandtheId(1923b),ChapterV.]
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ImustconfessthatIamnotatallpartialtothefabricationof
Weltanschauungen.1Suchactivitiesmaybelefttophilosophers,whoavowedly
finditimpossibletomaketheirjourneythroughlifewithoutaBaedekerofthat
kindtogivetheminformationoneverysubject.Letushumblyacceptthe
contemptwithwhichtheylookdownonusfromthevantagegroundoftheir
superiorneeds.Butsincewecannotforgoournarcissisticprideeither,wewill
drawcomfortfromthereflectionthatsuchHandbookstoLifesoongrowoutof
dateandthatitispreciselyourshortsighted,narrowandfinickyworkwhich
obligesthemtoappearinneweditions,andthateventhemostuptodateofthem
arenothingbutattemptstofindasubstitutefortheancient,usefulandall
sufficientChurchCatechism.Weknowwellenoughhowlittlelightsciencehasso
farbeenabletothrowontheproblemsthatsurroundus.Buthowevermuchado
thephilosophersmaymake,theycannotalterthesituation.Onlypatient,
perseveringresearch,inwhicheverythingissubordinatedtotheonerequirement
ofcertainty,cangraduallybringaboutachange.Thebenightedtravellermaysing
aloudinthedarktodenyhisownfears;but,forallthat,hewillnotseeaninch
furtherbeyondhisnose.
1[Cf.aprolongeddiscussionofthisinthelastofFreud'sNewIntroductoryLectures
(1933a).]
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III
Toreturntotheproblemoftheego.1Theapparentcontradictionisduetoour
havingtakenabstractionstoorigidlyandattendedexclusivelynowtotheoneside
andnowtotheotherofwhatisinfactacomplicatedstateofaffairs.Wewere
justified,Ithink,individingtheegofromtheid,fortherearecertain
considerationswhichnecessitatethatstep.Ontheotherhandtheegoisidentical
withtheid,andismerelyaspeciallydifferentiatedpartofit.Ifwethinkofthis
partbyitselfincontradistinctiontothewhole,orifarealsplithasoccurred
betweenthetwo,theweaknessoftheegobecomesapparent.Butiftheego
remainsboundupwiththeidandindistinguishablefromit,thenitdisplaysits
strength.Thesameistrueoftherelationbetweentheegoandthesuperego.In
manysituationsthetwoaremerged;andasarulewecanonlydistinguishone
fromtheotherwhenthereisatensionorconflictbetweenthem.Inrepressionthe
decisivefactisthattheegoisanorganizationandtheidisnot.Theegois,indeed,
theorganizedportionoftheid.Weshouldbequitewrongifwepicturedtheego
andtheidastwoopposingcampsandifwesupposedthat,whentheegotriesto
suppressapartoftheidbymeansofrepression,theremainderoftheidcomesto
therescueoftheendangeredpartandmeasuresitsstrengthwiththeego.Thismay
oftenbewhathappens,butitiscertainlynottheinitialsituationinrepression.Asa
ruletheinstinctualimpulsewhichistoberepressedremainsisolated.Although
theactofrepressiondemonstratesthestrengthoftheego,inoneparticularit
revealstheego'spowerlessnessandhowimpervioustoinfluencearetheseparate
instinctualimpulsesoftheid.Forthementalprocesswhichhasbeenturnedintoa
symptomowingtorepressionnowmaintainsitsexistenceoutsidetheorganization
oftheegoandindependentlyofit.Indeed,itisnotthatprocessalonebutallits
derivativeswhichenjoy,asitwere,thissameprivilegeofextraterritoriality;and
whenevertheycomeintoassociativecontactwithapartoftheegoorganization,it
isnotatallcertainthattheywill
1[I.e.thecontrastbetweenitsstrengthandweaknessinrelationtotheid.]
- 97 -
notdrawthatpartovertothemselvesandthusenlargethemselvesattheexpense
oftheego.Ananalogywithwhichwehavelongbeenfamiliarcompareda
symptomtoaforeignbodywhichwaskeepingupaconstantsuccessionofstimuli
andreactionsinthetissueinwhichitwasembedded.1Itdoessometimeshappen
thatthedefensivestruggleagainstanunwelcomeinstinctualimpulseisbroughtto
anendwiththeformationofasymptom.Asfarascanbeseen,thisismostoften
possibleinhystericalconversion.Butusuallytheoutcomeisdifferent.Theinitial
actofrepressionisfollowedbyatediousorinterminablesequelinwhichthe
struggleagainsttheinstinctualimpulseisprolongedintoastruggleagainstthe
symptom.
Inthissecondarydefensivestruggletheegopresentstwofaceswith
contradictoryexpressions.Theonelineofbehaviouritadoptsspringsfromthe
factthatitsverynatureobligesittomakewhatmustberegardedasanattemptat
restorationorreconciliation.Theegoisanorganization.Itisbasedonthe
maintenanceoffreeintercourseandofthepossibilityofreciprocalinfluence
betweenallitsparts.Itsdesexualizedenergystillshowstracesofitsorigininits
impulsiontobindtogetherandunify,andthisnecessitytosynthesizegrows
strongerinproportionasthestrengthoftheegoincreases.Itisthereforeonly
naturalthattheegoshouldtrytopreventsymptomsfromremainingisolatedand
alienbyusingeverypossiblemethodtobindthemtoitselfinonewayoranother,
andtoincorporatethemintoitsorganizationbymeansofthosebonds.Aswe
know,atendencyofthiskindisalreadyoperativeintheveryactofforminga
symptom.Aclassicalinstanceofthisarethosehystericalsymptomswhichhave
beenshowntobeacompromisebetweentheneedforsatisfactionandtheneedfor
punishment.2Suchsymptomsparticipateintheegofromtheverybeginning,since
theyfulfilarequirementofthesuperego,whileontheotherhandtheyrepresent
positionsoccupiedbytherepressedandpointsatwhichanirruptionhasbeen
madebyitintothe
1[ThisanalogyisdiscussedandcriticizedinFreud'scontributiontoStudiesonHysteria
(1895d),StandardEd.,2,2901.ItappearedoriginallyinthePreliminary
Communication(1893a),StandardEd.,6.]
2[ThisideawasforeshadowedinSectionIIofFreud'ssecondpaperonTheNeuro
PsychosesofDefence(1896b).]
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egoorganization.Theyareakindoffrontierstationwithamixedgarrison.1
(Whetherallprimaryhystericalsymptomsareconstructedontheselineswouldbe
worthenquiringintoverycarefully.)Theegonowproceedstobehaveasthoughit
recognizedthatthesymptomhadcometostayandthattheonlythingtodowasto
acceptthesituationingoodpartanddrawasmuchadvantagefromitaspossible.
Itmakesanadaptationtothesymptomtothispieceoftheinternalworldwhich
isalientoitjustasitnormallydoestotherealexternalworld.Itcanalwaysfind
plentyofopportunitiesfordoingso.Thepresenceofasymptommayentaila
certainimpairmentofcapacity,andthiscanbeexploitedtoappeasesomedemand
onthepartofthesuperegoortorefusesomeclaimfromtheexternalworld.In
thiswaythesymptomgraduallycomestobetherepresentativeofimportant
interests;itisfoundtobeusefulinassertingthepositionoftheselfandbecomes
moreandmorecloselymergedwiththeegoandmoreandmoreindispensableto
it.Itisonlyveryrarelythatthephysicalprocessofhealingroundaforeignbody
followssuchacourseasthis.Thereisadanger,too,ofexaggeratingthe
importanceofasecondaryadaptationofthiskindtoasymptom,andofsayingthat
theegohascreatedthesymptommerelyinordertoenjoyitsadvantages.Itwould
beequallytruetosaythatamanwhohadlosthisleginthewarhadgotitshot
awaysothathemightthenceforwardliveonhispensionwithouthavingtodoany
morework.
Inobsessionalneurosisandparanoiatheformswhichthesymptomsassume
becomeveryvaluabletotheegobecausetheyobtainforit,notcertainadvantages,
butanarcissisticsatisfactionwhichitwouldotherwisebewithout.Thesystems
whichtheobsessionalneuroticconstructsflatterhisselflovebymakinghimfeel
thatheisbetterthanotherpeoplebecauseheisspeciallycleanlyorspecially
conscientious.Thedelusionalconstructionsoftheparanoicoffertohisacute
perceptiveandimaginativepowersafieldofactivitywhichhecouldnoteasily
findelsewhere.
Allofthisresultsinwhatisfamiliartousasthe(secondary)
1[ThereisanallusioninthismetaphortothefactthatBesetzung,theGermanwordfor
cathexis,canalsohavethesenseofgarrison.]
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gainfromillnesswhichfollowsaneurosis.1Thisgaincomestotheassistanceof
theegoinitsendeavourtoincorporatethesymptomandincreasesthesymptom's
fixation.Whentheanalysttriessubsequentlytohelptheegoinitsstruggleagainst
thesymptom,hefindsthattheseconciliatorybondsbetweenegoandsymptom
operateonthesideoftheresistancesandthattheyarenoteasytoloosen.
Thetwolinesofbehaviourwhichtheegoadoptstowardsthesymptomarein
factdirectlyopposedtoeachother.Fortheotherlineislessfriendlyincharacter,
sinceitcontinuesinthedirectionofrepression.Neverthelesstheego,itappears,
cannotbeaccusedofinconsistency.Beingofapeaceabledispositionitwouldlike
toincorporatethesymptomandmakeitpartofitself.Itisfromthesymptomitself
thatthetroublecomes.Forthesymptom,beingthetruesubstituteforand
derivativeoftherepressedimpulse,carriesontheroleofthelatter;itcontinually
renewsitsdemandsforsatisfactionandthusobligestheegoinitsturntogivethe
signalofunpleasureandputitselfinapostureofdefence.
Thesecondarydefensivestruggleagainstthesymptomtakesmanyshapes.It
isfoughtoutondifferentfieldsandmakesuseofavarietyofmethods.Weshall
notbeabletosaymuchaboutituntilwehavemadeanenquiryintothevarious
differentinstancesofsymptomformation.Indoingthisweshallhavean
opportunityofgoingintotheproblemofanxietyaproblemwhichhaslongbeen
loominginthebackground.Thewisestplanwillbetostartfromthesymptoms
producedbythehystericalneurosis;forwearenotasyetinapositiontoconsider
theconditionsinwhichthesymptomsofobsessionalneurosis,paranoiaandother
neurosesareformed.
1[AfulldiscussionofthiswasgiveninLectureXXIVoftheIntroductoryLectures
(191617).]
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IV
Letusstartwithaninfantilehystericalphobiaofanimalsforinstance,the
caseofLittleHans[1909b],whosephobiaofhorseswasundoubtedlytypicalin
allitsmainfeatures.Thefirstthingthatbecomesapparentisthatinaconcrete
caseofneuroticillnessthestateofaffairsismuchmorecomplexthanonewould
supposesolongasonewasdealingwithabstractions.Ittakesalittletimetofind
one'sbearingsandtodecidewhichtherepressedimpulseis,whatsubstitutive
symptomithasfoundandwherethemotiveforrepressionlies.
LittleHansrefusedtogooutintothestreetbecausehewasafraidofhorses.
Thiswastherawmaterialofthecase.Whichpartofitconstitutedthesymptom?
Wasithishavingthefear?Wasithischoiceofanobjectforhisfear?Wasithis
givingupofhisfreedomofmovement?Orwasitmorethanoneofthese
combined?Whatwasthesatisfactionwhichherenounced?Andwhydidhehave
torenounceit?
Atafirstglanceoneistemptedtoreplythatthecaseisnotsoveryobscure.
LittleHans'sunaccountablefearofhorseswasthesymptomandhisinabilityto
gooutintothestreetswasaninhibition,arestrictionwhichhisegohadimposed
onitselfsoasnottoarousetheanxietysymptom.Thesecondpointisclearly
correct;andinthediscussionwhichfollowsIshallnotconcernmyselfanyfurther
withthisinhibition.Butasregardstheallegedsymptom,asuperficial
acquaintancewiththecasedoesnotevendiscloseitstrueformulation.Forfurther
investigationshowsthatwhathewassufferingfromwasnotavaguefearof
horsesbutaquitedefiniteapprehensionthatahorsewasgoingtobitehim.1This
idea,indeed,wasendeavouringtowithdrawfromconsciousnessandgetitself
replacedbyanundefinedphobiainwhichonlytheanxietyanditsobjectstill
appeared.Wasitperhapsthisideathatwasthenucleusofhissymptom?
Weshallnotmakeanyheadwayuntilwehavereviewedthelittleboy's
psychicalsituationasawholeasitcametolightinthecourseoftheanalytic
treatment.HewasatthetimeinthejealousandhostileOedipusattitudetowards
hisfather,
1[StandardEd.,10,24.]
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whomneverthelessexceptinsofarashismotherwasthecauseofestrangement
hedearlyloved.Here,then,wehaveaconflictduetoambivalence:awell
groundedloveandanolessjustifiablehatreddirectedtowardsoneandthesame
person.LittleHans'sphobiamusthavebeenanattempttosolvethisconflict.
Conflictsofthiskindduetoambivalenceareveryfrequentandtheycanhave
anothertypicaloutcome,inwhichoneofthetwoconflictingfeelings(usuallythat
ofaffection)becomesenormouslyintensifiedandtheothervanishes.The
exaggerateddegreeandcompulsivecharacteroftheaffectionalonebetraythefact
thatitisnottheonlyonepresentbutiscontinuallyonthealerttokeepthe
oppositefeelingundersuppression,andenableustopostulatetheoperationofa
processwhichwecallrepressionbymeansofreactionformation(intheego).
CaseslikeLittleHans'sshownotracesofareactionformationofthiskind.
Thereareclearlydifferentwaysofegressfromaconflictduetoambivalence.
Meanwhilewehavebeenabletoestablishanotherpointwithcertainty.The
instinctualimpulsewhichunderwentrepressioninLittleHanswasahostileone
againsthisfather.Proofofthiswasobtainedinhisanalysiswhiletheideaofthe
bitinghorsewasbeingfollowedup.Hehadseenahorsefalldownandhehadalso
seenaplaymate,withwhomhewasplayingathorses,falldownandhurthimself. 1
Analysisjustifiedtheinferencethathehadawishfulimpulsethathisfathershould
falldownandhurthimselfashisplaymateandthehorsehaddone.Moreover,his
attitudetowardssomeone'sdepartureonacertainoccasion2makesitprobablethat
hiswishthathisfathershouldbeoutofthewayalsofoundlesshesitating
expression.Butawishofthissortistantamounttoanintentionofputtingone's
fatheroutofthewayoneselfistantamount,thatis,tothemurderousimpulseof
theOedipuscomplex.
SofarthereseemtobenoconnectinglinksbetweenLittleHans'srepressed
instinctualimpulseandthesubstituteforitwhichwesuspectistobeseeninhis
phobiaofhorses.Letussimplifyhispsychicalsituationbysettingononesidethe
infantilefactorandtheambivalence.Letusimaginethatheisayoungservant
whoisinlovewiththemistressofthehouse
1[StandardEd.,10,50and82.]
2[StandardEd.,29.]
- 102 -
andhasreceivedsometokensofherfavour.Hehateshismaster,whoismore
powerfulthanheis,andhewouldliketohavehimoutoftheway.Itwouldthen
beeminentlynaturalforhimtodreadhismaster'svengeanceandtodevelopafear
ofhimjustasLittleHansdevelopedaphobiaofhorses.Wecannot,therefore,
describethefearbelongingtothisphobiaasasymptom.IfLittleHans,beingin
lovewithhismother,hadshownfearofhisfather,weshouldhavenorighttosay
thathehadaneurosisoraphobia.Hisemotionalreactionwouldhavebeen
entirelycomprehensible.Whatmadeitaneurosiswasonethingalone:the
replacementofhisfatherbyahorse.Itisthisdisplacement,then,whichhasa
claimtobecalledasymptom,andwhich,incidentally,constitutesthealternative
mechanismwhichenablesaconflictduetoambivalencetoberesolvedwithoutthe
aidofareactionformation.[Cf.above,p.102.]Suchadisplacementismade
possibleorfacilitatedatLittleHans'searlyagebecausetheinborntracesof
totemicthoughtcanstillbeeasilyrevived.Childrendonotasyetrecognizeor,at
anyrate,laysuchexaggeratedstressuponthegulfthatseparateshumanbeings
fromtheanimalworld.1Intheireyesthegrownman,theobjectoftheirfearand
admiration,stillbelongstothesamecategoryasthebiganimalwhohassomany
enviableattributesbutagainstwhomtheyhavebeenwarnedbecausehemay
becomedangerous.Aswesee,theconflictduetoambivalenceisnotdealtwithin
relationtooneandthesameperson:itiscircumvented,asitwere,byoneofthe
pairofconflictingimpulsesbeingdirectedtoanotherpersonasasubstitutive
object.
Sofareverythingisclear.ButtheanalysisofHans'sphobiahasbeena
completedisappointmentinonerespect.Thedistortionwhichconstitutedthe
symptomformationwasnotappliedtothe[psychical]representative(the
ideationalcontent)oftheinstinctualimpulsethatwastoberepressed;itwas
appliedtoaquitedifferentrepresentativeandonewhichonlycorrespondedtoa
reactiontothedisagreeableinstinct.Itwouldbemoreinaccordancewithour
expectationsifLittleHanshaddeveloped,insteadofafearofhorses,an
inclinationtoilltreatthemandtobeatthemorifhehadexpressedin
1[Cf.ADifficultyinthePathofPsychoAnalysis(1917a),StandardEd.,17,140.]
- 103 -
plaintermsawishtoseethemfalldownorbehurtorevendieinconvulsions
(makearowwiththeirfeet).1Somethingofthesortdidinfactemergeinhis
analysis,butitwasnotbyanymeansintheforefrontofhisneurosis.And,
curiouslyenough,ifhereallyhadproducedahostilityofthissortnotagainsthis
fatherbutagainsthorsesashismainsymptom,weshouldnothavesaidthathe
wassufferingfromaneurosis.Theremustbesomethingwrongeitherwithour
viewofrepressionorwithourdefinitionofasymptom.Onething,ofcourse,
strikesusatonce:ifLittleHanshadreallybehavedlikethattohorses,itwould
meanthatrepressionhadinnowayalteredthecharacterofhisobjectionableand
aggressiveinstinctualimpulseitselfbutonlytheobjecttowardswhichitwas
directed.
Undoubtedlytherearecasesinwhichthisisallthatrepressiondoes.Butmore
thanthishappenedinthedevelopmentofLittleHans'sphobiahowmuchmore
canbeguessedfromapartofanotheranalysis.
Asweknow,LittleHansallegedthatwhathewasafraidofwasthatahorse
wouldbitehim.NowsometimelaterIwasabletolearnsomethingaboutthe
originofanotheranimalphobia.Inthisinstancethedreadedanimalwasawolf;it,
too,hadthesignificanceofafathersubstitute.Asaboythepatientinquestiona
RussianwhomIdidnotanalysetillhewasinhistwentieshadhadadream
(whosemeaningwasrevealedinanalysis)and,immediatelyafterit,had
developedafearofbeingdevouredbyawolf,likethesevenlittlegoatsinthe
fairytale.2InthecaseofLittleHanstheascertainedfactthathisfatherusedto
playathorseswithhim3doubtlessdeterminedhischoiceofahorseashisanxiety
animal.Inthesamewayitappearedatleasthighlyprobablethatthefatherofmy
Russianpatientused,whenplayingwithhim,topretendtobeawolfandjokingly
threatentogobblehimup.4SincethenIhavecomeacrossathirdinstance.The
patientwasayoungAmericanwhocametomeforanalysis.Hedidnot,itistrue,
developananimalphobia,butitispreciselybecause
2FromtheHistoryofanInfantileNeurosis(1918b)[StandardEd.,17,29ff.].
- 104 -
ofthisomissionthathiscasehelpstothrowlightupontheothertwo.Asachildhe
hadbeensexuallyexcitedbyafantasticchildren'sstorywhichhadbeenreadaloud
tohimaboutanArabchiefwhopursuedagingerbreadman1soastoeathimup.
Heidentifiedhimselfwiththisedibleperson,andtheArabchiefwaseasily
recognizableasafathersubstitute.Thisphantasyformedtheearliestsubstratumof
hisautoeroticphantasies.
Theideaofbeingdevouredbythefatheristypicalageoldchildhood
material.Ithasfamiliarparallelsinmythology(e.g.themythofKronos)andin
theanimalkingdom.Yetinspiteofthisconfirmationtheideaissostrangetous
thatwecanhardlycredititsexistenceinachild.Nordoweknowwhetheritreally
meanswhatitseemstosay,andwecannotunderstandhowitcanhavebecomethe
subjectofaphobia.Analyticobservationsuppliestherequisiteinformation.It
showsthattheideaofbeingdevouredbythefathergivesexpression,inaform
thathasundergoneregressivedegradation,toapassive,tenderimpulsetobeloved
byhiminagenitaleroticsense.Furtherinvestigationofthecasehistory2leaves
nodoubtofthecorrectnessofthisexplanation.Thegenitalimpulse,itistrue,
betraysnosignofitstenderpurposewhenitisexpressedinthelanguage
belongingtothesupersededtransitionalphasebetweentheoralandsadistic
organizationsofthelibido.Isit,moreover,aquestionmerelyofthereplacement
ofthe[psychical]representativebyaregressiveformofexpressionorisita
questionofagenuineregressivedegradationofthegenitallydirectedimpulsein
theid?Itisnotatalleasytomakecertain.ThecasehistoryoftheRussianWolf
Mangivesverydefinitesupporttothesecond,moreserious,view;for,fromthe
timeofthedecisivedreamonward,theboybecamenaughty,tormentingand
sadistic,andsoonafterwardsdevelopedaregularobsessionalneurosis.Atany
rate,wecanseethatrepressionisnottheonlymeanswhichtheegocanemploy
forthepurposeofdefenceagainstanunwelcomeinstinctualimpulse.Ifit
succeedsinmakinganinstinctregress,itwillactuallyhavedoneitmoreinjury
thanitcouldhavebyrepressingit.Sometimes,indeed,afterforcinganinstinctto
regressinthisway,itgoesontorepressit.
1[InEnglishintheoriginal.]
2[OftheRussianpatient.]
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ThecaseoftheWolfManandthesomewhatlesscomplicatedoneofLittle
Hansraiseanumberoffurtherconsiderations.Butwehavealreadymadetwo
unexpecteddiscoveries.Therecanbenodoubtthattheinstinctualimpulsewhich
wasrepressedinbothphobiaswasahostileoneagainstthefather.Onemightsay
thatthatimpulsehadbeenrepressedbytheprocessofbeingtransformedintoits
opposite.1Insteadofaggressivenessonthepartofthesubjecttowardshisfather,
thereappearedaggressiveness(intheshapeofrevenge)onthepartofhisfather
towardsthesubject.Sincethisaggressivenessisinanycaserootedinthesadistic
phaseofthelibido,onlyacertainamountofdegradationisneededtoreduceitto
theoralstage.Thisstage,whileonlyhintedatinLittleHans'sfearofbeing
bitten,wasblatantlyexhibitedintheWolfMan's'terrorofbeingdevoured,But,
besidesthis,theanalysishasdemonstrated,beyondashadowofdoubt,the
presenceofanotherinstinctualimpulseofanoppositenaturewhichhad
succumbedtorepression.Thiswasatender,passiveimpulsedirectedtowardsthe
father,whichhadalreadyreachedthegenital(phallic)leveloflibidinal
organization.Asregardsthefinaloutcomeoftheprocessofrepression,this
impulseseems,indeed,tohavebeenthemoreimportantofthetwo;itunderwenta
morefarreachingregressionandhadadecisiveinfluenceuponthecontentofthe
phobia.Infollowingupasingleinstinctualrepressionwehavethushadto
recognizeaconvergenceoftwosuchprocesses.Thetwoinstinctualimpulsesthat
havebeenovertakenbyrepressionsadisticaggressivenesstowardsthefatherand
atenderpassiveattitudetohimformapairofopposites.Furthermore,afull
appreciationofLittleHans'scaseshowsthattheformationofhisphobiahadhad
theeffectofabolishinghisaffectionateobjectcathexisofhismotheraswell,
thoughtheactualcontentofhisphobiabetrayednosignofthis.Theprocessof
repressionhadattackedalmostallthecomponentsofhisOedipuscomplexboth
hishostileandhistenderimpulsestowardshisfatherandhistenderimpulses
towardshismother.InmyRussianpatientthisstateofaffairswasmuchless
obvious.
Theseareunwelcomecomplications,consideringthatwe
1[Cf.InstinctsandtheirVicissitudes(1915c),StandardEd.,14,126ff.]
- 106 -
onlysetouttostudysimplecasesofsymptomformationduetorepression,and
withthatintentionselectedtheearliestand,toallappearances,mosttransparent
neurosesofchildhood.Insteadofasinglerepressionwehavefoundacollectionof
themandhavebecomeinvolvedwithregressionintothebargain.Perhapswehave
addedtotheconfusionbytreatingthetwocasesofanimalphobiaatourdisposal
LittleHansandtheWolfManasthoughtheywerecastinthesamemould.
Asamatteroffact,certaindifferencesbetweenthemstandout.Itisonlywith
regardtoLittleHansthatwecansaywithcertaintythatwhathisphobiadisposed
ofwerethetwomainimpulsesoftheOedipuscomplexhisaggressiveness
towardshisfatherandhisoverfondnessforhismother.Atenderfeelingforhis
fatherwasundoubtedlytheretooandplayedapartinrepressingtheopposite
feeling;butwecanproveneitherthatitwasstrongenoughtodrawrepression
uponitselfnorthatitdisappearedafterwards.Hansseems,infact,tohavebeena
normalboywithwhatiscalledapositiveOedipuscomplex.Itispossiblethatthe
factorswhichwedonotfindwereactuallyatworkinhim,butwecannot
demonstratetheirexistence.Eventhemostexhaustiveanalysishasgapsinitsdata
andisinsufficientlydocumented.InthecaseoftheRussianthedeficiencylies
elsewhere.Hisattitudetofemaleobjectshadbeendisturbedbyanearlyseduction 1
andhispassive,femininesidewasstronglydeveloped.Theanalysisofhiswolf
dreamrevealedverylittleintentionalaggressivenesstowardshisfather,butit
broughtforwardunmistakableproofthatwhatrepressionovertookwashispassive
tenderattitudetohisfather.Inhiscase,too,theotherfactorsmayhavebeen
operativeaswell;buttheywerenotinevidence.Howisitthat,inspiteofthese
differencesinthetwocases,almostamountingtoanantithesis,thefinaloutcome
aphobiawasapproximatelythesame?Theanswermustbesoughtinanother
quarter.Ithinkitwillbefoundinthesecondfactwhichemergesfromourbrief
comparativeexamination.Itseemstomethatinbothcaseswecandetectwhatthe
motiveforceoftherepressionwasandcansubstantiateourviewofitsnaturefrom
thelineofdevelopmentwhichthetwochildrensubsequentlypursued.Thismotive
forcewasthesameinbothof
1[StandardEd.,17,20ff.]
- 107 -
them.Itwasthefearofimpendingcastration.LittleHansgaveuphis
aggressivenesstowardshisfatherfromfearofbeingcastrated.Hisfearthata
horsewouldbitehimcan,withoutanyforcing,begiventhefullsenseofafear
thatahorsewouldbiteoffhisgenitals,wouldcastratehim.Butitwasfromfearof
beingcastrated,too,thatthelittleRussianrelinquishedhiswishtobelovedbyhis
father,forhethoughtthatarelationofthatsortpresupposedasacrificeofhis
genitalsoftheorganwhichdistinguishedhimfromafemale.Aswesee,both
formsoftheOedipuscomplex,thenormal,activeformandtheinvertedone,came
togriefthroughthecastrationcomplex.TheRussianboy'sanxietyideaofbeing
devouredbyawolfcontained,itistrue,nosuggestionofcastration,fortheoral
regressionithadundergonehadremovedittoofarfromthephallicstage.Butthe
analysisofhisdreamrenderedfurtherproofsuperfluous.Itwasatriumphof
repressionthattheforminwhichhisphobiawasexpressedshouldnolongerhave
containedanyallusiontocastration.
Here,then,isourunexpectedfinding:inbothpatientsthemotiveforceofthe
repressionwasfearofcastration.Theideascontainedintheiranxietybeing
bittenbyahorseandbeingdevouredbyawolfweresubstitutesbydistortionfor
theideaofbeingcastratedbytheirfather.Thiswastheideawhichhadundergone
repression.IntheRussianboytheideawasanexpressionofawishwhichwasnot
abletosubsistinthefaceofhismasculinerevolt;inLittleHansitwasthe
expressionofareactioninhimwhichhadturnedhisaggressivenessintoits
opposite.Buttheaffectofanxiety,whichwastheessenceofthephobia,came,not
fromtheprocessofrepression,notfromthelibidinalcathexesoftherepressed
impulses,butfromtherepressingagencyitself.Theanxietybelongingtothe
animalphobiaswasanuntransformedfearofcastration.Itwasthereforearealistic
fear,1afearofadangerwhichwasactuallyimpendingorwasjudgedtobeareal
one.Itwas
1[RealangstintheGerman.Theadjectiverealistichas,throughouttheStandard
Edition,beenpreferredtotheimpossiblerealandtoobjectivewhichhasbeenused
elsewhere,butwhichgivesrisetoevidentambiguities.Ontheotherhand,for
Realgefahrwehaverealdanger.]
- 108 -
anxietywhichproducedrepressionandnot,asIformerlybelieved,repression
whichproducedanxiety.
Itisnousedenyingthefact,thoughitisnotpleasanttorecallit,thatIhave
onmanyoccasionsassertedthatinrepressiontheinstinctualrepresentativeis
distorted,displaced,andsoon,whilethelibidobelongingtotheinstinctual
impulseistransformedintoanxiety.1Butnowanexaminationofphobias,which
shouldbebestabletoprovideconfirmatoryevidence,failstobearoutmy
assertion;itseems,rather,tocontradictitdirectly.Theanxietyfeltinanimal
phobiasistheego'sfearofcastration;whiletheanxietyfeltinagoraphobia(a
subjectthathasbeenlessthoroughlystudied)seemstobeitsfearofsexual
temptationafearwhich,afterall,mustbeconnectedinitsoriginswiththefear
ofcastration.Asfarascanbeseenatpresent,themajorityofphobiasgobackto
ananxietyofthiskindfeltbytheegoinregardtothedemandsofthelibido.Itis
alwaystheego'sattitudeofanxietywhichistheprimarythingandwhichsets
repressiongoing.Anxietyneverarisesfromrepressedlibido.IfIhadcontented
myselfearlierwithsayingthataftertheoccurrenceofrepressionacertainamount
ofanxietyappearedinplaceofthemanifestationoflibidothatwastobeexpected,
Ishouldhavenothingtoretracttoday.Thedescriptionwouldbecorrect;and
theredoesundoubtedlyexistacorrespondenceofthekindassertedbetweenthe
strengthoftheimpulsethathastoberepressedandtheintensityoftheresultant
anxiety.ButImustadmitthatIthoughtIwasgivingmorethanameredescription.
IbelievedIhadputmyfingeronametapsychologicalprocessofdirect
transformationoflibidointoanxiety.Icannownolongermaintainthisview.And,
indeed,Ifounditimpossibleatthetimetoexplainhowatransformationofthat
kindwascarriedout.
ItmaybeaskedhowIarrivedatthisideaoftransformationinthefirst
instance.ItwaswhileIwasstudyingtheactualneuroses,atatimewhenanalysis
wasstillaverylongwayfromdistinguishingbetweenprocessesintheegoand
processes
1[See,forinstance,Freud'spaperonrepression(1915d),StandardEd.,14,155,where
thecaseoftheWolfManisalsoconsidered.Afurtherdiscussionwillbefoundin
AddendumA(b),p.160ff.,aswellasintheEditor'sIntroduction,p.78ff.]
- 109 -
intheid.1Ifoundthatoutbreaksofanxietyandageneralstateofpreparednessfor
anxietywereproducedbycertainsexualpracticessuchascoitusinterruptus,
undischargedsexualexcitationorenforcedabstinencethatis,wheneversexual
excitationwasinhibited,arrestedordeflectedinitsprogresstowardssatisfaction.
Sincesexualexcitationwasanexpressionoflibidinalinstinctualimpulsesitdid
notseemtoorashtoassumethatthelibidowasturnedintoanxietythroughthe
agencyofthesedisturbances.TheobservationswhichImadeatthetimestillhold
good.Moreover,itcannotbedeniedthatthelibidobelongingtotheidprocessesis
subjectedtodisturbanceattheinstigationofrepression.Itmightstillbetrue,
therefore,thatinrepressionanxietyisproducedfromthelibidinalcathexisofthe
instinctualimpulses.Buthowcanwereconcilethisconclusionwithourother
conclusionthattheanxietyfeltinphobiasisanegoanxietyandarisesintheego,
andthatitdoesnotproceedoutofrepressionbut,onthecontrary,setsrepression
inmotion?Thereseemstobeacontradictionherewhichitisnotatallasimple
mattertosolve.Itwillnotbeeasytoreducethetwosourcesofanxietytoasingle
one.Wemightattempttodosobysupposingthat,whencoitusisdisturbedor
sexualexcitationinterruptedorabstinenceenforced,theegoscentscertaindangers
towhichitreactswithanxiety.Butthistakesusnowhere.Ontheotherhand,our
analysisofthephobiasseemstoadmitofnocorrection.Nonliquet.2
1[SeeFreud'sfirstpaperonanxietyneurosis(1895b).]
2[Itisnotclear.Anoldlegalverdictusedwhentheevidencewasinconclusive;
comparetheScottishnotproven.]
- 110 -
V
Wesetouttostudytheformationofsymptomsandthesecondarystruggle
wagedbytheegoagainstsymptoms.Butinpickingonthephobiasforthis
purposewehaveclearlymadeanunluckychoice.Theanxietywhichpredominates
inthepictureofthesedisordersisnowseenasacomplicationwhichobscuresthe
situation.Thereareplentyofneuroseswhichexhibitnoanxietywhatever.True
conversionhysteriaisoneofthese.Eveninitsmostseveresymptomsno
admixtureofanxietyisfound.Thisfactaloneoughttowarnusagainstmakingtoo
closeaconnectionbetweenanxietyandsymptomformation.Thephobiasareso
closelyakintoconversionhysteriaineveryotherrespectthatIhavefeltjustified
inclassingthemalongsideofitunderthenameofanxietyhysteria.Butnoone
hasasyetbeenabletosaywhatitisthatdetermineswhetheranygivencaseshall
taketheformofaconversionhysteriaoraphobiahasbeenable,thatistosay,to
establishwhatdeterminesthegeneratingofanxietyinhysteria.
Thecommonestsymptomsofconversionhysteriamotorparalyses,
contractures,involuntaryactionsordischarges,painsandhallucinationsare
cathecticprocesseswhichareeitherpermanentlymaintainedorintermittent.But
thisputsfreshdifficultiesintheway.Notmuchisactuallyknownaboutthese
symptoms.Analysiscanshowwhatthedisturbedexcitatoryprocessiswhichthe
symptomsreplace.Itusuallyturnsoutthattheythemselveshaveashareinthat
process.Itisasthoughthewholeenergyoftheprocesshadbeenconcentratedin
thisonepartofit.Forinstance,itwillbefoundthatthepainsfromwhichapatient
sufferswerepresentinthesituationinwhichtherepressionoccurred;orthathis
hallucinationwas,atthattime,aperception;orthathismotorparalysisisa
defenceagainstanactionwhichshouldhavebeenperformedinthatsituationbut
wasinhibited;orthathiscontractureisusuallyadisplacementofanintended
innervationofthemusclesinsomeotherpartofhisbody;orthathisconvulsions
aretheexpressionofanoutburstofaffectwhichhasbeenwithdrawnfromthe
normalcontroloftheego.Thesensationofunpleasurewhichaccompaniesthe
appearanceofthesymptoms
- 111 -
variesinastrikingdegree.Inchronicsymptomswhichhavebeendisplacedonto
motility,likeparalysesandcontractures,itisalmostalwaysentirelyabsent;the
egobehavestowardsthesymptomsasthoughithadnothingtodowiththem.In
intermittentsymptomsandinthoseconcernedwiththesensorysphere,sensations
ofunpleasureareasaruledistinctlyfelt;andinsymptomsofpainthesemayreach
anextremedegree.Thepicturepresentedissomanifoldthatitisdifficultto
discoverthefactorwhichpermitsofallthesevariationsandyetallowsauniform
explanationofthem.Thereis,moreover,littletobeseeninconversionhysteriaof
theego'sstruggleagainstthesymptomafterithasbeenformed.Itisonlywhen
sensitivitytopaininsomepartofthebodyconstitutesthesymptomthatthat
symptomisinapositiontoplayadualrole.Thesymptomofpainwillappearno
lessregularlywheneverthepartofthebodyconcernedistouchedfromoutside
thanwhenthepathogenicsituationwhichitrepresentsisassociativelyactivated
fromwithin;andtheegowilltakeprecautionstopreventthesymptomfrombeing
arousedthroughexternalperceptions.Whytheformationofsymptomsin
conversionhysteriashouldbesuchapeculiarlyobscurethingIcannottell;butthe
factaffordsusagoodreasonforquittingsuchanunproductivefieldofenquiry
withoutdelay.
Letusturntotheobsessionalneurosesinthehopeoflearningmoreaboutthe
formationofsymptoms.Thesymptomsbelongingtothisneurosisfall,ingeneral,
intotwogroups,eachhavinganoppositetrend.Theyareeitherprohibitions,
precautionsandexpiationsthatis,negativeincharacterortheyare,onthe
contrary,substitutivesatisfactionswhichoftenappearinsymbolicdisguise.The
negative,defensivegroupofsymptomsistheolderofthetwo;butasillnessis
prolonged,thesatisfactions,whichscoffatalldefensivemeasures,gaintheupper
hand.Thesymptomformationscoresatriumphifitsucceedsincombiningthe
prohibitionwithsatisfactionsothatwhatwasoriginallyadefensivecommandor
prohibitionacquiresthesignificanceofasatisfactionaswell;andinorderto
achievethisenditwilloftenmakeuseofthemostingeniousassociativepaths.
Suchanachievementdemonstratesthetendencyoftheegotosynthesize,which
wehavealreadyobserved[p.98].
- 112 -
Inextremecasesthepatientmanagestomakemostofhissymptomsacquire,in
additiontotheiroriginalmeaning,adirectlycontraryone.Thisisatributetothe
powerofambivalence,which,forsomeunknownreason,playssuchalargepartin
obsessionalneuroses.Inthecrudestinstancethesymptomisdiphasic:1anaction
whichcarriesoutacertaininjunctionisimmediatelysucceededbyanotheraction
whichstopsorundoesthefirstoneevenifitdoesnotgoquitesofarastocarry
outitsopposite.
Twoimpressionsatonceemergefromthisbriefsurveyofobsessional
symptoms.Thefirstisthataceaselessstruggleisbeingwagedagainstthe
repressed,inwhichtherepressingforcessteadilyloseground;thesecondisthat
theegoandthesuperegohaveaspeciallylargeshareintheformationofthe
symptoms.
Obsessionalneurosisisunquestionablythemostinterestingandrepaying
subjectofanalyticresearch.Butasaproblemithasnotyetbeenmastered.Itmust
beconfessedthat,ifweendeavourtopenetratemoredeeplyintoitsnature,westill
havetorelyupondoubtfulassumptionsandunconfirmedsuppositions.
Obsessionalneurosisoriginates,nodoubt,inthesamesituationashysteria,
namely,thenecessityoffendingoffthelibidinaldemandsoftheOedipuscomplex.
Indeed,everyobsessionalneurosisseemstohaveasubstratumofhysterical
symptomsthathavebeenformedataveryearlystage.2Butitissubsequently
shapedalongquitedifferentlinesowingtoaconstitutionalfactor.Thegenital
organizationofthelibidoturnsouttobefeebleandinsufficientlyresistant,sothat
whentheegobeginsitsdefensiveeffortsthefirstthingitsucceedsindoingisto
throwbackthegenitalorganization(ofthephallicphase),inwholeorinpart,to
theearliersadisticanallevel.Thisfactofregressionisdecisiveforallthatfollows.
Anotherpossibilityhastobeconsidered.Perhapsregressionistheresultnot
ofaconstitutionalfactorbutofatimefactor.Itmaybethatregressionisrendered
possiblenotbecausethe
1[I.e.occursintwoinstalments.Cf.apassageneartheendofLectureXIXofthe
IntroductoryLectures(191617).Seealsobelow,p.119.]
2[SeethebeginningofSectionIIofFreud'ssecondpaperonTheNeuroPsychosesof
Defence(1896b).AnexampleoccursintheWolfMananalysis(1918b),StandardEd.,
17,75.]
- 113 -
genitalorganizationofthelibidoistoofeeblebutbecausetheoppositionofthe
egobeginstooearly,whilethesadisticphaseisatitsheight.Iamnotpreparedto
expressadefiniteopiniononthispoint,butImaysaythatanalyticobservation
doesnotspeakinfavourofsuchanassumption.Itshowsratherthat,bythetime
anobsessionalneurosisisenteredupon,thephallicstagehasalreadybeen
reached.Moreover,theonsetofthisneurosisbelongstoalatertimeoflifethan
thatofhysteriatothesecondperiodofchildhood,afterthelatencyperiodhasset
in.InawomanpatientwhosecaseIwasabletostudyandwhowasovertakenby
thisdisorderataverylatedate,itbecameclearthatthedeterminingcauseofher
regressionandoftheemergenceofherobsessionalneurosiswasarealoccurrence
throughwhichhergenitallife,whichhaduptillthenbeenintact,lostallitsvalue. 1
Asregardsthemetapsychologicalexplanationofregression,Iaminclinedto
finditinadefusionofinstinct,inadetachmentoftheeroticcomponentswhich,
withtheonsetofthegenitalstage,hadjoinedthedestructivecathexesbelongingto
thesadisticphase.2
Inenforcingregression,theegoscoresitsfirstsuccessinitsdefensive
struggleagainstthedemandsofthelibido.(Inthisconnectionitisofadvantageto
distinguishthemoregeneralnotionofdefencefromrepression.3Repressionis
onlyoneofthemechanismswhichdefencemakesuseof.)Itisperhapsin
obsessionalcasesmorethaninnormalorhystericalonesthatwecanmostclearly
recognizethatthemotiveforceofdefenceisthecastrationcomplexandthatwhat
isbeingfendedoffarethetrendsoftheOedipuscomplex.Weareatpresent
dealingwiththebeginningofthelatencyperiod,aperiodwhichischaracterized
bythedissolutionoftheOedipuscomplex,thecreationorconsolidationofthe
superegoandtheerectionofethicalandaestheticbarriersintheego.In
obsessionalneurosestheseprocessesarecarriedfurtherthanisnormal.Inaddition
1SeemypaperonTheDispositiontoObsessionalNeurosis(1913i)[StandardEd.,12,
319f.].
2[TowardsthebeginningofChapterIVofTheEgoandtheId(1923b),Freudhad
suggestedthattheadvancefromthesadisticanaltothegenitalphaseisconditionedbyan
accessionoferoticcomponents.]
3[Thisisdiscussedatlengthbelow,inAddendumA(c),p.163f.]
- 114 -
tothedestructionoftheOedipuscomplexaregressivedegradationofthelibido
takesplace,thesuperegobecomesexceptionallysevereandunkind,andtheego,
inobediencetothesuperego,producesstrongreactionformationsintheshapeof
conscientiousness,pityandcleanliness.Implacable,thoughnotalwaysonthat
accountsuccessful,severityisshownincondemningthetemptationtocontinue
earlyinfantilemasturbation,whichnowattachesitselftoregressive(sadisticanal)
ideasbutwhichneverthelessrepresentstheunsubjugatedpartofthephallic
organization.Thereisaninherentcontradictionaboutthisstateofaffairs,in
which,preciselyintheinterestsofmasculinity(thatistosay,fromfearof
castration),everyactivitybelongingtomasculinityisstopped.Buthere,too,
obsessionalneurosisisonlyoverdoingthenormalmethodofgettingridofthe
Oedipuscomplex.Weoncemorefindhereanillustrationofthetruththatevery
exaggerationcontainstheseedofitsownundoing.For,undertheguiseof
obsessionalacts,themasturbationthathasbeensuppressedapproachesevermore
closelytosatisfaction.
Thereactionformationsintheegooftheobsessionalneurotic,whichwe
recognizeasexaggerationsofnormalcharacterformation,shouldberegarded,I
think,asyetanothermechanismofdefenceandplacedalongsideofregressionand
repression.Theyseemtobeabsentorverymuchweakerinhysteria.Looking
back,wecannowgetanideaofwhatispeculiartothedefensiveprocessin
hysteria.Itseemsthatinittheprocessislimitedtorepressionalone.Theegoturns
awayfromthedisagreeableinstinctualimpulse,leavesittopursueitscourseinthe
unconscious,andtakesnofurtherpartinitsfortunes.Thisviewcannotbe
absolutelycorrect,forweareacquaintedwiththecaseinwhichahysterical
symptomisatthesametimeafulfilmentofapenaltyimposedbythesuperego;
butitmaydescribeageneralcharacteristicofthebehaviouroftheegoinhysteria.
Wecaneithersimplyacceptitasafactthatinobsessionalneurosisasuper
egoofthisseverekindemerges,orwecantaketheregressionofthelibidoasthe
fundamentalcharacteristicoftheaffectionandattempttorelatetheseverityofthe
superegotoit.Andindeedthesuperego,originatingasitdoesfromtheid,cannot
dissociateitselffromtheregressionanddefusion
- 115 -
ofinstinctwhichhavetakenplacethere.Wecannotbesurprisedifitbecomes
harsher,unkinderandmoretormentingthanwheredevelopmenthasbeennormal.
Thechieftaskduringthelatencyperiodseemstobethefendingoffofthe
temptationtomasturbate.Thisstruggleproducesaseriesofsymptomswhich
appearinatypicalfashioninthemostdifferentindividualsandwhichingeneral
havethecharacterofaceremonial.Itisagreatpitythatnoonehasasyetcollected
themandsystematicallyanalysedthem.Beingtheearliestproductsoftheneurosis
theyshouldbestbeabletoshedlightonthemechanismsemployedinits
symptomformation.Theyalreadyexhibitthefeatureswhichwillemergeso
disastrouslyifaseriousillnessfollows.Theytendtobecomeattachedtoactivities
(whichwouldlaterbecarriedoutalmostautomatically)suchasgoingtosleep,
washing,dressingandwalkingabout;andtheytendalsotorepetitionandwasteof
time.Whythisshouldbesoisatpresentnotatallclear;butthesublimationof
analeroticcomponentsplaysanunmistakablepartinit.
Theadventofpubertyopensadecisivechapterinthehistoryofan
obsessionalneurosis.Thegenitalorganizationwhichhasbeenbrokenoffin
childhoodstartsagainwithgreatvigour.But,asweknow,thesexualdevelopment
inchildhooddetermineswhatdirectionthisnewstartatpubertywilltake.Not
onlywilltheearlyaggressiveimpulsesbereawakened;butagreaterorlesser
proportionofthenewlibidinalimpulsesinbadcasesthewholeofthemwill
havetofollowthecourseprescribedforthembyregressionandwillemergeas
aggressiveanddestructivetendencies.Inconsequenceoftheerotictrendsbeing
disguisedinthiswayandowingtothepowerfulreactionformationsintheego,
thestruggleagainstsexualitywillhenceforwardbecarriedonunderthebannerof
ethicalprinciples.Theegowillrecoilwithastonishmentfrompromptingsto
crueltyandviolencewhichenterconsciousnessfromtheid,andithasnonotion
thatinthemitiscombatingeroticwishes,includingsometowhichitwouldnot
otherwisehavetakenexception.Theoverstrictsuperegoinsistsallthemore
stronglyonthesuppressionofsexuality,sincethishasassumedsuchrepellent
forms.Thusinobsessionalneurosistheconflictisaggravatedintwodirections:
thedefensiveforcesbecomemore

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intolerantandtheforcesthataretobefendedoffbecomemoreintolerable.Both
effectsareduetoasinglefactor,namely,regressionofthelibido.
Agooddealofwhathasbeensaidmaybeobjectedtoonthegroundthatthe
unpleasantobsessiveideasarethemselvesquiteconscious.Butthereisnodoubt
thatbeforebecomingconscioustheyhavebeenthroughtheprocessofrepression.
Inmostofthemtheactualwordingoftheaggressiveinstinctualimpulseis
altogetherunknowntotheego,anditrequiresagooddealofanalyticworkto
makeitconscious.Whatdoespenetrateintoconsciousnessisusuallyonlya
distortedsubstitutewhichiseitherofavague,dreamlikeandindeterminatenature
orsotravestiedastobeunrecognizable.Evenwhererepressionhasnot
encroacheduponthecontentoftheaggressiveimpulseithascertainlygotridofits
accompanyingaffectivecharacter.Asaresult,theaggressivenessappearstothe
egonottobeanimpulsionbut,asthepatientsthemselvessay,merelyathought
whichawakensnofeeling.1Buttheremarkablethingisthatthisisnotthecase.
Whathappensisthattheaffectleftoutwhentheobsessionalideaisperceived
appearsinadifferentplace.Thesuperegobehavesasthoughrepressionhadnot
occurredandasthoughitknewtherealwordingandfullaffectivecharacterofthe
aggressiveimpulse,andittreatstheegoaccordingly.Theegowhich,ontheone
hand,knowsthatitisinnocentisobliged,ontheotherhand,tobeawareofasense
ofguiltandtocarryaresponsibilitywhichitcannotaccountfor.Thisstateof
affairsis,however,notsopuzzlingasitwouldseematfirstsight.Thebehaviour
ofthesuperegoisperfectlyintelligible,andthecontradictionintheegomerely
showsthatithasshutouttheidbymeansofrepressionwhileremainingfully
accessibletotheinfluenceofthesuperego.2Ifitisaskedwhytheegodoesnot
alsoattempttowithdrawfromthetormentingcriticismofthesuperego,the
answeristhatitdoesmanagetodosoinagreatnumberofinstances.Thereare
obsessionalneurosesinwhichnosenseofguiltwhateverispresent.Inthem,asfar
ascanbeseen,theegohasavoidedbecomingawareofitbyinstitutingafreshset
ofsymptoms,
1[Forallofthis,seetheRatMancasehistory(1909d),StandardEd.,10,221ff.and
167n.]
2Cf.TheodorReik,1925,51.
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penancesorrestrictionsofaselfpunishingkind.Thesesymptoms,however,
representatthesametimeasatisfactionofmasochisticimpulseswhich,intheir
turn,havebeenreinforcedbyregression.
Obsessionalneurosispresentssuchavastmultiplicityofphenomenathatno
effortshaveyetsucceededinmakingacoherentsynthesisofallitsvariations.All
wecandoistopickoutcertaintypicalcorrelations;butthereisalwaystherisk
thatwemayhaveoverlookedotheruniformitiesofanolessimportantkind.
Ihavealreadydescribedthegeneraltendencyofsymptomformationin
obsessionalneurosis.Itistogiveevergreaterroomtosubstitutivesatisfactionat
theexpenseoffrustration.Symptomswhichoncestoodforarestrictionoftheego
comelaterontorepresentsatisfactionsaswell,thankstotheego'sinclinationto
synthesis,anditisquiteclearthatthissecondmeaninggraduallybecomesthe
moreimportantofthetwo.Theresultofthisprocess,whichapproximatesmore
andmoretoacompletefailureoftheoriginalpurposeofdefence,isanextremely
restrictedegowhichisreducedtoseekingsatisfactioninthesymptoms.The
displacementofthedistributionofforcesinfavourofsatisfactionmayhavethe
dreadedfinaloutcomeofparalysingthewilloftheego,whichineverydecisionit
hastomakeisalmostasstronglyimpelledfromtheonesideasfromtheother.
Theoveracuteconflictbetweenidandsuperegowhichhasdominatedtheillness
fromtheverybeginningmayassumesuchextensiveproportionsthattheego,
unabletocarryoutitsofficeofmediator,canundertakenothingwhichisnot
drawnintothesphereofthatconflict.
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VI
Inthecourseofthesestruggleswecomeacrosstwoactivitiesoftheego
whichformsymptomsandwhichdeservespecialattentionbecausetheyare
obviouslysurrogatesofrepressionandthereforewellcalculatedtoillustrateits
purposeandtechnique.Thefactthatsuchauxiliaryandsubstitutivetechniques
emergemayarguethattruerepressionhasmetwithdifficultiesinitsfunctioning.
Ifoneconsidershowmuchmoretheegoisthesceneofactionofsymptom
formationinobsessionalneurosisthanitisinhysteriaandwithwhattenacitythe
egoclingstoitsrelationstorealityandtoconsciousness,employingallits
intellectualfacultiestothatendandindeedhowtheveryprocessofthinking
becomeshypercathectedanderotizedthenonemayperhapscometoabetter
understandingofthesevariationsofrepression.
ThetwotechniquesIrefertoareundoingwhathasbeendoneandisolating.1
Thefirstofthesehasawiderangeofapplicationandgoesbackveryfar.Itis,asit
were,negativemagic,andendeavours,bymeansofmotorsymbolism,toblow
awaynotmerelytheconsequencesofsomeevent(orexperienceorimpression)
buttheeventitself.Ichoosethetermblowawayadvisedly,soastoremindthe
readerofthepartplayedbythistechniquenotonlyinneurosesbutinmagicalacts,
popularcustomsandreligiousceremoniesaswell.Inobsessionalneurosisthe
techniqueofundoingwhathasbeendoneisfirstmetwithinthediphasic
symptoms[p.113],inwhichoneactioniscancelledoutbyasecond,sothatitis
asthoughneitheractionhadtakenplace,whereas,inreality,bothhave.Thisaim
ofundoingisthesecondunderlyingmotiveofobsessionalceremonials,thefirst
beingtotakeprecautionsinordertopreventtheoccurrenceorrecurrenceofsome
particularevent.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoiseasilyseen:theprecautionary
measuresarerational,whiletryingtogetridofsomethingbymakingitnotto
havehappenedisirrationalandinthenatureofmagic.Itisofcoursetobe
suspectedthat
1[BoththesetechniquesarereferredtointheRatMananalysis(1909d),StandardEd.,
10,2356and243.Thefirstofthem,inGerman'ungeschehenmachen',meansliterally
makingunhappened.]
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thelatteristheearliermotiveofthetwoandproceedsfromtheanimisticattitude
towardstheenvironment.Thisendeavourtoundoshadesoffintonormal
behaviourinthecaseinwhichapersondecidestoregardaneventasnothaving
happened.1Butwhereashewilltakenodirectstepsagainsttheevent,andwill
simplypaynofurtherattentiontoitoritsconsequences,theneuroticpersonwill
trytomakethepastitselfnonexistent.Hewilltrytorepressitbymotormeans.
Thesamepurposemayperhapsaccountfortheobsessionforrepeatingwhichis
sofrequentlymetwithinthisneurosisandthecarryingoutofwhichservesa
numberofcontradictoryintentionsatonce.Whenanythinghasnothappenedin
thedesiredwayitisundonebybeingrepeatedinadifferentway;andthereupon
allthemotivesthatexistforlingeringoversuchrepetitionscomeintoplayaswell.
Astheneurosisproceeds,weoftenfindthattheendeavourtoundoatraumatic
experienceisamotiveoffirstrateimportanceintheformationofsymptoms.We
thusunexpectedlydiscoveranew,motortechniqueofdefence,or(aswemaysay
inthiscasewithlessinaccuracy)ofrepression.
Thesecondofthesetechniqueswhichwearesettingouttodescribeforthe
firsttime,thatofisolation,ispeculiartoobsessionalneurosis.It,too,takesplace
inthemotorsphere.Whensomethingunpleasanthashappenedtothesubjector
whenhehimselfhasdonesomethingwhichhasasignificanceforhisneurosis,he
interpolatesanintervalduringwhichnothingfurthermusthappenduringwhich
hemustperceivenothinganddonothing.2Thisbehaviour,whichseemsstrangeat
firstsight,issoonseentohavearelationtorepression.Weknowthatinhysteriait
ispossibletocauseatraumaticexperiencetobeovertakenbyamnesia.In
obsessionalneurosisthiscanoftennotbeachieved:theexperienceisnot
forgotten,but,instead,itisdeprivedofitsaffect,anditsassociativeconnections
aresuppressedorinterruptedsothatitremainsasthoughisolatedandisnot
reproducedintheordinaryprocessesofthought.Theeffectofthisisolationisthe
sameastheeffectofrepressionwithamnesia.Thistechnique,then,isreproduced
intheisolationsofobsessionalneurosis;anditisatthesametimegivenmotor
reinforcementformagicalpurposes.Theelements
1[Intheoriginal:asnonarriv.]
2[Cf.theRatMan,StandardEd.,10246.]
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thatareheldapartinthiswayarepreciselythosewhichbelongtogether
associatively.Themotorisolationismeanttoensureaninterruptionofthe
connectioninthought.Thenormalphenomenonofconcentrationprovidesa
pretextforthiskindofneuroticprocedure:whatseemstousimportantintheway
ofanimpressionorapieceofworkmustnotbeinterferedwithbythe
simultaneousclaimsofanyothermentalprocessesoractivities.Butevenanormal
personusesconcentrationtokeepawaynotonlywhatisirrelevantorunimportant,
but,aboveall,whatisunsuitablebecauseitiscontradictory.Heismostdisturbed
bythoseelementswhichoncebelongedtogetherbutwhichhavebeentornapartin
thecourseofhisdevelopmentas,forinstance,bymanifestationsofthe
ambivalenceofhisfathercomplexinhisrelationtoGod,orbyimpulsesattached
tohisexcretoryorgansinhisemotionsoflove.Thus,inthenormalcourseof
things,theegohasagreatdealofisolatingworktodoinitsfunctionofdirecting
thecurrentofthought.And,asweknow,weareobliged,incarryingoutour
analytictechnique,totrainittorelinquishthatfunctionforthetimebeing,
eminentlyjustifiedasitusuallyis.
Wehaveallfoundbyexperiencethatitisespeciallydifficultforan
obsessionalneurotictocarryoutthefundamentalruleofpsychoanalysis.Hisego
ismorewatchfulandmakessharperisolations,probablybecauseofthehigh
degreeoftensionduetoconflictthatexistsbetweenhissuperegoandhisid.
Whileheisengagedinthinking,hisegohastokeepofftoomuchtheintrusion
ofunconsciousphantasiesandthemanifestationofambivalenttrends.Itmustnot
relax,butisconstantlypreparedforastruggle.Itfortifiesthiscompulsionto
concentrateandtoisolatebythehelpofthemagicalactsofisolationwhich,inthe
formofsymptoms,growtobesonoticeableandtohavesomuchpractical
importanceforthepatient,butwhichare,ofcourse,uselessinthemselvesandare
inthenatureofceremonials.
Butinthusendeavouringtopreventassociationsandconnectionsofthought,
theegoisobeyingoneoftheoldestandmostfundamentalcommandsof
obsessionalneurosis,thetabooontouching.Ifweaskourselveswhythe
avoidanceoftouching,contactorcontagionshouldplaysuchalargepartinthis
neurosisandshouldbecomethesubjectmatterofcomplicated
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systems,theansweristhattouchingandphysicalcontactaretheimmediateaimof
theaggressiveaswellasthelovingobjectcathexes.1Erosdesirescontactbecause
itstrivestomaketheegoandthelovedobjectone,toabolishallspatialbarriers
betweenthem.Butdestructiveness,too,which(beforetheinventionoflongrange
weapons)couldonlytakeeffectatclosequarters,mustpresupposephysical
contact,acomingtogrips.Totouchawomanhasbecomeaeuphemismfor
usingherasasexualobject.Nottotouchone'sgenitalsisthephraseemployed
forforbiddingautoeroticsatisfaction.Sinceobsessionalneurosisbeginsby
persecutingerotictouchingandthen,afterregressionhastakenplace,goesonto
persecutetouchingintheguiseofaggressiveness,itfollowsthatnothingisso
stronglyproscribedinthatillnessastouchingnorsowellsuitedtobecomethe
centralpointofasystemofprohibitions.Butisolatingisremovingthepossibility
ofcontact;itisamethodofwithdrawingathingfrombeingtouchedinanyway.
Andwhenaneuroticisolatesanimpressionoranactivitybyinterpolatingan
interval,heislettingitbeunderstoodsymbolicallythathewillnotallowhis
thoughtsaboutthatimpressionoractivitytocomeintoassociativecontactwith
otherthoughts.
Thisisasfarasourinvestigationsintotheformationofsymptomstakeus.It
ishardlyworthwhilesummingthemup,fortheresultstheyhaveyieldedare
scantyandincompleteandtellusscarcelyanythingthatwedonotalreadyknow.
Itwouldbefruitlesstoturnourattentiontosymptomformationinotherdisorders
besidesphobias,conversionhysteriaandobsessionalneurosis,fortoolittleis
knownaboutthem.Butinreviewingthosethreeneurosestogetherwearebrought
upagainstaveryseriousproblemtheconsiderationofwhichcannolongerbeput
off.AllthreehaveastheiroutcomethedestructionoftheOedipuscomplex;andin
allthreethemotiveforceoftheego'soppositionis,webelieve,thefearof
castration.Yetitisonlyinthephobiasthatthisfearcomestothesurfaceandis
acknowledged.Whathasbecomeofitintheothertwoneuroses?Howhastheego
spareditselfthisfear?Theproblembecomesaccentuatedwhenwerecallthe
possibility,already
1[Cf.severalpassagesinthesecondessayinTotemandTaboo(191213),e.g.Standard
Ed.,13,27ff.and73.]
- 122 -
referredto,thatanxietyarisesdirectly,byakindoffermentation,fromalibidinal
cathexiswhoseprocesseshavebeendisturbed.Furthermore,isitabsolutelycertain
thatfearofcastrationistheonlymotiveforceofrepression(ordefence)?Ifwe
thinkofneurosesinwomenweareboundtodoubtit.Forthoughwecanwith
certaintyestablishinthemthepresenceofacastrationcomplex,wecanhardly
speakwithproprietyofcastrationanxietywherecastrationhasalreadytakenplace.
- 123 -
VII
Letusgobackagaintoinfantilephobiasofanimals;for,whenallissaidand
done,weunderstandthembetterthananyothercases.Inanimalphobias,then,the
egohastoopposealibidinalobjectcathexiscomingfromtheidacathexisthat
belongseithertothepositiveorthenegativeOedipuscomplexbecauseit
believesthattogivewaytoitwouldentailthedangerofcastration.Thisquestion
hasalreadybeendiscussed,buttherestillremainsadoubtfulpointtoclearup.In
LittleHans'scasethatis,inthecaseofapositiveOedipuscomplexwasithis
fondnessforhismotherorwasithisaggressivenesstowardshisfatherwhich
calledoutthedefencebytheego?Inpracticeitseemstomakenodifference,
especiallyaseachsetoffeelingsimpliestheother;butthequestionhasa
theoreticalinterest,sinceitisonlythefeelingofaffectionforthemotherwhich
cancountasapurelyeroticone.Theaggressiveimpulseflowsmainlyfromthe
destructiveinstinct;andwehavealwaysbelievedthatinaneurosisitisagainstthe
demandsofthelibidoandnotagainstthoseofanyotherinstinctthattheegois
defendingitself.InpointoffactweknowthatafterHans's'phobiahadbeen
formed,histenderattachmenttohismotherseemedtodisappear,havingbeen
completelydisposedofbyrepression,whiletheformationofthesymptom(the
substitutiveformation)tookplaceinrelationtohisaggressiveimpulses.Inthe
WolfManthesituationwassimpler.Theimpulsethatwasrepressedhis
feminineattitudetowardshisfatherwasagenuinelyeroticone;anditwasin
relationtothatimpulsethattheformationofhissymptomstookplace.
Itisalmosthumiliatingthat,afterworkingsolong,weshouldstillbehaving
difficultyinunderstandingthemostfundamentalfacts.Butwehavemadeupour
mindstosimplifynothingandtohidenothing.Ifwecannotseethingsclearlywe
willatleastseeclearlywhattheobscuritiesare.Whatishamperingushereis
evidentlysomehitchinthedevelopmentofourtheoryoftheinstincts.Webegan
bytracingtheorganizationofthelibidothroughitssuccessivestagesfromthe
oralthroughthesadisticanaltothegenitalandindoingsoplacedallthe
componentsofthesexualinstinctonthesamefooting.Lateritappeared
- 124 -
thatsadismwastherepresentativeofanotherinstinct,whichwasopposedtoEros.
Thisnewview,thattheinstinctsfallintotwogroups,seemstoexplodetheearlier
constructionofthesuccessivestagesoflibidinalorganization.Butwedonothave
tobreakfreshgroundinordertofindawayoutofthedifficulty.Thesolutionhas
beenathandforalongtimeandliesinthefactthatwhatweareconcernedwith
arescarcelyeverpureinstinctualimpulsesbutmixturesinvariousproportionsof
thetwogroupsofinstincts.Ifthisisso,thereisnoneedtoreviseourviewofthe
organizationsofthelibido.Asadisticcathexisofanobjectmayalsolegitimately
claimtobetreatedasalibidinalone;andanaggressiveimpulseagainstthefather
canjustaswellbesubjectedtorepressionasatenderimpulsetowardsthemother.
Neverthelessweshallbearinmindforfutureconsiderationthepossibilitythat
repressionisaprocesswhichhasaspecialrelationtothegenitalorganizationof
thelibidoandthattheegoresortstoothermethodsofdefencewhenithasto
secureitselfagainstthelibidoonotherlevelsoforganization.Tocontinue:acase
likeLittleHansdoesnotenableustocometoanyclearconclusion.Itistruethat
inhimanaggressiveimpulsewasdisposedofbyrepression,butthishappened
afterthegenitalorganizationhadbeenreached.
Thistimewewillnotlosesightofthepartplayedbyanxiety.Wehavesaid
thatassoonastheegorecognizesthedangerofcastrationitgivesthesignalof
anxietyandinhibitsthroughthepleasureunpleasureagency(inawaywhichwe
cannotasyetunderstand)theimpendingcathecticprocessintheid.Atthesame
timethephobiaisformed.Andnowthecastrationanxietyisdirectedtoadifferent
objectandexpressedinadistortedform,sothatthepatientisafraid,notofbeing
castratedbyhisfather,butofbeingbittenbyahorseordevouredbyawolf.This
substitutiveformationhastwoobviousadvantages.Inthefirstplaceitavoidsa
conflictduetoambivalence(forthefatherwasalovedobject,too),andinthe
secondplaceitenablestheegotoceasegeneratinganxiety.Fortheanxiety
belongingtoaphobiaisconditional;itonlyemergeswhentheobjectofitis
perceivedandrightlyso,sinceitisonlythenthatthedangersituationispresent.
Thereisnoneedtobeafraidofbeingcastratedbyafatherwhoisnotthere.Onthe
otherhandonecannotgetridofafather;he
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canappearwheneverhechooses.Butifheisreplacedbyananimal,allonehasto
doistoavoidthesightofitthatis,itspresenceinordertobefreefromdanger
andanxiety.LittleHans,therefore,imposedarestrictionuponhisego.He
producedtheinhibitionofnotleavingthehouse,soasnottocomeacrossany
horses.TheyoungRussianhadaneveneasiertimeofit,foritwashardlya
privationforhimnottolookataparticularpicturebookanymore.Ifhisnaughty
sisterhadnotkeptonshowinghimthebookwiththepictureofthewolfstanding
uprightinit,hewouldhavebeenabletofeelsafefromhisfear.1
OnapreviousoccasionIhavestatedthatphobiashavethecharacterofa
projectioninthattheyreplaceaninternal,instinctualdangerbyanexternal,
perceptualone.Theadvantageofthisisthatthesubjectcanprotecthimselfagainst
anexternaldangerbyfleeingfromitandavoidingtheperceptionofit,whereasit
isuselesstofleefromdangersthatarisefromwithin.2Thisstatementofminewas
notincorrect,butitdidnotgobelowthesurfaceofthings.Foraninstinctual
demandis,afterall,notdangerousinitself;itonlybecomessoinasmuchasit
entailsarealexternaldanger,thedangerofcastration.Thuswhathappensina
phobiainthelastresortismerelythatoneexternaldangerisreplacedbyanother.
Theviewthatinaphobiatheegoisabletoescapeanxietybymeansofavoidance
orofinhibitorysymptomsfitsinverywellwiththetheorythatthatanxietyisonly
anaffectivesignalandthatnoalterationhastakenplaceintheeconomicsituation.
Theanxietyfeltinanimalphobiasis,therefore,anaffectivereactiononthe
partoftheegotodanger;andthedangerwhichisbeingsignalledinthiswayisthe
dangerofcastration.Thisanxietydiffersinnorespectfromtherealisticanxiety
whichtheegonormallyfeelsinsituationsofdanger,exceptthatitscontent
remainsunconsciousandonlybecomesconsciousintheformofadistortion.
Thesamewillprovetrue,Ithink,ofthephobiasofadults,althoughthe
materialwhichtheirneurosesworkoverismuch
2[SeetheaccountofphobiasgiveninSectionIVofFreud'smetapsychologicalpaperon
TheUnconscious(1915e),StandardEd.,14,1824.SeealsoEditor'sIntroduction,p.80
above.]
- 126 -
moreabundantandtherearesomeadditionalfactorsintheformationofthe
symptoms.Fundamentallythepositionisidentical.Theagoraphobicpatient
imposesarestrictiononhisegosoastoescapeacertaininstinctualdanger
namely,thedangerofgivingwaytohiseroticdesires.Forifhedidsothedanger
ofbeingcastrated,orsomesimilardanger,wouldoncemorebeconjuredupasit
wasinhischildhood.Imayciteasaninstancethecaseofayoungmanwho
becameagoraphobicbecausehewasafraidofyieldingtothesolicitationsof
prostitutesandofcontractingasyphiliticinfectionfromthemasapunishment.
Iamwellawarethatanumberofcasesexhibitamorecomplicatedstructure
andthatmanyotherrepressedinstinctualimpulsescanenterintoaphobia.But
theyareonlytributarystreamswhichhaveforthemostpartjoinedthemain
currentoftheneurosisatalaterstage.Thesymptomatologyofagoraphobiais
complicatedbythefactthattheegodoesnotconfineitselftomakinga
renunciation.Inordertorobthesituationofdangeritdoesmore:itusuallyeffects
atemporalregression1toinfancy(inextremecases,toatimewhenthesubject
wasinhismother'swombandprotectedagainstthedangerswhichthreatenhimin
thepresent).Sucharegressionnowbecomesaconditionwhosefulfilment
exemptstheegofrommakingitsrenunciation.Forinstance,anagoraphobic
patientmaybeabletowalkinthestreetprovidedheisaccompanied,likeasmall
child,bysomeoneheknowsandtrusts;or,forthesamereason,hemaybeableto
gooutaloneprovidedheremainswithinacertaindistanceofhisownhouseand
doesnotgotoplaceswhicharenotfamiliartohimorwherepeopledonotknow
him.Whatthesestipulationsarewilldependineachcaseontheinfantilefactors
whichdominatehimthroughhisneurosis.Thephobiaofbeingaloneis
unambiguousinitsmeaning,irrespectiveofanyinfantileregression:itis,
ultimately,anendeavourtoavoidthetemptationtoindulgeinsolitary
1[ThetermtemporalregressionisusedbyFreudveryrarely.Itappearsatthe
beginningofthefifthofhisClarkUniversitylectures(1910a),StandardEd.,11,49,ina
paragraphaddedin1914toTheInterpretationofDreams(1900a),StandardEd.,5,548,
andinapassageinthemetapsychologicalpaperondreams(1917d),StandardEd.,14,
2223.]
- 127 -
masturbation.Infantileregressioncan,ofcourse,onlytakeplacewhenthesubject
isnolongerachild.
Aphobiagenerallysetsinafterafirstanxietyattackhasbeenexperiencedin
specificcircumstances,suchasinthestreetorinatrainorinsolitude.Thereafter
theanxietyisheldinbanbythephobia,butitreemergeswhenevertheprotective
conditioncannotbefulfilled.Themechanismofphobiadoesgoodserviceasa
meansofdefenceandtendstobeverystable.Acontinuationofthedefensive
struggle,intheshapeofastruggleagainstthesymptom,occursfrequentlybutnot
invariably.
Whatwehavelearntaboutanxietyinphobiasisapplicabletoobsessional
neurosesaswell.Inthisrespectitisnotdifficultforustoputobsessionalneuroses
onallfourswithphobias.Intheformer,themainspringofalllatersymptom
formationisclearlytheego'sfearofitssuperego.Thedangersituationfrom
whichtheegomustgetawayisthehostilityofthesuperego.Thereisnotraceof
projectionhere;thedangeriscompletelyinternalized.Butifweaskourselves
whatitisthattheegofearsfromthesuperego,wecannotbutthinkthatthe
punishmentthreatenedbythelattermustbeanextensionofthepunishmentof
castration.Justasthefatherhasbecomedepersonalizedintheshapeofthesuper
ego,sohasthefearofcastrationathishandsbecometransformedintoan
undefinedsocialormoralanxiety.1Butthisanxietyisconcealed.Theegoescapes
itbyobedientlycarryingoutthecommands,precautionsandpenancesthathave
beenenjoinedonit.Ifitisimpededindoingso,itisatonceovertakenbyan
extremelydistressingfeelingofdiscomfortwhichmayberegardedasan
equivalentofanxietyandwhichthepatientsthemselveslikentoanxiety.
Theconclusionwehavecometo,then,isthis.Anxietyisareactiontoa
situationofdanger.Itisobviatedbytheego'sdoingsomethingtoavoidthat
situationortowithdrawfrom
1[Gewissensangst,literallyconscienceanxiety.Thiswordisacauseofconstant
troubletothetranslator.Inordinaryusageitmeansnomorethanqualmsofconscience.
ButofteninFreud,asinthepresentpassage,stressislaidonthefactorofanxietyinthe
concept.Sometimes,even,itmightberenderedfearofconsciencewherethedistinction
betweenconscienceandsuperegoisnotsharplydrawn.Thefullestdiscussionof
thesequestionswillbefoundinChaptersVIIandVIIIofCivilizationanditsDiscontents
(1930a).]
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it.Itmightbesaidthatsymptomsarecreatedsoastoavoidthegeneratingof
anxiety.Butthisdoesnotgodeepenough.Itwouldbetruertosaythatsymptoms
arecreatedsoastoavoidadangersituationwhosepresencehasbeensignalledby
thegenerationofanxiety.Inthecasesthatwehavediscussed,thedanger
concernedwasthedangerofcastrationorofsomethingtraceablebackto
castration.
Ifanxietyisareactionoftheegotodanger,weshallbetemptedtoregardthe
traumaticneuroses,whichsooftenfollowuponanarrowescapefromdeath,asa
directresultofafearofdeath(orfearforlife)andtodismissfromourmindsthe
questionofcastrationandthedependentrelationshipsoftheego[p.95].Mostof
thosewhoobservedthetraumaticneurosesthatoccurredduringthelastwar1took
thisline,andtriumphantlyannouncedthatproofwasnowforthcomingthata
threattotheinstinctofselfpreservationcouldbyitselfproduceaneurosiswithout
anyadmixtureofsexualfactorsandwithoutrequiringanyofthecomplicated
hypothesesofpsychoanalysis.Itisinfactgreatlytoberegrettedthatnotasingle
analysisofatraumaticneurosisofanyvalueisextant.2Anditistoberegretted,
notbecausesuchananalysiswouldcontradicttheaetiologicalimportanceof
sexualityforanysuchcontradictionhaslongsincebeendisposedofbythe
introductionoftheconceptofnarcissism,whichbringsthelibidinalcathexisofthe
egointolinewiththecathexesofobjectsandemphasizesthelibidinalcharacterof
theinstinctofselfpreservationbutbecause,intheabsenceofanyanalysesof
thiskind,wehavelostamostpreciousopportunityofdrawingdecisive
conclusionsabouttherelationsbetweenanxietyandtheformationofsymptoms.
Inviewofallthatweknowaboutthestructureofthecomparativelysimple
neurosesofeverydaylife,itwouldseemhighlyimprobablethataneurosiscould
comeintobeingmerelybecauseoftheobjectivepresenceofdanger,withoutany
participationofthedeeperlevelsofthementalapparatus.Buttheunconscious
seemstocontainnothingthatcouldgiveanycontenttoourconceptofthe
annihilationoflife.Castrationcanbepicturedonthebasisofthedailyexperience
ofthefaecesbeingseparatedfromthebodyoronthebasisoflosingthe
1[ThefirstWorldWar.]
2[SeeFreud'sdiscussionofthewarneuroses(1919d).]
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mother'sbreastatweaning.1Butnothingresemblingdeathcaneverhavebeen
experienced;orifithas,asinfainting,ithasleftnoobservabletracesbehind.Iam
thereforeinclinedtoadheretotheviewthatthefearofdeathshouldberegardedas
analogoustothefearofcastrationandthatthesituationtowhichtheegois
reactingisoneofbeingabandonedbytheprotectingsuperegothepowersof
destinysothatithasnolongeranysafeguardagainstallthedangersthat
surroundit.2Inaddition,itmustberememberedthatintheexperienceswhichlead
toatraumaticneurosistheprotectiveshieldagainstexternalstimuliisbroken
throughandexcessiveamountsofexcitationimpingeuponthementalapparatus
[cf.p.94];sothatwehavehereasecondpossibilitythatanxietyisnotonly
beingsignalledasanaffectbutisalsobeingfreshlycreatedoutoftheeconomic
conditionsofthesituation.
ThestatementIhavejustmade,totheeffectthattheegohasbeenpreparedto
expectcastrationbyhavingundergoneconstantlyrepeatedobjectlosses,places
thequestionofanxietyinanewlight.Wehavehithertoregardeditasanaffective
signalofdanger;butnow,sincethedangerissooftenoneofcastration,itappears
tousasareactiontoaloss,aseparation.Eventhoughanumberofconsiderations
immediatelyarisewhichmakeagainstthisview,wecannotbutbestruckbyone
veryremarkablecorrelation.Thefirstexperienceofanxietywhichanindividual
goesthrough(inthecaseofhumanbeings,atallevents)isbirth,and,objectively
speaking,birthisaseparationfromthemother.Itcouldbecomparedtoa
castrationofthemother(byequatingthechildwithapenis).Nowitwouldbevery
satisfactoryifanxiety,asasymbolofaseparation,weretoberepeatedonevery
subsequentoccasiononwhichaseparationtookplace.Butunfortunatelyweare
preventedfrommakinguseofthiscorrelationbythefactthatbirthisnot
experiencedsubjectivelyasaseparationfromthemother,sincethefoetus,beinga
completelynarcissisticcreature,istotallyunawareofherexistenceasanobject.
Anotheradverseargumentisthatweknowwhattheaffectivereactionstoa
1[Seeafootnoteaddedin1923totheLittleHanscasehistory,StandardEd.,10,89.]
2[Cf.thelastfewparagraphsofTheEgoandtheId(1923b),andbelow,p.140.]
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separationare:theyarepainandmourning,notanxiety.Incidentally,itmaybe
rememberedthatindiscussingthequestionofmourningwealsofailedtodiscover
whyitshouldbesuchapainfulthing.1
1[SeeMourningandMelancholia(1917e),StandardEd.,14,2445.Freudreturnsto
thissubjectinAddendumC,p.169ff.below.]
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VIII
Thetimehascometopauseandconsider.Whatweclearlywantistofind
somethingthatwilltelluswhatanxietyreallyis,somecriterionthatwillenableus
todistinguishtruestatementsaboutitfromfalseones.Butthisisnoteasytoget.
Anxietyisnotsosimpleamatter.Uptillnowwehavearrivedatnothingbut
contradictoryviewsaboutit,noneofwhichcan,totheunprejudicedeye,begiven
preferenceovertheothers.Ithereforeproposetoadoptadifferentprocedure.I
proposetoassemble,quiteimpartially,allthefactsthatweknowaboutanxiety
withoutexpectingtoarriveatafreshsynthesis.
Anxiety,then,isinthefirstplacesomethingthatisfelt.Wecallitanaffective
state,althoughwearealsoignorantofwhatanaffectis.Asafeeling,anxietyhasa
verymarkedcharacterofunpleasure.Butthatisnotthewholeofitsquality.Not
everyunpleasurecanbecalledanxiety,forthereareotherfeelings,suchas
tension,painormourning,whichhavethecharacterofunpleasure.Thusanxiety
musthaveotherdistinctivefeaturesbesidesthisqualityofunpleasure.Canwe
succeedinunderstandingthedifferencesbetweenthesevariousunpleasurable
affects?
Wecanatanyratenoteoneortwothingsaboutthefeelingofanxiety.Its
unpleasurablecharacterseemstohaveanoteofitsownsomethingnotvery
obvious,whosepresenceisdifficulttoproveyetwhichisinalllikelihoodthere.
Butbesideshavingthisspecialfeaturewhichisdifficulttoisolate,wenoticethat
anxietyisaccompaniedbyfairlydefinitephysicalsensationswhichcanbe
referredtoparticularorgansofthebody.Aswearenotconcernedherewiththe
physiologyofanxiety,weshallcontentourselveswithmentioningafew
representativesofthesesensations.Theclearestandmostfrequentonesarethose
connectedwiththerespiratoryorgansandwiththeheart.1Theyprovideevidence
thatmotorinnervationsthatis,processesofdischargeplayapartinthegeneral
phenomenonofanxiety.
Analysisofanxietystatesthereforerevealstheexistenceof(1)aspecific
characterofunpleasure,(2)actsofdischargeand
1[Cf.paragraph3ofSectionIofFreud'sfirstpaperonanxietyneurosis(1895b).]
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(3)perceptionsofthoseacts.Thetwolastpointsindicateatonceadifference
betweenstatesofanxietyandothersimilarstates,likethoseofmourningandpain.
Thelatterdonothaveanymotormanifestation;oriftheyhave,themanifestation
isnotanintegralpartofthewholestatebutisdistinctfromitasbeingaresultofit
orareactiontoit.Anxiety,then,isaspecialstateofunpleasurewithactsof
dischargealongparticularpaths.Inaccordancewithourgeneralviews 1weshould
beinclinedtothinkthatanxietyisbaseduponanincreaseofexcitationwhichon
theonehandproducesthecharacterofunpleasureandontheotherfindsrelief
throughtheactsofdischargealreadymentioned.Butapurelyphysiological
accountofthissortwillscarcelysatisfyus.Wearetemptedtoassumethe
presenceofahistoricalfactorwhichbindsthesensationsofanxietyandits
innervationsfirmlytogether.Weassume,inotherwords,thatananxietystateis
thereproductionofsomeexperiencewhichcontainedthenecessaryconditionsfor
suchanincreaseofexcitationandadischargealongparticularpaths,andthatfrom
thiscircumstancetheunpleasureofanxietyreceivesitsspecificcharacter.Inman,
birthprovidesaprototypicexperienceofthiskind,andwearethereforeinclinedto
regardanxietystatesasareproductionofthetraumaofbirth.[Seeabove,p.93f.]
Thisdoesnotimplythatanxietyoccupiesanexceptionalpositionamongthe
affectivestates.Inmyopiniontheotheraffectsarealsoreproductionsofvery
early,perhapsevenpreindividual,experiencesofvitalimportance;andIshould
beinclinedtoregardthemasuniversal,typicalandinnatehystericalattacks,as
comparedtotherecentlyandindividuallyacquiredattackswhichoccurin
hystericalneurosesandwhoseoriginandsignificanceasmnemicsymbolshave
beenrevealedbyanalysis.Itwouldbeverydesirable,ofcourse,tobeableto
demonstratethetruthofthisviewinanumberofsuchaffectsathingwhichis
stillveryfarfrombeingthecase.2
1[Asexpressed,forinstance,intheopeningpagesofBeyondthePleasurePrinciple
(1920g),StandardEd.,18,7ff.]
2[ThisnotionisprobablyderivedfromDarwin'sExpressionoftheEmotions(1872),
whichwasquotedbyFreudinasimilarconnectioninStudiesonHysteria(1895d),
StandardEd.,2,181.SeeEditor'sIntroduction,p.84.Thenatureofaffectshadbeen
discussedinTheUnconscious(1915e),StandardEdition,14,1778,andalso(more
clearly)inLectureXXVoftheIntroductoryLectures(191617),ibid.,16,3956.]
- 133 -
Theviewthatanxietygoesbacktotheeventofbirthraisesimmediate
objectionswhichhavetobemet.Itmaybearguedthatanxietyisareactionwhich,
inallprobability,iscommontoeveryorganism,certainlyeveryorganismofa
higherorder,whereasbirthisonlyexperiencedbythemammals;anditisdoubtful
whetherinallofthem,even,birthhasthesignificanceofatrauma.Therefore
therecanbeanxietywithouttheprototypeofbirth.Butthisobjectiontakesus
beyondthebarrierthatdividespsychologyfrombiology.Itmaybethat,precisely
becauseanxietyhasanindispensablebiologicalfunctiontofulfilasareactiontoa
stateofdanger,itisdifferentlycontrivedindifferentorganisms.Wedonotknow,
besides,whetheranxietyinvolvesthesamesensationsandinnervationsin
organismsfarremovedfrommanasitdoesinmanhimself.Thusthereisnogood
argumenthereagainsttheviewthat,inman,anxietyismodelledupontheprocess
ofbirth.
Ifthestructureandoriginofanxietyareasdescribed,thenextquestionis:
whatisthefunctionofanxietyandonwhatoccasionsisitreproduced?The
answerseemstobeobviousandconvincing:anxietyaroseoriginallyasareaction
toastateofdangeranditisreproducedwheneverastateofthatkindrecurs.
Thisanswer,however,raisesfurtherconsiderations.Theinnervations
involvedintheoriginalstateofanxietyprobablyhadameaningandpurpose,in
justthesamewayasthemuscularmovementswhichaccompanyafirsthysterical
attack.Inordertounderstandahystericalattack,allonehastodoistolookforthe
situationinwhichthemovementsinquestionformedpartofanappropriateand
expedientaction.Thusatbirthitisprobablethattheinnervation,inbeingdirected
totherespiratoryorgans,ispreparingthewayfortheactivityofthelungs,and,in
acceleratingtheheartbeat,ishelpingtokeepthebloodfreefromtoxicsubstances.
Naturally,whentheanxietystateisreproducedlaterasanaffectitwillbelacking
inanysuchexpediency,justasaretherepetitionsofahystericalattack.Whenthe
individualisplacedinanewsituationofdangeritmaywellbequiteinexpedient
forhimtorespondwithananxietystate(whichisareactiontoanearlierdanger)
insteadofinitiatingareactionappropriatetothecurrentdanger.Buthisbehaviour
maybecomeexpedientoncemore
- 134 -
ifthedangersituationisrecognizedasitapproachesandissignalledbyan
outbreakofanxiety.Inthatcasehecanatoncegetridofhisanxietybyhaving
recoursetomoresuitablemeasures.Thusweseethattherearetwowaysinwhich
anxietycanemerge:inaninexpedientway,whenanewsituationofdangerhas
occurred,orinanexpedientwayinordertogiveasignalandpreventsucha
situationfromoccurring.
Butwhatisadanger?Intheactofbirththereisarealdangertolife.We
knowwhatthismeansobjectively;butinapsychologicalsenseitsaysnothingat
alltous.Thedangerofbirthhasasyetnopsychicalcontent.Wecannotpossibly
supposethatthefoetushasanysortofknowledgethatthereisapossibilityofits
lifebeingdestroyed.Itcanonlybeawareofsomevastdisturbanceintheeconomy
ofitsnarcissisticlibido.Largesumsofexcitationcrowdinuponit,givingriseto
newkindsoffeelingsofunpleasure,andsomeorgansacquireanincreased
cathexis,thusforeshadowingtheobjectcathexiswhichwillsoonsetin.What
elementsinallthiswillbemadeuseofasthesignofadangersituation?
Unfortunatelyfartoolittleisknownaboutthementalmakeupofanewborn
babytomakeadirectanswerpossible.Icannotevenvouchforthevalidityofthe
descriptionIhavejustgiven.Itiseasytosaythatthebabywillrepeatitsaffectof
anxietyineverysituationwhichrecallstheeventofbirth.Theimportantthingto
knowiswhatrecallstheeventandwhatitisthatisrecalled.
Allwecandoistoexaminetheoccasionsonwhichinfantsinarmsor
somewhatolderchildrenshowreadinesstoproduceanxiety.Inhisbookonthe
traumaofbirth,Rank(1924)hasmadeadeterminedattempttoestablisha
relationshipbetweentheearliestphobiasofchildrenandtheimpressionsmadeon
thembytheeventofbirth.ButIdonotthinkhehasbeensuccessful.Histheoryis
opentotwoobjections.Inthefirstplace,heassumesthattheinfanthasreceived
certainsensoryimpressions,inparticularofavisualkind,atthetimeofbirth,the
renewalofwhichcanrecalltoitsmemorythetraumaofbirthandthusevokea
reactionofanxiety.Thisassumptionisquiteunfoundedandextremely
improbable.Itisnotcrediblethatachildshouldretainanybuttactileandgeneral
sensationsrelatingtotheprocessofbirth.If,lateron,childrenshowfear
- 135 -
ofsmallanimalsthatdisappearintoholesoremergefromthem,thisreaction,
accordingtoRank,isduetotheirperceivingananalogy.Butitisananalogyof
whichtheycannotbeaware.Inthesecondplace,inconsideringtheselater
anxietysituationsRankdwells,assuitshimbest,nowonthechild'srecollection
ofitshappyintrauterineexistence,nowonitsrecollectionofthetraumatic
disturbancewhichinterruptedthatexistencewhichleavesthedoorwideopenfor
arbitraryinterpretation.Thereare,moreover,certainexamplesofchildhood
anxietywhichdirectlytraversehistheory.When,forinstance,achildisleftalone
inthedarkonewouldexpectit,accordingtohisview,towelcomethere
establishmentoftheintrauterinesituation;yetitispreciselyonsuchoccasions
thatthechildreactswithanxiety.Andifthisisexplainedbysayingthatthechild
isbeingremindedoftheinterruptionwhichtheeventofbirthmadeinitsintra
uterinehappiness,itbecomesimpossibletoshutone'seyesanylongertothefar
fetchedcharacterofsuchexplanations.1
Iamdriventotheconclusionthattheearliestphobiasofinfancycannotbe
directlytracedbacktoimpressionsoftheactofbirthandthatsofartheyhavenot
beenexplained.Acertainpreparednessforanxietyisundoubtedlypresentinthe
infantinarms.Butthispreparednessforanxiety,insteadofbeingatitsmaximum
immediatelyafterbirthandthenslowlydecreasing,doesnotemergetilllater,as
mentaldevelopmentproceeds,andlastsoveracertainperiodofchildhood.Ifthese
earlyphobiaspersistbeyondthatperiodoneisinclinedtosuspectthepresenceof
aneuroticdisturbance,althoughitisnotatallclearwhattheirrelationistothe
undoubtedneurosesthatappearlateroninchildhood.
Onlyafewofthemanifestationsofanxietyinchildrenarecomprehensibleto
us,andwemustconfineourattentiontothem.Theyoccur,forinstance,whena
childisalone,orinthedark,2orwhenitfindsitselfwithanunknownperson
insteadofonetowhomitisusedsuchasitsmother.Thesethreeinstancescan
bereducedtoasingleconditionnamely,thatofmissingsomeonewhoisloved
andlongedfor.Buthere,
1[Rank'stheoryisfurtherdiscussedbelow,p.150ff.]
2[Cf.afootnotetoSection5ofthethirdofFreud'sThreeEssay(1905d),StandardEd.,
7,224.]
- 136 -
Ithink,wehavethekeytoanunderstandingofanxietyandtoareconciliationof
thecontradictionsthatseemtobesetit.
Thechild'smnemicimageofthepersonlongedforisnodoubtintensely
cathected,probablyinahallucinatorywayatfirst.Butthishasnoeffect;andnow
itseemsasthoughthelongingturnsintoanxiety.Thisanxietyhasallthe
appearanceofbeinganexpressionofthechild'sfeelingatitswits'end,asthough
initsstillveryundevelopedstateitdidnotknowhowbettertocopewithits
cathexisoflonging.Hereanxietyappearsasareactiontothefeltlossofthe
object;andweareatonceremindedofthefactthatcastrationanxiety,too,isa
fearofbeingseparatedfromahighlyvaluedobject,andthattheearliestanxietyof
alltheprimalanxietyofbirthisbroughtaboutontheoccasionofa
separationfromthemother.
Butamoment'sreflectiontakesusbeyondthisquestionoflossofobject.The
reasonwhytheinfantinarmswantstoperceivethepresenceofitsmotherisonly
becauseitalreadyknowsbyexperiencethatshesatisfiesallitsneedswithout
delay.Thesituation,then,whichitregardsasadangerandagainstwhichit
wantstobesafeguardedisthatofnonsatisfaction,ofagrowingtensiondueto
need,againstwhichitishelpless.Ithinkthatifweadoptthisviewallthefactsfall
intoplace.Thesituationofnonsatisfactioninwhichtheamountsofstimulation
risetoanunpleasurableheightwithoutitsbeingpossibleforthemtobemastered
psychicallyordischargedmustfortheinfantbeanalogoustotheexperienceof
beingbornmustbearepetitionofthesituationofdanger.Whatbothsituations
haveincommonistheeconomicdisturbancecausedbyanaccumulationof
amountsofstimulationwhichrequiretobedisposedof.Itisthisfactor,then,
whichistherealessenceofthedanger.Inbothcasesthereactionofanxietysets
in.(Thisreactionisstillanexpedientoneintheinfantinarms,forthedischarge,
beingdirectedintotherespiratoryandvocalmuscularapparatus,nowcallsits
mothertoit,justasitactivatedthelungsofthenewbornbabytogetridofthe
internalstimuli.)Itisunnecessarytosupposethatthechildcarriesanythingmore
withitfromthetimeofitsbirththanthiswayofindicatingthepresenceofdanger.
Whentheinfanthasfoundoutbyexperiencethatanexternal,perceptible
objectcanputanendtothedangerous
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situationwhichisreminiscentofbirth,thecontentofthedangeritfearsis
displacedfromtheeconomicsituationontotheconditionwhichdeterminedthat
situation,viz.,thelossofobject.Itistheabsenceofthemotherthatisnowthe
danger;andassoonasthatdangerarisestheinfantgivesthesignalofanxiety,
beforethedreadedeconomicsituationhassetin.Thischangeconstitutesafirst
greatstepforwardintheprovisionmadebytheinfantforitsselfpreservation,and
atthesametimerepresentsatransitionfromtheautomaticandinvoluntaryfresh
appearanceofanxietytotheintentionalreproductionofanxietyasasignalof
danger.
Inthesetwoaspects,asanautomaticphenomenonandasarescuingsignal,
anxietyisseentobeaproductoftheinfant'smentalhelplessnesswhichisa
naturalcounterpartofitsbiologicalhelplessness.Thestrikingcoincidenceby
whichtheanxietyofthenewbornbabyandtheanxietyoftheinfantinarmsare
bothconditionedbyseparationfromthemotherdoesnotneedtobeexplainedon
psychologicallines.Itcanbeaccountedforsimplyenoughbiologically;for,just
asthemotheroriginallysatisfiedalltheneedsofthefoctusthroughtheapparatus
ofherownbody,sonow,afteritsbirth,shecontinuestodoso,thoughpartlyby
othermeans.Thereismuchmorecontinuitybetweenintrauterinelifeandearliest
infancythantheimpressivecaesura1oftheactofbirthwouldhaveusbelieve.
Whathappensisthatthechild'sbiologicalsituationasafoetusisreplacedforitby
apsychicalobjectrelationtoitsmother.Butwemustnotforgetthatduringits
intrauterinelifethemotherwasnotanobjectforthefoetus,andthatatthattime
therewerenoobjectsatall.Itisobviousthatinthisschemeofthingsthereisno
placefortheabreactionofthebirthtrauma.Wecannotfindthatanxietyhasany
functionotherthanthatofbeingasignalfortheavoidanceofadangersituation.
Thesignificanceofthelossofobjectasadeterminantofanxietyextends
considerablyfurther.Forthenexttransformationofanxiety,viz.thecastration
anxietybelongingtothephallicphase,isalsoafearofseparationandisthus
attached
1[Caesur.Inthe1926Germaneditiononly,thiswasmisprintedCensur(censorship).
Thewordcaesuraisatermderivedfromclassicalprosody,andmeansaparticularkind
ofbreakinalineofverse.]
- 138 -
tothesamedeterminant.Inthiscasethedangerisofbeingseparatedfromone's
genitals.Ferenczi[1925]hastraced,quitecorrectly,Ithink,aclearlineof
connectionbetweenthisfearandthefearscontainedintheearliersituationsof
danger.Thehighdegreeofnarcissisticvaluewhichthepenispossessescanappeal
tothefactthatthatorganisaguaranteetoitsownerthathecanbeoncemore
unitedtohismotheri.e.toasubstituteforherintheactofcopulation.Being
deprivedofitamountstoarenewedseparationfromher,andthisinitsturnmeans
beinghelplesslyexposedtoanunpleasurabletensionduetoinstinctualneed,as
wasthecaseatbirth.Buttheneedwhoseincreaseisfearedisnowaspecificone
belongingtothegenitallibidoandisnolongeranindeterminateone,asitwasin
theperiodofinfancy.Itmaybeaddedthatforamanwhoisimpotent(thatis,who
isinhibitedbythethreatofcastration)thesubstituteforcopulationisaphantasyof
returningintohismother'swomb.FollowingFerenczi'slineofthought,wemight
saythatthemaninquestion,havingtriedtobringabouthisreturnintohis
mother'swombbyusinghisgenitalorgantorepresenthim,isnow[inthis
phantasy]replacingthatorganregressivelybyhiswholeperson.1
Theprogresswhichthechildmakesinitsdevelopmentitsgrowing
independence,thesharperdivisionofitsmentalapparatusintoseveralagencies,
theadventofnewneedscannotfailtoexertaninfluenceuponthecontentofthe
dangersituation.Wehavealreadytracedthechangeofthatcontentfromlossof
themotherasanobjecttocastration.Thenextchangeiscausedbythepowerof
thesuperego.Withthedepersonalizationoftheparentalagencyfromwhich
castrationwasfeared,thedangerbecomeslessdefined.Castrationanxiety
developsintomoralanxietysocialanxietyanditisnotsoeasynowtoknow
whattheanxietyisabout.Theformula,separationandexpulsionfromthehorde,
onlyappliestothatlaterportionofthesuperegowhichhasbeenformedonthe
basisofsocialprototypes,nottothenucleusofthesuperego,whichcorresponds
totheintrojectedparentalagency.Puttingitmoregenerally,whattheegoregards
asthedangerandrespondstowithananxietysignalisthatthesuperegoshould
1[FreudhadalreadydiscussedthisphantasyintheWolfMananalysis(1918b),
StandardEd.,17,1002.]
- 139 -
beangrywithitorpunishitorceasetoloveit.Thefinaltransformationwhichthe
fearofthesuperegoundergoesis,itseemstome,thefearofdeath(orfearfor
life)whichisafearofthesuperegoprojectedontothepowersofdestiny. 1
AtonetimeIattachedsomeimportancetotheviewthatwhatwasusedasa
dischargeofanxietywasthecathexiswhichhadbeenwithdrawnintheprocessof
repression.2Todaythisseemstomeofscarcelyanyinterest.Thereasonforthis
isthatwhereasIformerlybelievedthatanxietyinvariablyaroseautomaticallyby
aneconomicprocess,mypresentconceptionofanxietyasasignalgivenbythe
egoinordertoaffectthepleasureunpleasureagencydoesawaywiththenecessity
ofconsideringtheeconomicfactor.Ofcoursethereisnothingtobesaidagainst
theideathatitispreciselytheenergythathasbeenliberatedbybeingwithdrawn
throughrepressionwhichisusedbytheegotoarousetheaffect;butitisnolonger
ofanyimportancewhichportionofenergyisemployedforthispurpose.[Cf.
Editor'sIntroduction,p.80.]
Thisnewviewofthingscallsforanexaminationofanotherassertionofmine
namely,thattheegoistheactualseatofanxiety.3Ithinkthispropositionstill
holdsgood.Thereisnoreasontoassignanymanifestationofanxietytothesuper
ego;whiletheexpressionanxietyoftheidwouldstandinneedofcorrection,
thoughratherastoitsformthanitssubstance.Anxietyisanaffectivestateandas
suchcan,ofcourse,onlybefeltbytheego.Theidcannothaveanxietyastheego
can;foritisnotanorganizationandcannotmakeajudgementaboutsituationsof
danger.Ontheotherhanditveryoftenhappensthatprocessestakeplaceorbegin
totakeplaceintheidwhichcausetheegotoproduceanxiety.Indeed,itis
probablethattheearliestrepressionsaswellasmostofthelateronesare
motivatedbyanegoanxietyofthissortinregardtoparticularprocessesintheid.
Hereagainwearerightlydistinguishingbetweentwocases:thecaseinwhich
somethingoccursintheidwhichactivatesoneofthedangersituationsfortheego
and
1[Cf.above,p.130.]
2[See,forinstance,SectionIVofFreud'smetapsychologicalpaperonThe
Unconscious(1915e),StandardEd.,14,182.]
3[ThiswillbefoundacoupleofpagesbeforetheendofTheEgoandtheId(1923b).]
- 140 -
inducesthelattertogivetheanxietysignalforinhibitiontotakeplace,andthe
caseinwhichasituationanalogoustothetraumaofbirthisestablishedintheid
andanautomaticreactionofanxietyensues.Thetwocasesmaybebroughtcloser
togetherifitispointedoutthatthesecondcasecorrespondstotheearliestand
originaldangersituation,whilethefirstcasecorrespondstoanyoneofthelater
determinantsofanxietythathavebeenderivedfromit;or,asappliedtothe
disorderswhichweinfactcomeacross,thatthesecondcaseisoperativeinthe
actiologyoftheactualneuroses,whilethefirstremainstypicalforthatofthe
psychoneuroses.
Wesee,then,thatitisnotsomuchaquestionoftakingbackourearlier
findingsasofbringingthemintolinewithmorerecentdiscoveries.Itisstillan
undeniablefactthatinsexualabstinence,inimproperinterferencewiththecourse
ofsexualexcitationorifthelatterisdivertedfrombeingworkedover
psychically,1anxietyarisesdirectlyoutoflibido;inotherwords,thattheegois
reducedtoastateofhelplessnessinthefaceofanexcessivetensionduetoneed,
asitwasinthesituationofbirth,andthatanxietyisthengenerated.Hereonce
more,thoughthematterisoflittleimportance,itisverypossiblethatwhatfinds
dischargeinthegeneratingofanxietyispreciselythesurplusofunutilizedlibido. 2
Asweknow,apsychoneurosisisespeciallyliabletodeveloponthebasisofan
actualneurosis.Thislooksasthoughtheegowereattemptingtosaveitselffrom
anxiety,whichithaslearnedtokeepinsuspensionforawhile,andtobinditby
theformationofsymptoms.Analysisofthetraumaticwarneurosesaterm
which,incidentally,coversagreatvarietyofdisorderswouldprobablyhave
shownthatanumberofthempossesssomecharacteristicsoftheactualneuroses.
[Cf.above,p.129.]
Indescribingtheevolutionofthevariousdangersituationsfromtheir
prototype,theactofbirth,Ihavehadnointentionofassertingthateverylater
determinantofanxietycompletelyinvalidatestheprecedingone.Itistruethat,as
thedevelopment
1[PsychischeVerarbeilung,literally,psychicalworkingover.Thephrasewillbe
foundinSectionIIIofFreud'sfirstpaperonanxietyneurosis(1895b),ofwhichthe
wholeofthepresentpassageisanecho.]
2[Cf.thesimilarremarkattheendofthelastparagraphbutone,butseealsotheEditor's
Introduction,p.80above.]
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oftheegogoeson,theearlierdangersituationstendtolosetheirforceandtobe
setaside,sothatwemightsaythateachperiodoftheindividual'slifehasits
appropriatedeterminantofanxiety.Thusthedangerofpsychicalhelplessnessis
appropriatetotheperiodoflifewhenhisegoisimmature;thedangeroflossof
object,toearlychildhoodwhenheisstilldependentonothers;thedangerof
castration,tothephallicphase;andthefearofhissuperego,tothelatencyperiod.
Nevertheless,allthesedangersituationsanddeterminantsofanxietycanpersist
sidebysideandcausetheegotoreacttothemwithanxietyataperiodlaterthan
theappropriateone;or,again,severalofthemcancomeintooperationatthesame
time.Itispossible,moreover,thatthereisafairlycloserelationshipbetweenthe
dangersituationthatisoperativeandtheformtakenbytheensuingneurosis. 1
1Sincethedifferentiationoftheegoandtheid,ourinterestintheproblemsofrepression,
too,wasboundtoreceiveafreshimpetus.Uptillthenwehadbeencontenttoconfineour
interesttothoseaspectsofrepressionwhichconcernedtheegothekeepingawayfrom
consciousnessandfrommotility,andtheformationofsubstitutes(symptoms).With
regardtotherepressedinstinctualimpulsesthemselves,weassumedthattheyremained
unalteredintheunconsciousforanindefinitelengthoftime.Butnowourinterestis
turnedtothevicissitudesoftherepressedandwebegintosuspectthatitisnotself
evident,perhapsnotevenusual,thatthoseimpulsesshouldremainunalteredand
unalterableinthisway.Thereisnodoubtthattheoriginalimpulseshavebeeninhibited
anddeflectedfromtheiraimthroughrepression.Buthastheportionoftheminthe
unconsciousmaintaineditselfandbeenproofagainsttheinfluencesoflifethattendto
alteranddepreciatethem?Inotherwords,dotheoldwishes,aboutwhoseformer
existenceanalysistellsus,stillexist?Theanswerseemsreadytohandandcertain.Itis
thattheold,repressedwishesmuststillbepresentintheunconscioussincewestillfind
theirderivatives,thesymptoms,inoperation.Butthisanswerisnotsufficient.Itdoesnot
enableustodecidebetweentwopossibilities:eitherthattheoldwishisnowoperating
onlythroughitsderivatives,havingtransferredthewholeofitscathecticenergytothem,
orthatitisitselfstillinexistencetoo.Ifitsfatehasbeentoexhaustitselfincathectingits
derivatives,thereisyetathirdpossibility.Inthecourseoftheneurosisitmayhave
becomereanimatedbyregression,anachronisticthoughitmaynowbe.Thesearenoidle
speculations.Therearemanythingsaboutmentallife,bothnormalandpathological,
whichseemtocallfortheraisingofsuchquestions.Inmypaper,TheDissolutionofthe
OedipusComplex(1924d),Ihadoccasiontonoticethedifferencebetweenthemere
repressionandtherealremovalofanoldwishfulimpulse.
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When,inanearlierpartofthisdiscussion,wefoundthatthedangerof
castrationwasofimportanceinmorethanoneneuroticillness,weputourselves
onguardagainstoverestimatingthatfactor,sinceitcouldnotbeadecisiveonefor
thefemalesex,whoareundoubtedlymoresubjecttoneurosesthanmen.[Seep.
123.]Wenowseethatthereisnodangerofourregardingcastrationanxietyasthe
solemotiveforceofthedefensiveprocesseswhichleadtoneurosis.Ihaveshown
elsewhere1howlittlegirls,inthecourseoftheirdevelopment,areledintomaking
atenderobjectcathexisbytheircastrationcomplex.Itispreciselyinwomenthat
thedangersituationoflossofobjectseemstohaveremainedthemosteffective.
Allweneedtodoistomakeaslightmodificationinourdescriptionoftheir
determinantofanxiety,inthesensethatitisnolongeramatteroffeelingthewant
of,oractuallylosingtheobjectitself,butoflosingtheobject'slove.Sincethereis
nodoubtthathysteriahasastrongaffinitywithfemininity,justasobsessional
neurosishaswithmasculinity2,itappearsprobablethat,asadeterminantof
anxiety,lossofloveplaysmuchthesamepartinhysteriaasthethreatofcastration
doesinphobiasandfearofthesuperegoinobsessionalneurosis.
1[Seethesecondhalfofthepaperontheconsequencesoftheanatomicaldistinction
betweenthesexes(1925j).]
2[Freudhadpointedthisoutthirtyyearsearlier,neartheendofhisFrenchpaperon
HeredityandtheAetiologyoftheNeuroses(1896a).]
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IX
Whatisnowleftforusistoconsidertherelationshipbetweentheformation
ofsymptomsandthegeneratingofanxiety.
Thereseemtobetwoverywidelyheldopinionsonthissubject.Oneisthat
anxietyisitselfasymptomofneurosis.Theotheristhatthereisamuchmore
intimaterelationbetweenthetwo.1Accordingtothesecondopinion,symptoms
areonlyformedinordertoavoidanxiety:theybindthepsychicalenergywhich
wouldotherwisebedischargedasanxiety.Thusanxietywouldbethefundamental
phenomenonandmainproblemofneurosis.
Thatthislatteropinionisatleastinparttrueisshownbysomestriking
examples.Ifanagoraphobicpatientwhohasbeenaccompaniedintothestreetis
leftalonethere,hewillproduceananxietyattack.Orifanobsessionalneuroticis
preventedfromwashinghishandsafterhavingtouchedsomething,hewillbecome
apreytoalmostunbearableanxiety.Itisplain,then,thatthepurposeandthe
resultoftheimposedconditionofbeingaccompaniedinthestreetandthe
obsessionalactofwashingthehandsweretoobviateoutbreaksofanxietyofthis
kind.Inthissenseeveryinhibitionwhichtheegoimposesonitselfcanbecalleda
symptom.
Sincewehavetracedbackthegeneratingofanxietytoasituationofdanger,
weshallprefertosaythatsymptomsarecreatedinordertoremovetheegofroma
situationofdanger.Ifthesymptomsarepreventedfrombeingformed,thedanger
doesinfactmaterialize;thatis,asituationanalogoustobirthisestablishedin
whichtheegoishelplessinthefaceofaconstantlyincreasinginstinctualdemand
theearliestandoriginaldeterminantofanxiety.Thusinourviewtherelation
betweenanxietyandsymptomislessclosethanwassupposed,forwehave
insertedthefactorofthedangersituationbetweenthem.Wecanalsoaddthatthe
generatingofanxietysetssymptomformationgoingandis,indeed,anecessary
prerequisiteofit.Foriftheegodidnotarousethepleasureunpleasureagencyby
generatinganxiety,itwouldnotobtainthepowertoarresttheprocesswhichis
preparingintheidandwhichthreatens
1[I.e.betweenanxietyandneurosis.]
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danger.Thereisinallthisanevidentinclinationtolimittoaminimumtheamount
ofanxietygeneratedandtoemployitonlyasasignal;fortodootherwisewould
onlyresultinfeelinginanotherplacetheunpleasurewhichtheinstinctualprocess
wasthreateningtoproduce,andthatwouldnotbeasuccessfromthestandpointof
thepleasureprinciple,althoughitisonethatoccursoftenenoughintheneuroses.
Symptomformation,then,doesinfactputanendtothedangersituation.It
hastwoaspects:one,hiddenfromview,bringsaboutthealterationintheidin
virtueofwhichtheegoisremovedfromdanger;theother,presentedopenly,
showswhathasbeencreatedinplaceoftheinstinctualprocessthathasbeen
affectednamely,thesubstitutiveformation.
Itwould,however,bemorecorrecttoascribetothedefensiveprocesswhat
wehavejustsaidaboutsymptomformationandtousethelattertermas
synonomouswithsubstituteformation.Itwillthenbeclearthatthedefensive
processisanalogoustotheflightbymeansofwhichtheegoremovesitselffroma
dangerthatthreatensitfromoutside.Thedefensiveprocessisanattemptatflight
fromaninstinctualdanger.Anexaminationoftheweakpointsinthiscomparison
willmakethingsclearer.
Oneobjectiontoitisthatlossofanobject(orlossofloveonthepartofthe
object)andthethreatofcastrationarejustasmuchdangerscomingfromoutside
as,letussay,aferociousanimalwouldbe;theyarenotinstinctualdangers.
Nevertheless,thetwocasesarenotthesame.Awolfwouldprobablyattackus
irrespectivelyofourbehaviourtowardsit;butthelovedpersonwouldnotceaseto
loveusnorshouldwebethreatenedwithcastrationifwedidnotentertaincertain
feelingsandintentionswithinus.Thussuchinstinctualimpulsesaredeterminants
ofexternaldangersandsobecomedangerousinthemselves;andwecannow
proceedagainsttheexternaldangerbytakingmeasuresagainsttheinternalones.
Inphobiasofanimalsthedangerseemstobestillfeltentirelyasanexternalone,
justasithasundergoneanexternaldisplacementinthesymptom.Inobsessional
neurosesthedangerismuchmoreinternalized.Thatportionofanxietyinregardto
thesuperegowhichconstitutessocialanxietystillrepresentsaninternalsubstitute
foranexternaldanger,whilethe
- 145 -
otherportionmoralanxietyisalreadycompletelyendopsychic.1
Anotherobjectionisthatinanattemptatflightfromanimpendingexternal
dangerallthatthesubjectisdoingistoincreasethedistancebetweenhimselfand
whatisthreateninghim.Heisnotpreparingtodefendhimselfagainstitor
attemptingtoalteranythingaboutit,aswouldbethecaseifheattackedthewolf
withastickorshotatitwithagun.Butthedefensiveprocessseemstodo
somethingmorethanwouldcorrespondtoanattemptatflight.Itjoinsissuewith
thethreateninginstinctualprocessandsomehowsuppressesitordeflectsitfrom
itsaimsandthusrendersitinnocuous.Thisobjectionseemsunimpeachableand
mustbegivendueweight.Ithinkitisprobablethattherearesomedefensive
processeswhichcantrulybelikenedtoanattemptatflight,whileinotherstheego
takesamuchmoreactivelineofselfprotectionandinitiatesvigorouscounter
measures.Butperhapsthewholeanalogybetweendefenceandflightis
invalidatedbythefactthatboththeegoandtheinstinctintheidarepartsofthe
sameorganization,notseparateentitieslikethewolfandthechild,sothatany
kindofbehaviouronthepartoftheegowillresultinanalterationinthe
instinctualprocessaswell.
Thisstudyofthedeterminantsofanxietyhas,asitwere,shownthedefensive
behaviouroftheegotransfiguredinarationallight.Eachsituationofdanger
correspondstoaparticularperiodoflifeoraparticulardevelopmentalphaseofthe
mentalapparatusandappearstobejustifiableforit.Inearlyinfancytheindividual
isreallynotequippedtomasterpsychicallythelargesumsofexcitationthatreach
himwhetherfromwithoutorfromwithin.Again,atacertainperiodoflifehis
mostimportantinterestreallyisthatthepeopleheisdependentonshouldnot
withdrawtheirlovingcareofhim.Lateroninhisboyhood,whenhefeelsthathis
fatherisapowerfulrivalinregardtohismotherandbecomesawareofhisown
aggressiveinclinationstowardshimandofhissexualintentionstowardshis
mother,hereallyisjustifiedinbeing
1[MuchofthepresentdiscussionisareassessmentoftheargumentswhichFreudhad
usedinhismetapsychologicalpapersonRepression(1915d)andTheUnconscious
(1915e).See,inparticular,StandardEd.,14,1535,and1814.Formoralanxietycf.
footnote,p.128.]
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afraidofhisfather;andhisfearofbeingpunishedbyhimcanfindexpression
throughphylogeneticreinforcementinthefearofbeingcastrated.Finally,ashe
entersintosocialrelationships,itreallyisnecessaryforhimtobeafraidofhis
superego,tohaveaconscience;andtheabsenceofthatfactorwouldgiveriseto
severeconflicts,dangersandsoon.
Butthislastpointraisesafreshproblem.Insteadoftheaffectofanxietyletus
take,foramoment,anotheraffectthatofpain,forinstance.Itseemsquite
normalthatatfouryearsofageagirlshouldweeppainfullyifherdollisbroken;
oratsix,ifhergovernessreprovesher;oratsixteen,ifsheisslightedbyher
youngman;orattwentyfive,perhaps,ifachildofherowndies.Eachofthese
determinantsofpainhasitsowntimeandeachpassesawaywhenthattimeis
over.Onlythefinalanddefinitivedeterminantsremainthroughoutlife.Weshould
thinkitstrangeifthissamegirl,aftershehadgrowntobeawifeandmother,were
tocryoversomeworthlesstrinketthathadbeendamaged.Yetthatishowthe
neuroticbehaves.Althoughalltheagenciesformasteringstimulihavelongago
beendevelopedwithinwidelimitsinhismentalapparatus,andalthoughheis
sufficientlygrownuptosatisfymostofhisneedsforhimselfandhaslongago
learntthatcastrationisnolongerpractisedasapunishment,henevertheless
behavesasthoughtheolddangersituationsstillexisted,andkeepsholdofallthe
earlierdeterminantsofanxiety.
Whythisshouldbesocallsforaratherlongreply.Firstofall,wemustsift
thefacts.Inagreatnumberofcasestheolddeterminantsofanxietydoreally
lapse,afterhavingproducedneuroticreactions.Thephobiasofveryyoung
children,fearsofbeingaloneorinthedarkorwithstrangersphobiaswhichcan
almostbecallednormalusuallypassofflateron;thechildgrowsoutofthem,
aswesayaboutsomeotherdisturbancesofchildhood.Animalphobias,whichare
ofsuchfrequentoccurrence,undergothesamefateandmanyconversionhysterias
ofearlyyearsfindnocontinuationinlaterlife.Ceremonialactionsappear
extremelyofteninthelatencyperiod,butonlyaverysmallpercentageofthem
developlaterintoafullobsessionalneurosis.Ingeneral,sofaraswecantellfrom
ourobservationsoftownchildrenbelongingtothe
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whiteracesandlivingaccordingtofairlyhighculturalstandards,theneurosesof
childhoodareinthenatureofregularepisodesinachild'sdevelopment,although
toolittleattentionisstillbeingpaidtothem.Signsofchildhoodneurosescanbe
detectedinalladultneuroticswithoutexception;butbynomeansallchildrenwho
showthosesignsbecomeneuroticinlaterlife.Itmustbe,therefore,thatcertain
determinantsofanxietyarerelinquishedandcertaindangersituationslosetheir
significanceastheindividualbecomesmoremature.Moreover,someofthese
dangersituationsmanagetosurviveintolatertimesbymodifyingtheir
determinantsofanxietysoastobringthemuptodate.Thus,forinstance,aman
mayretainhisfearofcastrationintheguiseofasyphilidophobia,afterhehas
cometoknowthatitisnolongercustomarytocastratepeopleforindulgingtheir
sexuallusts,butthat,ontheotherhand,severediseasesmayovertakeanyonewho
thusgiveswaytohisinstincts.Otherdeterminantsofanxiety,suchasfearofthe
superego,aredestinednottodisappearatallbuttoaccompanypeoplethroughout
theirlives.Inthatcasetheneuroticwilldifferfromthenormalpersoninthathis
reactionstothedangersinquestionwillbeundulystrong.Finally,beinggrownup
affordsnoabsoluteprotectionagainstareturnoftheoriginaltraumaticanxiety
situation.Eachindividualhasinallprobabilityalimitbeyondwhichhismental
apparatusfailsinitsfunctionofmasteringthequantitiesofexcitationwhich
requiretobedisposedof.
Theseminorrectificationscannotinanywayalterthefactwhichishere
underdiscussion,thatagreatmanypeopleremaininfantileintheirbehaviourin
regardtodangeranddonotovercomedeterminantsofanxietywhichhavegrown
outofdate.Todenythiswouldbetodenytheexistenceofneurosis,foritis
preciselysuchpeoplewhomwecallneurotics.Buthowisthispossible?Whyare
notallneurosesepisodesinthedevelopmentoftheindividualwhichcometoa
closewhenthenextphaseisreached?Whencecomestheelementofpersistencein
thesereactionstodanger?Whydoestheaffectofanxietyaloneseemtoenjoythe
advantageoverallotheraffectsofevokingreactionswhicharedistinguishedfrom
therestinbeingabnormalandwhich,throughtheirinexpediency,runcounterto
themovementoflife?Inotherwords,wehave
- 148 -
oncemorecomeunawaresupontheriddlewhichhassooftenconfrontedus:
whencedoesneurosiscomewhatisitsultimate,itsownpeculiarraisond'tre?
Aftertensofyearsofpsychoanalyticlabours,weareasmuchinthedarkabout
thisproblemaswewereatthestart.
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X
Anxietyisthereactiontodanger.Onecannot,afterall,helpsuspectingthat
thereasonwhytheaffectofanxietyoccupiesauniquepositionintheeconomyof
themindhassomethingtodowiththeessentialnatureofdanger.Yetdangersare
thecommonlotofhumanity;theyarethesameforeveryone.Whatweneedand
cannotlayourfingeronissomefactorwhichwillexplainwhysomepeopleare
abletosubjecttheaffectofanxiety,inspiteofitspeculiarquality,tothenormal
workingsofthemind,orwhichdecideswhoisdoomedtocometogriefoverthat
task.Twoattemptstofindafactorofthiskindhavebeenmade;anditisnatural
thatsucheffortsshouldmeetwithasympatheticreception,sincetheypromise
helptomeetatormentingneed.Thetwoattemptsinquestionaremutually
complementary;theyapproachtheproblematoppositeends.Thefirstwasmade
byAlfredAdlermorethantenyearsago.1Hiscontention,reducedtoitsessence,
wasthatthepeoplewhocametogriefoverthetasksetthembydangerwerethose
whoweretoogreatlyimpededbysomeorganicinferiority.Ifitweretruethat
simplexsigillumveri,2weshouldwelcomesuchasolution[Lsung]asa
deliverance[Erlsung].Butonthecontrary,ourcriticalstudiesofthelastten
yearshaveeffectivelydemonstratedthetotalinadequacyofsuchanexplanation
anexplanation,moreover,whichsetsasidethewholewealthofmaterialthathas
beendiscoveredbypsychoanalysis.
ThesecondattemptwasmadebyOttoRankin1923inhisbook,TheTrauma
ofBirth.[Seepp.85and135f.]Itwouldbeunjusttoputhisattemptonthesame
levelasAdler'sexceptinthissinglepointwhichconcernsushere,foritremains
onpsychoanalyticgroundandpursuesapsychoanalyticlineofthought,sothatit
maybeacceptedasalegitimateendeavourtosolvetheproblemsofanalysis.In
thismatteroftherelationoftheindividualtodangerRankmovesawayfromthe
questionoforganicdefectintheindividualandconcentratesonthevariable
degreeofintensityofthedanger.Theprocessofbirth
1[See,forinstance,Adler,1907.]
2[I.e.,simplicityisthesealoftruth.]
- 150 -
isthefirstsituationofdanger,andtheeconomicupheavalwhichitproduces
becomestheprototypeofthereactionofanxiety.Wehavealready[p.136ff.]
tracedthelineofdevelopmentwhichconnectsthisfirstdangersituationand
determinantofanxietywithallthelaterones,andwehaveseenthattheyallretain
acommonqualityinsofarastheysignifyinacertainsenseaseparationfromthe
motheratfirstonlyinabiologicalsense,nextasadirectlossofobjectandlater
asalossofobjectincurredindirectly.Thediscoveryofthisextensive
concatenationisanundoubtedmeritofRank'sconstruction.Nowthetraumaof
birthovertakeseachindividualwithadifferentdegreeofintensity,andthe
violenceofhisanxietyreactionvarieswiththestrengthofthetrauma;anditisthe
initialamountofanxietygeneratedinhimwhich,accordingtoRank,decides
whetherhewilleverlearntocontrolitwhetherhewillbecomeneuroticor
normal.
ItisnotourbusinesstocriticizeRank'shypothesisindetailhere.Wehave
onlytoconsiderwhetherithelpstosolveourparticularproblem.Hisformula
thatthosepeoplebecomeneuroticinwhomthetraumaofbirthwassostrongthat
theyhaveneverbeenablecompletelytoabreactitishighlydisputablefroma
theoreticalpointofview.Wedonotrightlyknowwhatismeantbyabreactingthe
trauma.Takenliterally,itimpliesthatthemorefrequentlyandthemoreintensely
aneuroticpersonreproducestheaffectofanxietythemorecloselywillhe
approachtomentalhealthanuntenableconclusion.Itwasbecauseitdidnot
tallywiththefactsthatIgaveupthetheoryofabreactionwhichhadplayedsucha
largepartinthecatharticmethod.Tolaysomuchstress,too,onthevariabilityin
thestrengthofthebirthtraumaistoleavenoroomforthelegitimateclaimsof
hereditaryconstitutionasanaetiologicalfactor.Forthisvariabilityisanorganic
factorwhichoperatesinanaccidentalfashioninrelationtotheconstitutionandis
itselfdependentonmanyinfluenceswhichmightbecalledaccidentalas,for
instance,ontimelyassistanceinchildbirth.Rank'stheorycompletelyignores
constitutionalfactorsaswellasphylogeneticones.If,however,weweretotryto
findaplacefortheconstitutionalfactorbyqualifyinghisstatementwiththe
proviso,letussay,thatwhatisreallyimportantistheextenttowhichthe
- 151 -
individualreactstothevariableintensityofthetraumaofbirth,weshouldbe
deprivinghistheoryofitssignificanceandshouldberelegatingthenewfactor
introducedbyhimtoapositionofminorimportance:thefactorwhichdecided
whetheraneurosisshouldsuperveneornotwouldlieinadifferent,andoncemore
inanunknown,field.
Moreover,thefactthatwhilemansharestheprocessofbirthwiththeother
mammalshealonehastheprivilegeoverthemofpossessingaspecialdisposition
toneurosisishardlyfavourabletoRank'stheory.Butthemainobjectiontoitis
thatitfloatsintheairinsteadofbeingbaseduponascertainedobservations.No
bodyofevidencehasbeencollectedtoshowthatdifficultandprotractedbirth
doesinfactcoincidewiththedevelopmentofaneurosis,oreventhatchildrenso
bornexhibitthephenomenaofearlyinfantileapprehensivenessmorestronglyand
overalongerperiodthanotherchildren.Itmightberejoinedthatinducedlabour
andbirthsthatareeasyforthemothermaypossiblyinvolveaseveretraumafor
thechild.Butwecanstillpointoutthatbirthswhichleadtoasphyxiawouldbe
boundtogiveclearevidenceoftheresultswhicharesupposedtofollow.Itshould
beoneoftheadvantagesofRank'saetiologicaltheorythatitpostulatesafactor
whoseexistencecanbeverifiedbyobservation.Andsolongasnosuchattemptat
verificationhasbeenmadeitisimpossibletoassessthetheory'svalue.
OntheotherhandIcannotidentifymyselfwiththeviewthatRank'stheory
contradictstheaetiologicalimportanceofthesexualinstinctsashitherto
recognizedbypsychoanalysis.Forhistheoryonlyhasreferencetothe
individual'srelationtothedangersituation,sothatitleavesitperfectlyopentous
toassumethatifapersonhasnotbeenabletomasterhisfirstdangersheisbound
tocometogriefaswellinlatersituationsinvolvingsexualdangerandthusbe
drivenintoaneurosis.
Idonotbelieve,therefore,thatRank'sattempthassolvedtheproblemofthe
causationofneurosis;nordoIbelievethatwecansayasyethowmuchitmay
neverthelesshavecontributedtosuchasolution.Ifaninvestigationintotheeffects
ofdifficultbirthonthedispositiontoneurosisshouldyieldnegativeresults,we
shallratethevalueofhiscontributionlow.Itistobefearedthatourneedtofinda
single,tangible
- 152 -
ultimatecauseofneuroticillnesswillremainunsatisfied.Theidealsolution,
whichmedicalmennodoubtstillyearnfor,wouldbetodiscoversomebacillus
whichcouldbeisolatedandbredinapurecultureandwhich,wheninjectedinto
anyone,wouldinvariablyproducethesameillness;or,toputitratherless
extravagantly,todemonstratetheexistenceofcertainchemicalsubstancesthe
administrationofwhichwouldbringaboutorcureparticularneuroses.Butthe
probabilityofasolutionofthiskindseemsslight.
Psychoanalysisleadstolesssimpleandsatisfactoryconclusions.WhatIhave
tosayinthisconnectionhaslongbeenfamiliarandIhavenothingnewtoadd.If
theegosucceedsinprotectingitselffromadangerousinstinctualimpulse,
through,forinstance,theprocessofrepression,ithascertainlyinhibitedand
damagedtheparticularpartoftheidconcerned;butithasatthesametimegivenit
someindependenceandhasrenouncedsomeofitsownsovereignty.Thisis
inevitablefromthenatureofrepression,whichis,fundamentally,anattemptat
flight.Therepressedisnow,asitwere,anoutlaw;itisexcludedfromthegreat
organizationoftheegoandissubjectonlytothelawswhichgoverntherealmof
theunconscious.If,now,thedangersituationchangessothattheegohasno
reasonforfendingoffanewinstinctualimpulseanalogoustotherepressedone,
theconsequenceoftherestrictionoftheegowhichhastakenplacewillbecome
manifest.Thenewimpulsewillrunitscourseunderanautomaticinfluenceor,
asIshouldprefertosay,undertheinfluenceofthecompulsiontorepeat.Itwill
followthesamepathastheearlier,repressedimpulse,asthoughthedanger
situationthathadbeenovercomestillexisted.Thefixatingfactorinrepression,
then,istheunconsciousid'scompulsiontorepeatacompulsionwhichinnormal
circumstancesisonlydoneawaywithbythefreelymobilefunctionoftheego.
Theegomayoccasionallymanagetobreakdownthebarriersofrepressionwhich
ithasitselfputupandtorecoveritsinfluenceovertheinstinctualimpulseand
directthecourseofthenewimpulseinaccordancewiththechangeddanger
situation.Butinpointoffacttheegoveryseldomsucceedsindoingthis:itcannot
undoitsrepressions.Itispossiblethatthewaythestrugglewillgodependsupon
quantitativerelations.Insomecasesonehasthe

- 153 -
impressionthattheoutcomeisanenforcedone:theregressiveattractionexerted
bytherepressedimpulseandthestrengthoftherepressionaresogreatthatthe
newimpulsehasnochoicebuttoobeythecompulsiontorepeat.Inothercaseswe
perceiveacontributionfromanotherplayofforces:theattractionexertedbythe
repressedprototypeisreinforcedbyarepulsioncomingfromthedirectionof
difficultiesinreallifewhichstandinthewayofanydifferentcoursethatmightbe
takenbythenewinstinctualimpulse.
Thatthisisacorrectaccountoffixationuponrepressionandoftheretention
ofdangersituationsthatarenolongerpresentdayonesisconfirmedbythefactof
analytictherapyafactwhichismodestenoughinitselfbutwhichcanhardlybe
overratedfromatheoreticalpointofview.When,inanalysis,wehavegiventhe
egoassistancewhichisabletoputitinapositiontoliftitsrepressions,itrecovers
itspowerovertherepressedidandcanallowtheinstinctualimpulsestoruntheir
courseasthoughtheoldsituationsofdangernolongerexisted.Whatwecandoin
thiswaytallieswithwhatcanbeachievedinotherfieldsofmedicine;forasarule
ourtherapymustbecontentwithbringingaboutmorequickly,morereliablyand
withlessexpenditureofenergythanwouldotherwisebethecasethegoodresult
whichinfavourablecircumstanceswouldhaveoccurredofitself.
Weseefromwhathasbeensaidthatquantitativerelationsrelationswhich
arenotdirectlyobservablebutwhichcanonlybeinferredarewhatdetermine
whetherornotoldsituationsofdangershallbepreserved,repressionsonthepart
oftheegomaintainedandchildhoodneurosesfindacontinuation.Amongthe
factorsthatplayapartinthecausationofneurosesandthathavecreatedthe
conditionsunderwhichtheforcesofthemindarepittedagainstoneanother,three
emergeintoprominence:abiological,aphylogeneticandapurelypsychological
factor.
Thebiologicalfactoristhelongperiodoftimeduringwhichtheyoungofthe
humanspeciesisinaconditionofhelplessnessanddependence.Itsintrauterine
existenceseemstobeshortincomparisonwiththatofmostanimals,anditissent
intotheworldinalessfinishedstate.Asaresult,theinfluenceoftherealexternal
worlduponitisintensifiedandanearlydifferentiation
- 154 -
betweentheegoandtheidispromoted.Moreover,thedangersoftheexternal
worldhaveagreaterimportanceforit,sothatthevalueoftheobjectwhichcan
aloneprotectitagainstthemandtaketheplaceofitsformerintrauterinelifeis
enormouslyenhanced.Thebiologicalfactor,then,establishestheearliest
situationsofdangerandcreatestheneedtobelovedwhichwillaccompanythe
childthroughtherestofitslife.
Theexistenceofthesecond,phylogenetic,factor,isbasedonlyupon
inference.Wehavebeenledtoassumeitsexistencebyaremarkablefeatureinthe
developmentofthelibido.Wehavefoundthatthesexuallifeofman,unlikethat
ofmostoftheanimalsnearlyrelatedtohim,doesnotmakeasteadyadvancefrom
birthtomaturity,butthat,afteranearlyefflorescenceuptillthefifthyear,it
undergoesaverydecidedinterruption;andthatitthenstartsonitscourseonce
moreatpuberty,takingupagainthebeginningsbrokenoffinearlychildhood.
Thishasledustosupposethatsomethingmomentousmusthaveoccurredinthe
vicissitudesofthehumanspecies1whichhasleftbehindthisinterruptioninthe
sexualdevelopmentoftheindividualasahistoricalprecipitate.Thisfactorowes
itspathogenicsignificancetothefactthatthemajorityoftheinstinctualdemands
ofthisinfantilesexualityaretreatedbytheegoasdangersandfendedoffassuch,
sothatthelatersexualimpulsesofpuberty,whichinthenaturalcourseofthings
wouldbeegosyntonic,runtheriskofsuccumbingtotheattractionoftheir
infantileprototypesandfollowingthemintorepression.Itisherethatwecome
uponthemostdirectaetiologyoftheneuroses.Itisacuriousthingthatearly
contactwiththedemandsofsexualityshouldhaveasimilareffectontheegoto
thatproducedbyprematurecontactwiththeexternalworld.
Thethird,psychological,factorresidesinadefectofourmentalapparatus
whichhastodopreciselywithitsdifferentiationintoanidandanego,andwhich
isthereforealsoattributableultimatelytotheinfluenceoftheexternalworld.In
viewofthedangersof[external]reality,theegoisobligedtoguard
1[InChapterIIIofTheEgoandtheId(1923b),Freudmakesitclearthathehasthe
geologicalglacialepochinmind.TheideahadbeenputforwardearlierbyFerenczi
(1913b).]
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againstcertaininstinctualimpulsesintheidandtotreatthemasdangers.Butit
cannotprotectitselffrominternalinstinctualdangersaseffectivelyasitcanfrom
somepieceofrealitythatisnotpartofitself.Intimatelyboundupwiththeidasit
is,itcanonlyfendoffaninstinctualdangerbyrestrictingitsownorganizationand
byacquiescingintheformationofsymptomsinexchangeforhavingimpairedthe
instinct.Iftherejectedinstinctrenewsitsattack,theegoisovertakenbyallthose
difficultieswhichareknowntousasneuroticailments.
Furtherthanthis,Ibelieve,ourknowledgeofthenatureandcausesof
neurosishasnotasyetbeenabletogo.
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XI Addenda
Inthecourseofthisdiscussionvariousthemeshavehadtobeputasidebefore
theyhadbeenfullydealtwith.Ihavebroughtthemtogetherinthischaptersothat
theymayreceivetheattentiontheydeserve.
A Modifications of Earlier Views
(a) Resistance and Anticathexis
Animportantelementinthetheoryofrepressionistheviewthatrepressionis
notaneventthatoccursoncebutthatitrequiresapermanentexpenditure[of
energy].Ifthisexpenditureweretocease,therepressedimpulse,whichisbeing
fedallthetimefromitssources,wouldonthenextoccasionflowalongthe
channelsfromwhichithadbeenforcedaway,andtherepressionwouldeitherfail
initspurposeorwouldhavetoberepeatedanindefinitenumberoftimes.1Thusit
isbecauseinstinctsarecontinuousintheirnaturethattheegohastomakeits
defensiveactionsecurebyapermanentexpenditure[ofenergy].Thisaction
undertakentoprotectrepressionisobservableinanalytictreatmentasresistance.
ResistancepresupposestheexistenceofwhatIhavecalledanticathexis.An
anticathexisofthiskindisclearlyseeninobsessionalneurosis.Itappearstherein
theformofanalterationoftheego2,asareactionformationintheego,andis
effectedbythereinforcementoftheattitudewhichistheoppositeofthe
instinctualtrendthathastoberepressedas,forinstance,inpity,
conscientiousnessandcleanliness.Thesereactionformationsofobsessional
neurosisareessentiallyexaggerationsofthenormaltraitsofcharacterwhich
developduringthelatencyperiod.Thepresenceofananticathexisinhysteriais
muchmoredifficulttodetect,thoughtheoreticallyitisequallyindispensable.In
hysteria,too,acertainamountofalterationoftheegothroughreactionformation
is
1[Cf.thepaperonRepression(1915d),StandardEd.,14,151.]
2[SeeanEditor'sfootnotetoAnalysisTerminableandInterminable(1937c),Standard
Edition,23,220n.1.]
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unmistakableandinsomecircumstancesbecomessomarkedthatitforcesitselfon
ourattentionastheprincipalsymptom.Theconflictduetoambivalence,for
instance,isresolvedinhysteriabythismeans.Thesubject'shatredofaperson
whomhelovesiskeptdownbyanexaggeratedamountoftendernessforhimand
apprehensivenessabouthim.Butthedifferencebetweenreactionformationsin
obsessionalneurosisandinhysteriaisthatinthelattertheydonothavethe
universalityofacharactertraitbutareconfinedtoparticularrelationships.A
hystericalwoman,forinstance,maybespeciallyaffectionatewithherown
childrenwhomatbottomshehates;butshewillnotonthataccountbemore
lovingingeneralthanotherwomenorevenmoreaffectionatetootherchildren.
Thereactionformationofhysteriaclingstenaciouslytoaparticularobjectand
neverspreadsoverintoageneraldispositionoftheego,whereaswhatis
characteristicofobsessionalneurosisispreciselyaspreadingoverofthiskinda
looseningofrelationstotheobjectandafacilitationofdisplacementinthechoice
ofobject.
Thereisanotherkindofanticathexis,however,whichseemsmoresuitedto
thepeculiarcharacterofhysteria.Arepressedinstinctualimpulsecanbeactivated
(newlycathected)fromtwodirections:fromwithin,throughreinforcementfrom
itsinternalsourcesofexcitation,andfromwithout,throughtheperceptionofan
objectthatitdesires.Thehystericalanticathexisismainlydirectedoutwards,
againstdangerousperceptions.Ittakestheformofaspecialkindofvigilance
which,bymeansofrestrictionsoftheego,causessituationstobeavoidedthat
wouldentailsuchperceptions,or,iftheydooccur,managestowithdrawthe
subject'sattentionfromthem.SomeFrenchanalysts,inparticularLaforgue
[1926],haverecentlygiventhisactionofhysteriathespecialnameof
scotomization.1Thistechniqueofanticathexisisstillmorenoticeableinthe
phobias,whoseinterestisconcentratedonremovingthesubjecteverfurtherfrom
thepossibilityoftheoccurrenceofthefearedperception.Thefactthatanticathexis
hasanoppositedirectioninhysteriaandthephobiasfromwhatithasin
1[FreuddiscussedthistermatsomelengthinhislaterpaperonFetishism(1927e)in
connectionwiththeconceptofdisavowal(Verleugnung).]
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obsessionalneurosisthoughthedistinctionisnotanabsoluteoneseemstobe
significant.Itsuggeststhatthereisanintimateconnectionbetweenrepressionand
externalanticathexisontheonehandandbetweenregressionandinternal
anticathexis(i.e.alterationoftheegothroughreactionformation)ontheother.
Thetaskofdefenceagainstadangerousperceptionis,incidentally,commontoall
neuroses.Variouscommandsandprohibitionsinobsessionalneurosishavethe
sameendinview.
Weshowedonanearlieroccasion1thattheresistancethathastobeovercome
inanalysisproceedsfromtheego,whichclingstoitsanticathexes.Itishardfor
theegotodirectitsattentiontoperceptionsandideaswhichithasuptillnow
madearuleofavoiding,ortoacknowledgeasbelongingtoitselfimpulsesthatare
thecompleteoppositeofthosewhichitknowsasitsown.Ourfightagainst
resistanceinanalysisisbaseduponthisviewofthefacts.Iftheresistanceisitself
unconscious,assooftenhappensowingtoitsconnectionwiththerepressed
material,wemakeitconscious.Ifitisconscious,orwhenithasbecome
conscious,webringforwardlogicalargumentsagainstit;wepromisetheego
rewardsandadvantagesifitwillgiveupitsresistance.Therecanbenodoubtor
mistakeabouttheexistenceofthisresistanceonthepartoftheego.Butwehave
toaskourselveswhetheritcoversthewholestateofaffairsinanalysis.Forwe
findthatevenaftertheegohasdecidedtorelinquishitsresistancesitstillhas
difficultyinundoingtherepressions;andwehavecalledtheperiodofstrenuous
effortwhichfollowsafteritspraiseworthydecision,thephaseofworking
through.2Thedynamicfactorwhichmakesaworkingthroughofthiskind
necessaryandcomprehensibleisnotfartoseek.Itmustbethatafterthe
egoresistancehasbeenremovedthepowerofthecompulsiontorepeatthe
attractionexertedbytheunconsciousprototypesupontherepressedinstinctual
processhasstilltobeovercome.Thereisnothingtobesaidagainstdescribing
this
1[TowardstheendofChapterIofTheEgoandtheId(1923b).]
2[SeeRemembering,RepeatingandWorkingThrough(1914g),StandardEd.,12,155
6.FreudreturnedtothesubjectinSectionVIofhislatetechnicalpaperAnalysis
TerminableandInterminable(1937c).]
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factorastheresistanceoftheunconscious.Thereisnoneedtobediscouragedby
theseemendations.Theyaretobewelcomediftheyaddsomethingtoour
knowledge,andtheyarenodisgracetoussolongastheyenrichratherthan
invalidateourearlierviewsbylimitingsomestatement,perhaps,thatwastoo
generalorbyenlargingsomeideathatwastoonarrowlyformulated.
Itmustnotbesupposedthattheseemendationsprovideuswithacomplete
surveyofallthekindsofresistancethataremetwithinanalysis.Further
investigationofthesubjectshowsthattheanalysthastocombatnolessthanfive
kindsofresistance,emanatingfromthreedirectionstheego,theidandthe
superego.Theegoisthesourceofthreeofthese,eachdifferinginitsdynamic
nature.Thefirstofthesethreeegoresistancesistherepressionresistance,which
wehavealreadydiscussedabove[p.157ff.]andaboutwhichthereisleastnewto
beadded.Nextthereisthetransferenceresistance,whichisofthesamenaturebut
whichhasdifferentandmuchclearereffectsinanalysis,sinceitsucceedsin
establishingarelationtotheanalyticsituationortheanalysthimselfandthusre
animatingarepressionwhichshouldonlyhavebeenrecollected.1Thethird
resistance,thoughalsoanegoresistance,isofquiteadifferentnature.Itproceeds
fromthegainfromillnessandisbaseduponanassimilationofthesymptominto
theego.[Seeabove,p.99f.]Itrepresentsanunwillingnesstorenounceany
satisfactionorreliefthathasbeenobtained.Thefourthvariety,arisingfromtheid,
istheresistancewhich,aswehavejustseen,necessitatesworkingthrough.The
fifth,comingfromthesuperegoandthelasttobediscovered,isalsothemost
obscurethoughnotalwaystheleastpowerfulone.Itseemstooriginatefromthe
senseofguiltortheneedforpunishment;anditopposeseverymovetowards
success,including,therefore,thepatient'sownrecoverythroughanalysis. 2
(b) Anxiety from Transformation of Libido
TheviewofanxietywhichIhaveputforwardinthese
1[Cf.Remembering,RepeatingandWorkingThrough(1914g),StandardEd.,12,151
ff.]
2[ThiswasdiscussedintheearlierpartofChapterVofTheEgoandtheId.]
- 160 -
pagesdivergessomewhatfromtheoneIhavehithertothoughtcorrect.FormerlyI
regardedanxietyasageneralreactionoftheegounderconditionsofunpleasure.I
alwayssoughttojustifyitsappearanceoneconomicgrounds1andIassumed,on
thestrengthofmyinvestigationsintotheactualneuroses,thatlibido(sexual
excitation)whichwasrejectedornotutilizedbytheegofounddirectdischargein
theformofanxiety.Itcannotbedeniedthatthesevariousassertionsdidnotgo
verywelltogether,oratanyratedidnotnecessarilyfollowfromoneanother.
Moreover,theygavetheimpressionoftherebeingaspeciallyintimateconnection
betweenanxietyandlibidoandthisdidnotaccordwiththegeneralcharacterof
anxietyasareactiontounpleasure.
Theobjectiontothisviewarosefromourcomingtoregardtheegoasthesole
seatofanxiety.Itwasoneoftheresultsoftheattemptatastructuraldivisionof
thementalapparatuswhichImadeinTheEgoandtheId.Whereastheoldview
madeitnaturaltosupposethatanxietyarosefromthelibidobelongingtothe
repressedinstinctualimpulses,thenewone,onthecontrary,madetheegothe
sourceofanxiety.Thusitisaquestionofinstinctual(id)anxietyoregoanxiety.
Sincetheenergywhichtheegoemploysisdesexualized,thenewviewalsotended
toweakenthecloseconnectionbetweenanxietyandlibido.IhopeIhaveatleast
succeededinmakingthecontradictionplainandingivingaclearideaofthepoint
indoubt.
Rank'scontentionwhichwasoriginallymyown2,thattheaffectof
anxietyisaconsequenceoftheeventofbirthandarepetitionofthesituationthen
experienced,obligedmetoreviewtheproblemofanxietyoncemore.ButIcould
makenoheadwaywithhisideathatbirthisatrauma,statesofanxietyareaction
ofdischargetoitandallsubsequentaffectsofanxietyanattempttoabreactit
moreandmorecompletely.Iwasobligedtogobackfromtheanxietyreactionto
thesituationofdangerthatlaybehindit.Theintroductionofthiselementopened
upnewaspectsofthequestion.Birthwasseentobetheprototypeofalllater
situationsofdangerwhichovertook
1[konomisch.Thiswordappearsonlyinthefirst(1926)edition.Itwasomitted,no
doubtbyaccident,inallthelaterones.]
2[SeeEditor'sIntroduction,p.84ff.]
- 161 -
theindividualunderthenewconditionsarisingfromachangedmodeoflifeanda
growingmentaldevelopment.Ontheotherhanditsownsignificancewasreduced
tothisprototypicrelationshiptodanger.Theanxietyfeltatbirthbecamethe
prototypeofanaffectivestatewhichhadtoundergothesamevicissitudesasthe
otheraffects.Eitherthestateofanxietyreproduceditselfautomaticallyin
situationsanalogoustotheoriginalsituationandwasthusaninexpedientformof
reactioninsteadofanexpedientoneasithadbeeninthefirstsituationofdanger;
ortheegoacquiredpoweroverthisaffect,reproduceditonitsowninitiative,and
employeditasawarningofdangerandasameansofsettingthepleasure
unpleasuremechanisminmotion.Wethusgavethebiologicalaspectofthe
anxietyaffectitsdueimportancebyrecognizinganxietyasthegeneralreactionto
situationsofdanger;whileweendorsedthepartplayedbytheegoastheseatof
anxietybyallocatingtoitthefunctionofproducingtheanxietyaffectaccordingto
itsneeds.Thusweattributedtwomodesoforigintoanxietyinlaterlife.Onewas
involuntary,automaticandalwaysjustifiedoneconomicgrounds,andarose
wheneveradangersituationanalogoustobirthhadestablisheditself.Theother
wasproducedbytheegoassoonasasituationofthiskindmerelythreatenedto
occur,inordertocallforitsavoidance.Inthesecondcasetheegosubjectsitselfto
anxietyasasortofinoculation,submittingtoaslightattackoftheillnessinorder
toescapeitsfullstrength.Itvividlyimaginesthedangersituation,asitwere,with
theunmistakablepurposeofrestrictingthatdistressingexperiencetoamere
indication,asignal.Wehavealreadyseenindetail[pp.13640]howthevarious
situationsofdangerariseoneaftertheother,retainingatthesametimeagenetic
connection.
Weshallperhapsbeabletoproceedalittlefurtherinourunderstandingof
anxietywhenweturntotheproblemoftherelationbetweenneuroticanxietyand
realisticanxiety[p.164ff.].
Ourformerhypothesisofadirecttransformationoflibidointoanxiety
possesseslessinterestforusnowthanitdid.Butifwedoneverthelessconsiderit,
weshallhavetodistinguishdifferentcases.Asregardsanxietyevokedbytheego
asasignal,itdoesnotcomeintoconsideration;nordoesit,therefore,inanyof
thosedangersituationswhichmovetheegoto
- 162 -
bringonrepression.Thelibidinalcathexisoftherepressedinstinctualimpulseis
employedotherwisethaninbeingtransformedintoanxietyanddischargedassuch
asismostclearlyseeninconversionhysteria.Ontheotherhand,further
enquiryintothequestionofthedangersituationwillbringtoournoticean
instanceoftheproductionofanxietywhichwill,Ithink,havetobeaccountedfor
inadifferentway[p.168].
(c) Repression and Defence

InthecourseofdiscussingtheproblemofanxietyIhaverevivedaconceptor,
toputitmoremodestly,aterm,ofwhichImadeexclusiveusethirtyyearsago
whenIfirstbegantostudythesubjectbutwhichIlaterabandoned.Irefertothe
termdefensiveprocess.1afterwardsreplaceditbythewordrepression,butthe
relationbetweenthetworemaineduncertain.Itwillbeanundoubtedadvantage,I
think,toreverttotheoldconceptofdefence,providedweemployitexplicitlyas
ageneraldesignationforallthetechniqueswhichtheegomakesuseofinconflicts
whichmayleadtoaneurosis,whileweretainthewordrepressionforthespecial
methodofdefencewhichthelineofapproachtakenbyourinvestigationsmadeus
betteracquaintedwithinthefirstinstance.
Evenapurelyterminologicalinnovationoughttojustifyitsadoption;itought
toreflectsomenewpointofvieworsomeextensionofknowledge.Therevivalof
theconceptofdefenceandtherestrictionofthatofrepressiontakesintoaccounta
factwhichhaslongsincebeenknownbutwhichhasreceivedaddedimportance
owingtosomenewdiscoveries.Ourfirstobservationsofrepressionandofthe
formationofsymptomsweremadeinconnectionwithhysteria.Wefoundthatthe
perceptualcontentofexcitingexperiencesandtheideationalcontentofpathogenic
structuresofthoughtwereforgottenanddebarredfrombeingreproducedin
memory,andwethereforeconcludedthatthekeepingawayfromconsciousness
wasamaincharacteristicofhystericalrepression.Lateron,whenwecameto
studytheobsessionalneuroses,wefoundthatinthatillnesspathogenic
occurrencesarenotforgotten.Theyremainconsciousbuttheyareisolatedin
somewaythatwe
1Cf.TheNeuroPsychosesofDefence(1894a).[SeeAppendixA,p.173f.]
- 163 -
cannotasyetgrasp,sothatmuchthesameresultisobtainedasinhysterical
amnesia.Neverthelessthedifferenceisgreatenoughtojustifythebeliefthatthe
processbywhichinstinctualdemandsaresetasideinobsessionalneurosiscannot
bethesameasinhysteria.Furtherinvestigationshaveshownthatinobsessional
neurosisaregressionoftheinstinctualimpulsestoanearlierlibidinalstageis
broughtaboutthroughtheoppositionoftheego,andthatthisregression,although
itdoesnotmakerepressionunnecessary,clearlyworksinthesamesenseas
repression.Wehaveseen,too,thatinobsessionalneurosisanticathexis,whichis
alsopresumablypresentinhysteria,playsaspeciallylargepartinprotectingthe
egobyeffectingareactivealterationinit.Ourattentionhas,moreover,been
drawntoaprocessofisolation(whosetechniquecannotasyetbeelucidated),
whichfindsdirectsymptomaticmanifestation,andtoaprocedure,thatmaybe
calledmagical,ofundoingwhathasbeendoneaprocedureaboutwhose
defensivepurposetherecanbenodoubt,butwhichhasnolongeranyresemblance
totheprocessofrepression.Theseobservationsprovidegoodenoughgrounds
forreintroducingtheoldconceptofdefence,whichcancoveralltheseprocesses
thathavethesamepurposenamely,theprotectionoftheegoagainstinstinctual
demandsandforsubsumingrepressionunderitasaspecialcase.The
importanceofthisnomenclatureisheightenedifweconsiderthepossibilitythat
furtherinvestigationsmayshowthatthereisanintimateconnectionbetween
specialformsofdefenceandparticularillnesses,as,forinstance,between
repressionandhysteria.Inadditionwemaylookforwardtothepossiblediscovery
ofyetanotherimportantcorrelation.Itmaywellbethatbeforeitssharpcleavage
intoanegoandanid,andbeforetheformationofasuperego,themental
apparatusmakesuseofdifferentmethodsofdefencefromthosewhichitemploys
afterithasreachedthesestagesoforganization.
B Supplementary Remarks on Anxiety
Theaffectofanxietyexhibitsoneortwofeaturesthestudyofwhichpromises
tothrowfurtherlightonthesubject.Anxiety
- 164 -
[Angst]hasanunmistakablerelationtoexpectation:itisanxietyabout1
something.Ithasaqualityofindefinitenessandlackofobject.Inprecisespeech
weusethewordfear[Furcht]ratherthananxiety[Angst]ifithasfoundan
object.Moreover,inadditiontoitsrelationtodanger,anxietyhasarelationto
neurosiswhichwehavelongbeentryingtoclucidate.Thequestionarises:whyare
notallreactionsofanxietyneuroticwhydoweacceptsomanyofthemas
normal?Andfinallytheproblemofthedifferencebetweenrealisticanxietyand
neuroticanxietyawaitsathoroughexamination.
Tobeginwiththelastproblem.Theadvancewehavemadeisthatwehave
gonebehindreactionsofanxietytosituationsofdanger.Ifwedothesamething
withrealisticanxietyweshallhavenodifficultyinsolvingthequestion.Real
dangerisadangerthatisknown,andrealisticanxietyisanxietyaboutaknown
dangerofthissort.Neuroticanxietyisanxietyaboutanunknowndanger.Neurotic
dangeristhusadangerthathasstilltobediscovered.Analysishasshownthatitis
aninstinctualdanger.Bybringingthisdangerwhichisnotknowntotheegointo
consciousness,theanalystmakesneuroticanxietynodifferentfromrealistic
anxiety,sothatitcanbedealtwithinthesameway.
Therearetworeactionstorealdanger.Oneisanaffectivereaction,an
outbreakofanxiety.Theotherisaprotectiveaction.Thesamewillpresumablybe
trueofinstinctualdanger.Weknowhowthetworeactionscancooperateinan
expedientway,theonegivingthesignalfortheothertoappear.Butwealsoknow
thattheycanbehaveinaninexpedientway:paralysisfromanxietymaysetin,and
theonereactionspreadatthecostoftheother.
Insomecasesthecharacteristicsofrealisticanxietyandneuroticanxietyare
mingled.Thedangerisknownandreal
1[InGermanvor,literallybefore.SeesimilardiscussionsatthebeginningofChapter
IIofBeyondthePleasurePrinciple(1920g),StandardEd.,18,12f.,andinLectureXXV
oftheIntroductoryLectures(191617).Ithasnotbeenpossibleintranslationtorender
theGermanAngstinvariablybyanxiety.Inthisvolume,andthroughouttheStandard
Edition,thewordhassometimesbeentranslatedbyfearorbyphrasesincludingthe
wordafraid,whereEnglishusagerequireditandconfusionseemedunlikely.Some
remarksonthiswillbefoundinanEditor'sAppendix,StandardEdition,3,11617.]
- 165 -
buttheanxietyinregardtoitisovergreat,greaterthanseemspropertous.Itis
thissurplusofanxietywhichbetraysthepresenceofaneuroticelement.Such
cases,however,introducenonewprinciple;foranalysisshowsthattotheknown
realdangeranunknowninstinctualoneisattached.
Wecanfindoutstillmoreaboutthisif,notcontentwithtracinganxietyback
todanger,wegoontoenquirewhattheessenceandmeaningofadangersituation
is.Clearly,itconsistsinthesubject'sestimationofhisownstrengthcomparedto
themagnitudeofthedangerandinhisadmissionofhelplessnessinthefaceofit
physicalhelplessnessifthedangerisrealandpsychicalhelplessnessifitis
instinctual.Indoingthishewillbeguidedbytheactualexperienceshehashad.
(Whetherheiswronginhisestimationornotisimmaterialfortheoutcome.)Let
uscallasituationofhelplessnessofthiskindthathasbeenactuallyexperienceda
traumaticsituation.Weshallthenhavegoodgroundsfordistinguishinga
traumaticsituationfromadangersituation.
Theindividualwillhavemadeanimportantadvanceinhiscapacityforself
preservationifhecanforeseeandexpectatraumaticsituationofthiskindwhich
entailshelplessness,insteadofsimplywaitingforittohappen.Letuscalla
situationwhichcontainsthedeterminantforsuchanexpectationadanger
situation.Itisinthissituationthatthesignalofanxietyisgiven.Thesignal
announces:Iamexpectingasituationofhelplessnesstosetin,or:Thepresent
situationremindsmeofoneofthetraumaticexperiencesIhavehadbefore.
ThereforeIwillanticipatethetraumaandbehaveasthoughithadalreadycome,
whilethereisyettimetoturnitaside.Anxietyisthereforeontheonehandan
expectationofatrauma,andontheotherarepetitionofitinamitigatedform.
Thusthetwofeaturesofanxietywhichwehavenotedhaveadifferentorigin.Its
connectionwithexpectationbelongstothedangersituation,whereasits
indefinitenessandlackofobjectbelongtothetraumaticsituationofhelplessness
thesituationwhichisanticipatedinthedangersituation.
Takingthissequence,anxietydangerhelplessness(trauma),wecannow
summarizewhathasbeensaid.Adangersituationisarecognized,remembered,
expectedsituationofhelplessness.Anxietyistheoriginalreactionto
- 166 -
helplessnessinthetraumaandisreproducedlateroninthedangersituationasa
signalforhelp.Theego,whichexperiencedthetraumapassively,nowrepeatsit
activelyinaweakenedversion,inthehopeofbeingableitselftodirectitscourse.
Itiscertainthatchildrenbehaveinthisfashiontowardseverydistressing
impressiontheyreceive,byreproducingitintheirplay.Inthuschangingfrom
passivitytoactivitytheyattempttomastertheirexperiencespsychically. 1Ifthisis
whatismeantbyabreactingatraumawecannolongerhaveanythingtourge
againstthephrase.[Seep.151.]Butwhatisofdecisiveimportanceisthefirst
displacementoftheanxietyreactionfromitsorigininthesituationofhelplessness
toanexpectationofthatsituation,thatis,tothedangersituation.Afterthatcome
thelaterdisplacements,fromthedangertothedeterminantofthedangerlossof
theobjectandthemodificationsofthatlosswithwhichwearealreadyacquainted.
Theundesirableresultofspoilingasmallchildistomagnifytheimportance
ofthedangeroflosingtheobject(theobjectbeingaprotectionagainstevery
situationofhelplessness)incomparisonwitheveryotherdanger.Ittherefore
encouragestheindividualtoremaininthestateofchildhood,theperiodoflife
whichischaracterizedbymotorandpsychicalhelplessness.
Sofarwehavehadnooccasiontoregardrealisticanxietyinanydifferent
lightfromneuroticanxiety.Weknowwhatthedistinctionis.Arealdangerisa
dangerwhichthreatensapersonfromanexternalobject,andaneuroticdangeris
onewhichthreatenshimfromaninstinctualdemand.Insofarastheinstinctual
demandissomethingreal,hisneuroticanxiety,too,canbeadmittedtohavea
realisticbasis.Wehaveseenthatthereasonwhythereseemstobeaspecially
closeconnectionbetweenanxietyandneurosisisthattheegodefendsitself
againstaninstinctualdangerwiththehelpoftheanxietyreactionjustasitdoes
againstanexternalrealdanger,butthatthislineofdefensiveactivityeventuatesin
aneurosisowingtoanimperfectionofthementalapparatus.Wehavealsocome
totheconclusionthataninstinctualdemandoftenonlybecomesan(internal)
dangerbecauseitssatisfaction
1[Cf.BeyondthePleasurePrinciple,(1920g),StandardEd.,18,1617.]
- 167 -
wouldbringonanexternaldangerthatis,becausetheinternaldangerrepresents
anexternalone.
Ontheotherhand,theexternal(real)dangermustalsohavemanagedto
becomeinternalizedifitistobesignificantfortheego.Itmusthavebeen
recognizedasrelatedtosomesituationofhelplessnessthathasbeenexperienced. 1
Manseemsnottohavebeenendowed,ortohavebeenendowedtoonlyavery
smalldegree,withaninstinctiverecognitionofthedangersthatthreatenhimfrom
without.Smallchildrenareconstantlydoingthingswhichendangertheirlives,
andthatispreciselywhytheycannotaffordtobewithoutaprotectingobject.In
relationtothetraumaticsituation,inwhichthesubjectishelpless,externaland
internaldangers,realdangersandinstinctualdemandsconverge.Whethertheego
issufferingfromapainwhichwillnotstoporexperiencinganaccumulationof
instinctualneedswhichcannotobtainsatisfaction,theeconomicsituationisthe
same,andthemotorhelplessnessoftheegofindsexpressioninpsychical
helplessness.
Inthisconnectionthepuzzlingphobiasofearlychildhooddeservetobe
mentionedonceagain.[Cf.p.136.]Wehavebeenabletoexplainsomeofthem,
suchasthefearofbeingaloneorinthedarkorwithstrangers,asreactionstothe
dangeroflosingtheobject.Others,likethefearofsmallanimals,thunderstorms,
etc.,mightperhapsbeaccountedforasvestigialtracesofthecongenital
preparednesstomeetrealdangerswhichissostronglydevelopedinotheranimals.
Inman,onlythatpartofthisarchaicheritageisappropriatewhichhasreferenceto
thelossoftheobject.Ifchildhoodphobiasbecomefixatedandgrowstrongerand
persistintolateryears,analysisshowsthattheircontenthasbecomeassociated
withinstinctualdemandsandhascometostandforinternaldangersaswell.
1Itmayquiteoftenhappenthatalthoughadangersituationiscorrectlyestimatedin
itself,acertainamountofinstinctualanxietyisaddedtotherealisticanxiety.Inthatcase
theinstinctualdemandbeforewhosesatisfactiontheegorecoilsisamasochisticone:the
instinctofdestructiondirectedagainstthesubjecthimself.Perhapsanadditionofthis
kindexplainscasesinwhichreactionsofanxietyareexaggerated,inexpedientor
paralysing.Phobiasofheights(windows,towers,precipicesandsoon)mayhavesome
suchorigin.Theirhiddenfemininesignificanceiscloselyconnectedwithmasochism.
[Cf.DreamsandTelepathy(1922a),StandardEd.,18,213.]
- 168 -
C Anxiety, Pain and Mourning
Solittleisknownaboutthepsychologyofemotionalprocessesthatthe
tentativeremarksIamabouttomakeonthesubjectmayclaimaverylenient
judgement.Theproblembeforeusarisesoutoftheconclusionwehavereached
thatanxietycomestobeareactiontothedangerofalossofanobject.Nowwe
alreadyknowonereactiontothelossofanobject,andthatismourning.The
questionthereforeis,whendoesthatlossleadtoanxietyandwhentomourning?
IndiscussingthesubjectofmourningonapreviousoccasionIfoundthatthere
wasonefeatureaboutitwhichremainedquiteunexplained.Thiswasitspeculiar
painfulness.[Cf.p.131]1Andyetitseemsselfevidentthatseparationfroman
objectshouldbepainful.Thustheproblembecomesmorecomplicated:whendoes
separationfromanobjectproduceanxiety,whendoesitproducemourningand
whendoesitproduce,itmaybe,onlypain?
Letmesayatoncethatthereisnoprospectinsightofansweringthese
questions.Wemustcontentourselveswithdrawingcertaindistinctionsand
adumbratingcertainpossibilities.
Ourstartingpointwillagainbetheonesituationwhichwebelievewe
understandthesituationoftheinfantwhenitispresentedwithastrangerinstead
ofitsmother.Itwillexhibittheanxietywhichwehaveattributedtothedangerof
lossofobject.Butitsanxietyisundoubtedlymorecomplicatedthanthisand
meritsamorethoroughdiscussion.Thatitdoeshaveanxietytherecanbeno
doubt;buttheexpressionofitsfaceanditsreactionofcryingindicatethatitis
feelingpainaswell.Certainthingsseemtobejoinedtogetherinitwhichwilllater
onbeseparatedout.Itcannotasyetdistinguishbetweentemporaryabsenceand
permanentloss.Assoonasitlosessightofitsmotheritbehavesasifitwerenever
goingtoseeheragain;andrepeatedconsolingexperiencestothecontraryare
necessarybeforeitlearnsthatherdisappearanceisusuallyfollowedbyherre
appearance.Itsmotherencouragesthispieceofknowledgewhichissovitaltoit
byplayingthefamiliar
1MourningandMelancholia(1917e)[StandardEd.,14,2445].
- 169 -
gameofhidingherfacefromitwithherhandsandthen,toitsjoy,uncoveringit
again.1Inthesecircumstancesitcan,asitwere,feellongingunaccompaniedby
despair.
Inconsequenceoftheinfant'smisunderstandingofthefacts,thesituationof
missingitsmotherisnotadangersituationbutatraumaticone.Or,toputitmore
correctly,itisatraumaticsituationiftheinfanthappensatthetimetobefeelinga
needwhichitsmothershouldbetheonetosatisfy.Itturnsintoadangersituation
ifthisneedisnotpresentatthemoment.Thus,thefirstdeterminantofanxiety,
whichtheegoitselfintroduces,islossofperceptionoftheobject(whichis
equatedwithlossoftheobjectitself).Thereisasyetnoquestionoflossoflove.
Lateron,experienceteachesthechildthattheobjectcanbepresentbutangrywith
it;andthenlossoflovefromtheobjectbecomesanewandmuchmoreenduring
dangeranddeterminantofanxiety.
Thetraumaticsituationofmissingthemotherdiffersinoneimportantrespect
fromthetraumaticsituationofbirth.Atbirthnoobjectexistedandsonoobject
couldbemissed.Anxietywastheonlyreactionthatoccurred.Sincethenrepeated
situationsofsatisfactionhavecreatedanobjectoutofthemother;andthisobject,
whenevertheinfantfeelsaneed,receivesanintensecathexiswhichmightbe
describedasalongingone.Itistothisnewaspectofthingsthatthereactionof
painisreferable.Painisthustheactualreactiontolossofobject,whileanxietyis
thereactiontothedangerwhichthatlossentailsand,byafurtherdisplacement,a
reactiontothedangerofthelossofobjectitself.
Weknowverylittleaboutpaineither.Theonlyfactwearecertainofisthat
painoccursinthefirstinstanceandasaregularthingwheneverastimuluswhich
impingesontheperipherybreaksthroughthedevicesoftheprotectiveshield
againststimuliandproceedstoactlikeacontinuousinstinctualstimulus,against
whichmuscularaction,whichisasaruleeffectivebecauseitwithdrawstheplace
thatisbeingstimulatedfromthestimulus,ispowerless.2Ifthepainproceedsnot
1[Cf.thechild'sgamedescribedinChapterIIofBeyondthePleasurePrinciple,
StandardEd.,18,1416.]
2[SeeBeyondthePleasurePrincipleStandardEd.,301,andtheProject(Freud,
1950a),PartI,Section6.]
- 170 -
fromapartoftheskinbutfromaninternalorgan,thesituationisstillthesame.
Allthathashappenedisthataportionoftheinnerperipheryhastakentheplaceof
theouterperiphery.Thechildobviouslyhasoccasiontoundergoexperiencesof
painofthissort,whichareindependentofitsexperiencesofneed.This
determinantofthegeneratingofpainseems,however,tohaveverylittlesimilarity
withthelossofanobject.Andbesides,theelementwhichisessentialtopain,
peripheralstimulation,isentirelyabsentinthechild'ssituationoflonging.Yetit
cannotbefornothingthatthecommonusageofspeechshouldhavecreatedthe
notionofinternal,mentalpainandhavetreatedthefeelingoflossofobjectas
equivalenttophysicalpain.
Whenthereisphysicalpain,ahighdegreeofwhatmaybetermednarcissistic
cathexisofthepainfulplaceoccurs.1Thiscathexiscontinuestoincreaseand
tends,asitwere,toemptytheego.2Itiswellknownthatwheninternalorgansare
givinguspainwereceivespatialandotherpresentationsofpartsofthebody
whichareordinarilynotrepresentedatallinconsciousideation.Again,the
remarkablefactthat,whenthereisapsychicaldiversionbroughtaboutbysome
otherinterest,eventhemostintensephysicalpainsfailtoarise(Imustnotsay
remainunconsciousinthiscase)canbeaccountedforbytherebeinga
concentrationofcathexisonthepsychicalrepresentativeofthepartofthebody
whichisgivingpain.Ithinkitisherethatweshallfindthepointofanalogywhich
hasmadeitpossibletocarrysensationsofpainovertothementalsphere.Forthe
intensecathexisoflongingwhichisconcentratedonthemissedorlostobject(a
cathexiswhichsteadilymountsupbecauseitcannotbeappeased)createsthesame
economicconditionsasarecreatedbythecathexisofpainwhichisconcentrated
ontheinjuredpartofthebody.Thusthefactoftheperipheralcausationof
physicalpaincanbeleftoutofaccount.Thetransitionfromphysicalpainto
mentalpaincorrespondstoachangefromnarcissisticcathexistoobjectcathexis.
Anobjectpresentationwhichishighlycathectedby
1[Cf.OnNarcissism(1914c),StandardEd.,14,82.]
2[SeeBeyondthePleasurePrinciple,loc.cit.,andanobscurepassageinSectionVIof
DraftG(onmelancholia)intheFliesscorrespondence,probablydatingfromthe
beginningofJanuary,1895(Freud,1950a).]
- 171 -
instinctualneedplaysthesameroleasapartofthebodywhichiscathectedbyan
increaseofstimulus.Thecontinuousnatureofthecathecticprocessandthe
impossibilityofinhibitingitproducethesamestateofmentalhelplessness.Ifthe
feelingofunpleasurewhichthenariseshasthespecificcharacterofpain(a
characterwhichcannotbemoreexactlydescribed)insteadofmanifestingitselfin
thereactiveformofanxiety,wemayplausiblyattributethistoafactorwhichwe
havenotsufficientlymadeuseofinourexplanationsthehighlevelofcathexis
andbindingthatprevailswhiletheseprocesseswhichleadtoafeelingof
unpleasuretakeplace.1
Weknowofyetanotheremotionalreactiontothelossofanobject,andthatis
mourning.Butwehavenolongeranydifficultyinaccountingforit.Mourning
occursundertheinfluenceofrealitytesting;forthelatterfunctiondemands
categoricallyfromthebereavedpersonthatheshouldseparatehimselffromthe
object,sinceitnolongerexists.2Mourningisentrustedwiththetaskofcarrying
outthisretreatfromtheobjectinallthosesituationsinwhichitwastherecipient
ofahighdegreeofcathexis.Thatthisseparationshouldbepainfulfitsinwith
whatwehavejustsaid,inviewofthehighandunsatisfiablecathexisoflonging
whichisconcentratedontheobjectbythebereavedpersonduringthe
reproductionofthesituationsinwhichhemustundothetiesthatbindhimtoit.
1[SeeBeyondthePleasurePrinciple,loc.cit.,andtheProject(Freud,1950a),PartI,
Section12.]
2[MourningandMelancholia(1917e),StandardEd.,14,2445.]
- 172 -
Appendix A to "Inhibitions, Symptoms and

Anxiety"
James Strachey
Repression and Defence
TheaccountwhichFreudgivesonp.163ofthehistoryofhisuseofthetwo
termsisperhapsalittlemisleading,andinanycasedeservesamplification.Both
ofthemoccurredveryfreelyduringtheBreuerperiod.Thefirstappearanceof
repression(Verdrngung)wasinthePreliminaryCommunication(1893a),
StandardEd.,2,10,andofdefence(Abwehr)1inthefirstpaperonTheNeuro
PsychosesofDefence(1894a).IntheStudiesonHysteria(1895d),repression
appearedaboutadozentimesanddefencesomewhatmoreoftenthanthat.There
seemstohavebeensomediscrimination,however,betweentheuseoftheterms:
repressionseemstohavedescribedtheactualprocess,anddefencethemotive
forit.Nevertheless,intheprefacetothefirsteditionoftheStudies(StandardEd.,
2,xxix)theauthorsappeartohaveequatedthetwoconcepts,fortheyspokeof
theirviewthatsexualityseemstoplayaprincipalpartasamotivefor
defencethatis,forrepressingideasfromconsciousness.And,evenmore
explicitly,Freud,inthefirstparagraphofhissecondpaperonTheNeuro
PsychosesofDefence(1896b)alludedtothepsychicalprocessofdefenceor
repression.
AftertheBreuerperiodthatis,fromabout1897onwardstherewasa
fallingoffinthefrequencyoftheuseofdefence.Itwasnotdroppedentirely,
however,andwillbefoundseveraltimes,forinstance,inChapterVIIofthefirst
editionofThePsychopathologyofEverydayLife(1901b)andinSection7of
ChapterVIIofthebookonjokes(1905c).Butrepressionwasalreadybeginning
topredominate,andwasalmostexclusivelyusedintheDoracasehistory
(1905e)andtheThreeEssays(1905d).Andsoonafterthis,attentionwas
explicitlydrawntothechange,inapaperonsexualityintheneuroses(1906a),
datedJune,1905.Inthecourseofasurveyofthehistoricaldevelopmentofhis
views,andindealingwiththeimmediatepostBreuerperiod,Freudhadoccasion
tomention
1Thecorrespondingverbalformusedinthepresenteditionistofendoff.
- 173 -
theconceptandwrote:repression(asInowbegantosayinsteadof
defence)(StandardEd.,7,276).
Theslightinaccuracywhichhadbeguntoappearinthissentencebecame
moremarkedinaparallelphraseintheHistoryofthePsychoAnalytic
Movement(1914d),StandardEd.,14,11.HereFreud,oncemorewritingofthe
endoftheBreuerperiod,remarked:Ilookeduponpsychicalsplittingitselfasan
effectofaprocessofrepellingwhichatthattimeIcalleddefence,andlater,
repression.
After1905thepredominanceofrepressionincreasedstillmore,till,for
instance,intheRatMananalysis(1909d),wefind(StandardEd.,10,196)Freud
speakingoftwokindsofrepression,usedrespectivelyinhysteriaand
obsessionalneurosis.Thisisaspeciallyplainexamplewhere,ontherevised
schemesuggestedinthepresentwork,hewouldhavespokenoftwokindsof
defence.
Butitwasnotlongbeforetheusefulnessofdefenceasamoreinclusive
termthanrepressionbeganunobtrusivelytomakeitsappearanceparticularly
inthemetapsychologicalpapers.Thus,thevicissitudesoftheinstincts,onlyone
ofwhichisrepression,wereregardedasmodesofdefenceagainstthem
(StandardEd.,14,127,132and147),and,again,projectionwasspokenofasa
mechanismormeansofdefence(StandardEd.,184and224).Notuntilten
yearslater,however,inthepresentwork,wastheexpediencyofdistinguishing
betweentheuseofthetwotermsexplicitlyrecognized.
- 174 -

Freud - Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

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Freud, S. (1926). Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety.

The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological

Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

Editor's Introduction to "Inhibitions, Symptoms

(c) The Traumatic Situation and Situations of Danger

(d) Anxiety as a Signal

Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety

(c) Repression and Defence

Appendix A to "Inhibitions, Symptoms and

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