EXPERIMENT -1

Aim: Status of National and Regional Planning for Power

System.

Theory:
1. All issues relating to planning and development of Transmission System
in the country are dealt in the Power System Wing of CEA.

2. This includes evolving long term and short term transmission plans. The
network expansion plans are optimized base on network simulation
studies and techno economic analysis.

3. This also involves formulation of specific schemes, evolving a phased

implementation plan in consultation with the Central and State
transmission utilities and assistance in the process of investment approval
for the Central sector schemes, issues pertaining to development of
National Power Grid in the country and issues relating to trans-country
power transfer.

4. Transmission planning studies are being conducted to identify

evacuation system from generation projects and to strengthen the
transmission system in various regions.

5. The studies for long-term perspective plans are also being carried out
on All India basis for establishing inter regional connectivity aimed
towards formation of the National Power System.

6. The National Power System is being evolved to facilitate free flow of

power across regional boundaries, to meet the short fall of deficit regions
from a surplus region as well as for evacuation of power from project(s)
located in one region to the beneficiaries located in other region.
 EXPERIMENT -2

Aim: Write components of Structure of power system

Theory:
An interconnected power system is a complex enterprise that may be
subdivided into the following major subsystems:

Generation Subsystem

Transmission and Subtransmission Subsystem

Distribution Subsystem

Utilization Subsystem

Generation Subsystem

Generation subsystem includes generators and transformers.

Generators

Three-phase ac generator from around 1895

An essential component of power systems is the three-phase ac generator

known as synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous generators
have two synchronously rotating fields: One field is produced by the rotor
driven at synchronous speed and excited by dc current. The other field is
produced in the stator windings by the three-phase armature currents.

The dc current for the rotor windings is provided by excitation systems. In

the older units, the exciters are dc generators mounted on the same shaft,
providing excitation through slip rings. Current systems use ac generators
with rotating rectifiers, known as brushless excitation systems. The
excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive
power flow. Because they lack the commutator, ac generators can
generate high power at high voltage, typically 30 kV.

The source of the mechanical power, commonly known as the prime

mover, may be hydraulic turbines, steam turbines whose energy comes
from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or
occasionally internal combustion engines burning oil.

A steam turbine used to provide electric power

Steam turbines operate at relatively high speeds of 3600 or 1800 rpm.

The generators to which they are coupled are cylindrical rotor, two-pole
for 3600 rpm, or four-pole for 1800 rpm operation. Hydraulic turbines,
particularly those operating with a low pressure, operate at low speed.
Their generators are usually a salient type rotor with many poles. In a
power station, several generators are operated in parallel in the power
grid to provide the total power needed. They are connected at a common
point called a bus.

With concerns for the environment and conservation of fossil fuels, many
alternate sources are considered for employing the untapped energy
sources of the sun and the earth for generation of power. Some alternate
sources used are solar power, geothermal power, wind power, tidal power,
and biomass.

The motivation for bulk generation of power in the future is the nuclear
fusion. If nuclear fusion is harnessed economically, it would provide clean
energy from an abundant source of fuel, namely water.

Transformers
High voltage transformer 40MVA (Steps down 150kv to 10kV in a
substation in Belgium. Photo taken 1983.)

The transformer transfers power with very high efficiency from one level
of voltage to another level. The power transferred to the secondary is
almost the same as the primary, except for losses in the transformer.

Using a step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line, which makes the
transmission of power over long distances possible.

Insulation requirements and other practical design problems limit the

generated voltage to low values, usually 30 kV. Thus, step-up transformers
are used for transmission of power. At the receiving end of the
transmission lines step-down transformers are used to reduce the voltage
to suitable values for distribution or utilization.

The electricity in an electric power system may undergo four or five

transformations between generator and consumers.

Transmission and Subtransmission Subsystem

An overhead transmission network transfers electric power from

generating units to the distribution system which ultimately supplies the
load.

Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities which allow the

economic dispatch of power within regions during normal conditions, and
the transfer of power between regions during emergencies.

Standard transmission voltages are established in the United States by the

American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage lines
operating at more than 60 kV are standardized at 69 kV, 115 kV, 138 kV,
161 kV, 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV line-to-line.

Transmission voltages above 230 kV are usually referred to as extra-high

voltage (EHV).
High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are
called high-voltage substations, receiving substations, or primary
substations.

The function of some substations is switching circuits in and out of

service; they are referred to as switching stations. At the primary
substations, the voltage is stepped down to a value more suitable for the
next part of the trip toward the load. Very large industrial customers may
be served from the transmission system.

The portion of the transmission system that connects the high-voltage

substations through step-down transformers to the distribution
substations is called the subtransmission network. There is no clear
distinction between transmission and subtransmission voltage levels.

Typically, the subtransmission voltage level ranges from 69 to 138 kV.

Some large industrial customers may be served from the subtransmission
system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are usually installed in the
substations for maintaining the transmission line voltage.

Distribution Subsystem

The distribution system connects the distribution substations to the

consumers service-entrance equipment. The primary distribution lines
from 4 to 34.5 kV and supply the load in a well-defined geographical area.

Some small industrial customers are served directly by the primary

feeders. The secondary distribution network reduces the voltage for
utilization by commercial and residential consumers. Lines and cables not
exceeding a few hundred feet in length then deliver power to the
individual consumers.

The secondary distribution serves most of the customers at levels of

240/120 V, single-phase, three-wire; 208Y/120 V, three-phase, four-wire;
or 480Y/277 V, three-phase, four-wire. The power for a typical home is
derived from a transformer that reduces the primary feeder voltage to
240/120 V using a three-wire line.

Distribution systems are both overhead and underground. The growth of

underground distribution has been extremely rapid and as much as 70
percent of new residential construction is via underground systems.

Load Subsystems

Power systems loads are divided into industrial, commercial, and

residential.
 Heavy-Duty Single-Phase Capacitor Start And Run Induction Motor

Industrial loads are composite loads, and induction motors form a high
proportion of these loads. These composite loads are functions of voltage
and frequency and form a major part of the system load.

Commercial and residential loads consist largely of lighting, heating, and

cooking. These loads are independent of frequency and consume
negligibly small reactive power. The load varies throughout the day, and
power must be available to consumers on demand.

The daily-load curve of a utility is a composite of demands made by

various classes of users.The greatest value of load during a 24-hr period is
called the peak or maximum demand. To assess the usefulness of the
generating plant the load factoris defined. The load factor is the ratio of
average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring
in that period. Load factors may be given for a day, a month, or a year.

The yearly, or annual load factor is the most useful since a year
represents a full cycle of time.
 EXPERIMENT -3

Aim: Explain in detail various planning tools in power

system planning.

Theory:

1. Planning engineers primary requirement is to give power

supply to consumers in a reliable manner at a minimum cost
with due flexibility for future expansion.
2. The criteria and constraints in planning an energy system
are reliability, environmental economics, electricity pricing,
financial constraints, society impacts.
3. Reliability, environmental, economic and financial
constraints can be quantified. Social effects are evaluated
qualitatively.
4. The system must be optimal over a period of time from day
of operation to the lifetime.
5. Various computer programs are available and are used for
fast screening of alternative plans with respect to technical,
environmental and economic constraints. The available tools
for power system planning can be split into:
Simulation tools: these simulate the behavior of the system under
certain conditions and calculate relevant indices. Examples are
load flow models, short circuit models, stability models, etc.

Optimization tools: these minimize or maximize an objective

function by choosing adequate values for decision variables.
Examples are optimum power, least cost expansion planning,
generation expansion planning, etc.

Scenario tools: this is a method of viewing the future in a

quantitative fashion. All possible outcomes are investigated. The
sort of decision or assumptions which might be made by a utility
developing such a scenario might be: should we computerize
automate the management of power system after certain date.

EXPERIMENT-4

Aim: Write short note on Electricity Regulation in India.

Theory:
THE ELECTRICITY REGULATORY COMMISSIONS ACT, 1956

Act to provide for the establishment of a Central Electricity Regulatory

Commission and state Electricity Regulatory Commissions, rationalization
of electricity tariff, transparent policies regarding subsidies, promotion of
efficient and environmentally benign policies and matters connected
therewith or incidental there to.
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Forty-ninth Year of the republic of India
as follows:
STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS
India's power sector is beset by problems that impede its capacity to
respond to the rapidly growing demand for energy brought about by
economic liberalisation. Despite the stated desire for reform and the
initial measures that have been implemented, serious problems
persist.
 As the problems of the Power Sector deepen, reform becomes
increasingly difficult underscoring the need to act decisively and
without delay. It is essential that the Government exit implement
significant reforms by focussing on the fundamental issues facing
the power sector, namely the lack of rational retail tariffs, the high
level of cross-subsidies, poor planning and operation, inadequate
capacity, the neglect of the consumer, the limited involvement of
private sector skills and resources and the absence of an
independent regulatory authority.
Considering the paramount importance of restructure power sector,
Government of India organised two Conferences of Chie Ministers to
discuss the whole gamut of issues in the power sector and the
outcome of these meetings was the adoption of the Common
Minimum National Action Plan for Power (CMNPP).
The CMNPP recognised that the gap between demand and supply of
power is widening and acknowledged that the financial position of
State Electricity Boards is fast deteriorating and the future
development in the power sector cannot be sustained without viable
State Electricity Boards and improvement of their operational
performance.
The CMNPP identified creation of regulatory Commission as a step in
this direction and specifically provided for establishment of the
Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) and State
Electricity Regulatory commissions (SERCs). After the finalisation of
the, national agenda contained in CMNPP, the Ministry of Power
assigned the task of studying the restructuring needs of the
regulatory system to Administrative Staff College of India (ASCI),
Hyderabad. The ASCI report strongly recommended the creation of
independent Electricity Regulatory Commissions both at the Centre
and the States.
To give effect to the aforesaid proposals, the Electricity Regulatory
Commissions Bill. 1997 was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 14th
August, 1997, However it could not be passed due to the
dissolution of the Eleventh Lok Sabha.
This has resulted in delay in establishing the Regulatory
Commissions leading to confusion and misgivings in various sections
about the commitment of the Government to the reforms and
restructuring of the power sector. Needless to say, this has also
slowed down the flow of public and private investment in power
sector.
Since it was considered necessary to ensure the speedy
establishment of the Regulatory Commissions and as Parliament
was not in session, the President promulgated the Electricity
Regulatory Commissions Ordinance, 1998 on 25th day of April,
1998.
The salient features of the -said Ordinance are as follows: -
 (a) It provides for the establishment of Central Electricity Regulatory
Commission at the Central level and State Electricity
Commissions at the State levels.
(b) The main functions of CERC are:
(i)To regulate the tariff of generating companies owned or controlled by
the Central Government; (ii) To regulate inter-State transmission including
tariff of the transmission utilities;
(iii) To regulate inter-State sale of power; (iv) To aid and advise the
Central Government in the formulation of tariff policy.
(c) The main functions of the SERC, to start with, shall be: -
(i) To determine the tariff for electricity, wholesale, bulk, grid and retail;
(ii) To determine the tariff payable for use of the transmission facilities;
(iii) To regulate power purchase the procurement process of the
transmission utilities; and
(iv) Subsequently, as and when each State Government notifies, other
regulatory functions could also be assigned to SERCS.
(d) It also aims at improving the financial health of the State
Electricity Boards (SEBS) which are loosing heavily on account of irrational
tariffs and lack of budgetary support from the State Governments as a
result of which, the SEBs have become incapable of even proper
maintenance, leave alone purposive investment. Further, the lack of
creditworthiness of SEBs has been a deterrent in attracting investment
both from the public and private sectors.
Hence, it is made mandatory for State Commissions to fix tariff in a
manner that none of the consumers or class of consumers shall be
charged less than fifty per cent. of the average cost of supply, it
enables the State Governments to exercise the option of providing
subsidies to weaker sections on condition that the state
Governments through a subsidy compensate the SEBS.
As regards the agriculture sector, it provides that if the State
Commission considers it necessary it may allow the consumers in
the agricultural sector to be charged less than fifty per cent, for a
maximum period of three years from the date of commencement of
the Ordinance.
It also empowers the State Government to reduce the tariff further
but in that case it shall compensate the SEBs or its successor utility,
the different between the tariff fixed by the State Commission and
the tariff proposed by the State Government by providing budgetary
allocations.
Therefore, it enables the State Governments to fix any tariff for
agriculture and other sectors provided it gives subsidy to State
Electricity Boards to meet the load.

EXPERIMENT -5
Aim: Modeling of Electrical Forecasting Methods
Theory:

Over the last few decades a number of forecasting methods have been
developed. Two of the thods, so-called end-use and econometric approach
are broadly used for medium- and long-term forecasting. A variety of
methods, which include the so-called similar day approach, various
regression models, time series, neural networks, expert systems, fuzzy
logic, and statistical learning algorithms, are used for short-term
forecasting.

The development, improvements, and investigation of the appropriate

mathematical tools will lead to the development of more accurate load
forecasting techniques. Statistical approaches usually require a
mathematical model that represents load as function of different factors
such as time, weather, and customer class.

The two important categories of such mathematical models are: additive

models and multiplicative models. They differ in whether the forecast load
is the sum (additive) of a number of components or the product
(multiplicative) of a number of factors. For example, Chen
et al. presented an additive model that takes the form of predicting load
as the function of four components:
L =Ln + Lw + Ls + Lr,
where
L is the total load,
Ln represents the normal part of the load, which is a set of standardized
load shapes for each type of day that has been identified as occurring
throughout the year,
Lw represents the weather sensitive part of the load,
Ls is a special event component that create a substantial deviation from
the usual load pattern, and
Lr is a completely random term, the noise.

A multiplicative model may be of the form

L = Ln Fw Fs Fr,
Where
Ln is the normal (base) load and the correction factors
Fw, Fs, and Fr are positive numbers that can increase or decrease the
overall load. These corrections are based on current weather (Fw), special
events (Fs), and random fluctuation (Fr ). Factors such as electricity
pricing (Fp) and load growth ( Fg ) can also be included. Rahman
presented a rule based forecast using a multiplicative model. Weather
variables and the base load associated with the weather measures were
included in the model.
Forecasting Modeling Depends on
1. Degree of Accuracy Required
2. Cost of Producing Forecasts
3. Forecast Horizon
4. Degree of Complexity Required
5. Available Data

Classification of Estimation Methods

1. Time Series Methods
2. Causal Methods
3. Judgmental Methods

Time Series Methods: Use historical data as a basis, Underlying patterns

are fairly stable.

1. Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA)

2. Exponential Smoothing
3. Extrapolation
4. Linear Prediction
5. Trend Estimation
6. Growth Curve
7 Box-Jenkins method

Causal Methods
Belief that some other time series can be useful. Assumption that it is
possible to identify the underlying factors
1. Regression Analysis
2. Linear Regression
3. Non-Linear Regression
4. Econometrics
 EXPERIMENT -6
Aim: Transmission and distribution system planning
Theory:
Transmission:

Transmission of electric power is one of the most important

elements of electric power system planning. The transmission
system transfers bulk power from the generating plant to the areas
of consumption from which distribution systems supply to the
consumers .
Sub transmission is an intermediate network between transmission
and distribution that is able to transfer & segregate the electrical
power efficiently and economically in those cases where distribution
networks are not connected directly to the transmission networks.
The transmission system also interconnects the electric utilities to
permit power exchange when it is of economic advantage and to
assist the power utilities when their generating plants are out of
service for some reason.
The planning of ac transmission involves power flow requirements,
systems stability, selection of voltage levels, voltage and reactive
power flow, conductor selection, losses, insulation levels, selection
of type of structure and rights of way. The criteria for network
Planning' generally depends on such factors as availability of
generation for the load demand voltage levels, size and
configuration of systems, distance, right-of-ways, resource
constraints.
Practices vary from Country to country. Due to increasing demand
and increasing requirement of high reliability, the neighbouring
utility networks are interconnected.
In healthy systems, the networks are loaded normally up to 50-60
per cent of their designed capability. At present in India transmission
network is mostly loaded above 90 percent, operating always at
alert conditions during peak period. A small any point is capable of
causing a major collapse in the grid network.
Distribution:

In general, distribution of power is a part of ~e system between the

transmission and consumer services. In general, a typical
distribution system consists of the following network.
Sub-transmission circuits in Voltage ratings usually between 33 kV
and 220 kV which delivers energy to distribution substations.
The distribution substation which converts the energy to lower
primary system voltage for local distribution and usually improves
facilities for voltage regulation of the primary voltage.
 Primary circuits of feeders usually operating in the range of llkV to
33 kV supplying the load in well defined geographical areas.
The distribution transformer in rating from 10 to 2500 kVA which
may be installed on poles or on pads or in underground vaults near
the consumer sites and transform the primary voltage to the
utilization voltage at usually 11Oto440 volt.
Secondary circuits at utilization voltage which carry energy from the
distribution transformer along the street etc.
Service lines which deliver the energy from secondary circuits to the
consumer premises by service lines.
It is desirable to rationalize and standardize the voltage levels employed
in supply systems and to limit the number of voltage levels. Several
studies showed that an optimal supply situation would have only three
voltage levels beyond the low-voltage system. These studies indicated
that no extra intermediate voltage levels are necessary. However when
loads are unevenly distributed (spot-wise), a two-voltage level system can
be very suitable.
 EXPERIMENT 7
Aim: Write Short on Rational Tariff in power system.
Theory:
There are three main objectives of a sound pricing structure/consumer
tariff.

(i) Financial-Ensuring that the revenue yield from the application of tariff
to the consumer is sufficient.

(ii) Economic-Ensuring that tariffs charged to consumers enable them to

make rational and optimal choices in the use of energy, discourage waste
and promote efficient allocation of resources.

(iii) Social-Ensuring that the price structure takes into account fair
distribution of costs among various classes of consumers, subsidization of
target class etc.

There are two basic tariff-making philosophies recognized- (i) Cost

based and (ii) Market based. The factors used in developing cost-
based tariffs are identified as capacity related, energy-related and
consumer-related. These factors vary for different classes of
consumers (residential, agricultural, commercial, industrial etc.),
and require an analysis of much data in order to properly allocate
costs.
Cost based tariffs are generally preferred -because they are less
likely to be criticized by consumers. However, political or social
considerations sometimes over-ride the inherent fairness of cost-
based tariffs especially developing economies. When this is done,
the tariffs are said to market based.

COST-BASED TARIFFS

The tariff should have sufficient rates to raise adequate revenue to

meet the financial requirements of the utility.
The tariff should be based on supply cost for each .category of
consumer. However, urban consumers will subsidize the rural
consumers to some extent.
Peak consumers should pay both capacity and energy costs whereas
off peak consumers such as agriculture should pay only the energy
costs.
 Lower the service voltage, the greater the costs consumers impose
on the system. Therefore, higher tariff for low voltage consumers is
desirable.
Tariffs must be based on marginal costs of serving demand which
varies,
(i) For different consumer categories,

(ii) For different seasonal industries such as rice shellar; ice industry etc.

(iii) For different hours of the day, i.e., higher rate for' peak hours, medium
rate for day time and lower rate for off peak hours.

(iv) For different voltage levels, i.e., HT or LT supply consumers.

(v) For different geographical areas.

MARKET-BASED TARIFFS

Following are some examples of market-based tariffs; they may be

more prevalent when sufficient justification can be provided.
However, to recover costs, cross-subsidization between various
classes of consumers and! or some subsidization by the government
is inevitable.
Certain industrial rate classes may be subsidized to attract new
industry to an area.
Residential rates may be subsidized by other classes or
Social/Political purposes.
Agricultural tube wells services may be subsidized to encourage
increased food production
Inverted block rates have been used extensively to encourage
energy conservation depending upon the analysis of price elasticity.

CENTRAL SECTOR GENERATION PROJECTS TARIFFS

"As per provision of IE (Supply) Act, 1948, the tariff for sale of electricity
by generating company to the state electricity board shall be computed
and fixed for a period normative basis as per electricity (supply) Act
provision. Bulk power supply agreements (BPSA) are usually signed. An ac
transmission tariff plus HVDC transmission tariff (if any) are charged in
each case and charged on fixed rate/unit basis in each case of agreement.
However, the tariff shall be computed and fixed a new for a period of five
years each and whenever additional generating capacity is commissioned
in the same station.

Thermal Power Station

The two-part tariff for sale of electricity from thermal power generating
stations (including gas based stations) .shall comprise the recovery of
annual fixed charges consisting of interest on loan capital, depreciation,
operation and maintenance expenses (excluding fuel), taxes on income -
reckoned as expenses, return on equity and interest on working capital at
a normative level of generation and energy (variable) charges covering
fuel cost recoverable for each unit (kilowatt hours) of energy supplied.

Hydro Power Station

The two-part tariff for sale of electricity from hydro power

generating stations shall comprise the recovery of annual capacity
charges consisting of operation & maintenance expenses, tax on
income reckoned as expenses, return on equity, cessor levy on
water charges as actual, & interest on working capital at a
nonnative level of generation shall be based on 'the norms as may
be applicable .
There is a mechanism of incentive specified for improved
performance above normative level with respect to project
availability & energy generation.

Transmission tariff

For common interstate projects, the capital cost of construction for

the transmission lines and other assets such as generating stations
is generally shared in proportion to the power allocation to the state.
The power may be in terms of energy drawn for each month or year
or for. block of years or over the life of the line or other assets .
The cost recovery may be in the form of 'transmission tariff in the
shape of fixed charges based on cost contribution plus annual
energy charges of kWh supplied. The transmission tariff is the total
tariff for transmission of power and is payable by the beneficiary
states. It is equal to the annual fixed charges which consist of O&M
expenses plus depreciation plus interest on loan and working capital
plus return on equity plus any other tax annually payable.
Usually O&M charges, depreciation charges and rate of return are
levied as per norms notified by the government or regulatory body.
The annual fixed charges are based on fixed assets of the
transmission system.