YEDITEPE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

EE323 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND TRANSMISSION LINES LABORATORY

2015-2016 SPRING

EXPERIMENT 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:

MATLAB, whose name is an acronym for MATRIX LABORATORY, is a high level

language and interactive environment for numerical computation, visualization and
programming. In many areas including communications, signal processing, image and video
processing, control systems, finance, where high level mathematics and programming with
numerical analysis is needed, MATLAB is a powerful tool for problem definition, solving and
optimization.

Since the electromagnetic theory includes the operations of advanced calculus,

MATLAB will be a guiding tool for understanding the outcomes of the various phenomena,
by demonstrating the visual outputs with different monitoring tools.

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WORKING WITH MATLAB: VARIABLE DEFINITION

When you double-click the MATLAB icon, a new MATLAB window is opened.

Figure 1. MATLAB WINDOW

As seen in Figure 1, you can create new variables using Command Window and see
the defined-variable-list in the Workspace Tab. Also, you can create your own folder and
define it as the current folder for saving the script files. The Current folder tab on the left of
the window, shows the previously-created MATLAB files list.

SAY HELLO TO MATLAB

In all programming courses, first thing is printing a word into the screen. This is a
very first action when beginning in every programming software. To say Hello or
something to MATLAB and see the output, you can use disp() function, defined in
MATLAB. Just as an example to say Hello, write the following command:

>> disp('HELLO MATLAB, THIS IS MY FIRST SENTENCE!!');

DEFINE A SCALAR VARIABLE

For defining a variable, just write the equation. For example, if you create a variable named
x which is equal to 5, just write the following command and press ENTER:

>> x=5

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 If you place a semicolon at the end of the equation, you do not see MATLAB output
but still, your variable is created. You can see the difference between putting and not
putting a semicolon at the end of the command in figure 2. In most of the applications, your
variable may have more than 1 value. When the definition is completed, you can fill the
screen with values of your variable. To prevent that, always put a semicolon at the end of
each command.

Figure 2. Difference between putting and not putting a semicolon.

DEFINING AN EXPONENTIAL VARIABLE WITH BASE 10

In electromagnetism, one may need to define some constants which are exponential
numbers with base 10. To do that, the letter e may be used. To show an example
1
which defines f 1MHz , 0 4 .10 7 and 0 .10 9 :
36

>> f=1e6
uo=(1e-7)*4*pi
eo=(1e-9)*(1/(36*pi))

f =

1000000

uo =

1.2566e-006

eo =

8.8419e-012

DEFINE A VECTORIAL VARIABLE

In most of the applications, your variable may have values more than 1. For example,
you have a circuit to be tested and you have made measurements at each second for 1-
minute-duration. This means that your time variable has 60 values which are
1,2,360 To define a such a variable in MATLAB, you can use the following command
in figure 3:

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 Figure 3. Definition of an array with initial, final and increment values

Also, a vectorial variable may be defined with linspace( )function. Following example,
creates a variable named t from 1 to 60 @ 50 points:

>> t=linspace(1,60,50)

In this example, your variable has regularly-spaced elements. But what if you want to
define a variable which has elements with unregularly-spaced? Suppose that you have
variable which has 5 elements whose values are: -2, 3.42, 5.819, 0, -0.01. To define such
a variable called y, you may write the following command:

>> y=[-2 3.42 5.819 0 -0.01];

When you write this command, you actually create a 1x5 matrix which has one row and
five columns. If you want to define the same variable in 5x1 matrix form you can define
the same variable by typing:

>> y=[-2; 3.42; 5.819; 0; -0.01];

2.74 3.81 1
0 0 6
If you want to create such a matrix A
14 225 10.004

1 1 98
Just write the following command:

>> A= [2.74 3.81 1;0 0 6;14 225 10.004;1 1 98];

You can also create vectors defined in Cartesian coordinate systems. Suppose that you
have a vector which is defined as: A 3 2 j 5k . You can define the same vector in
MATLAB by writing following command:

>> A= [3 2 5];

This vector indicates that, it has x-component whose magnitude is 3, y-component

whose magnitude is 2 and z-component whose magnitude is 5. As you will remember
from Mathematics, the total length of the vector can be found as: 32 22 52 38 .
To find the same result in MATLAB, the following command is used:

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>> norm(A)

ans =
6.1644

Also, you can find a unit vector in the direction of the vector A. As you remember from
vector calculus, (sure you all remember!!) a vector has a magnitude and direction as
shown in figure 4. You can find the unit vector whose direction is the same as the

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original vector, by dividing the vector by its magnitude. To show algebraically: s To
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calculate the unit vector of the previous example in MATLAB, you can write the
following code:
>> A=[3 2 5];
>> unit_vector=A/(norm(A))

unit_vector =

0.4867 0.3244 0.8111

Figure 4.Vector Components in Cartesian Coordinate System

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS

o ADDING (+) / SUBTRACTING (-)

You can sum or subtract 2 variables simply by using + or -sign. To give an

example:
>> x=3;
>> y=10;
>> z=x+y

z =

13

In some cases, your variables may be vectors. In this situation, you may have
to perform summation or subtraction operation with one vectorial and one
scalar variable. To give an example:

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 >> x=10;
>> y= [1 2 3];
>> z=x-y

z =

9 8 7
As you see, if you perform subtraction operation with one vector and one
scalar, all elements inside the vector is subtracted from scalar variable.

If you perform a summation/subtraction operation between 2 vectors, you

must be aware of the fact that, their sizes must be equal. This means that you
cannot add 4-element vector to 3-element vector.

>> W= [1 2 3];
>> y= [4 5 6];
>> z=W+y

z =

5 7 9

>> A= [7 5 3];
>> B= [1 5 9 7];
>> C=A+B
??? Error using ==> plus
Matrix dimensions must agree.

o MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION (SCALAR*VECTORIAL)

As we know from the mathematics, if vector is multiplied/divided by a scalar,

all elements inside the vector is multiplied/divided by with that scalar. To show it
in MATLAB, you can create a scalar and a vector and multiply them!
>> A=10;
>> B= [-2 5.1 8.78 10 9];
>> C=A*B

C =

-20 51 87.8 100 90

>> D=B/A

D =

-0.2 0.51 0.878 1 0.9

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o MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION (VECTORIAL*VECTORIAL)

In some cases you may want to perform vectorial multiplication/division

operation. In this case, vector sizes must be equal. Otherwise you cannot
perform element-by-element multiplication. An element-by-element
multiplication can be showed as follows:

A1 B1 A1 B1
A B A B
2 2 2 2





An Bn An Bn

It must be noted that, A and B vectors should have the same size. To perform
this multiplication in MATLAB you can use following command:

>> A= [2 6 4 8 7 9];
>> B= [3 2 1 5 9 7];
>> C=A.*B

C =

6 12 4 40 63 63

Note that the multiplication procedure is the same. But you have to put a .
next to the first vector.

o SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT OF 2 VECTORS

In Cartesian coordinate system, there are 3 coordinates x, y and z. The

corresponding unit vectors for these coordinates are defined as i, j and
k respectively. Generally, a vector may have 3 components in Cartesian
coordinate system and may be represented as:
A Ax . Ay . j Az .k .
Scalar (Dot) product of two vectors is defined as the summation of 3
elements, obtained by the multiplication of 2 elements in the same
coordinate vector. To show algebraically;
j j k k 1
j k j k 0


A B Ax . Ay . j Az .k B x . B y . j B z .k
A B Ax B x Ay B y Az B z

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 Do not forget the fact that dot product of 2 vectors is SCALAR!!
You can use MATLAB to calculate dot product of 2 vectors. To show in an
example:

o VECTOR (CROSS) PRODUCT

The cross product of two vectors is defined as another vector, perpendicular to

the plane containing those two multiplicative vectors as shown in figure 5. To
make the definition more clear, algebraic definition can be shown.

Figure 5. Cross-Product of Two vectors

Let the unit vectors in Cartesian coordinate system (x-y-z) be , j, k

respectively. Definition of cross product in unit vectors can be written as:

j j k k 0
j k j k
j k k j
k j k j
Using these relations between unit vectors, cross product of two vectors in
Cartesian coordinate system can be shown as:

A B Ax Ay j Az k Bx B y j Bz k
Ay Bz Az B y j Az Bx Ax Bz kAx B y Ay Bx ,
j k
Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

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 To evaluate the cross product of 2 vectors in MATLAB, you can use cross()
function. To show in an example:

>> A=[5 8 7];

>> B=[1 3 2];
>> cross(A,B)

ans =

-5 -3 7

Note that the resulting vector whose coordinates are -5, -3 and 7 is
perpendicular to both A and B since the cross-product operation of two vectors
creates a vector perpendicular to both vectors.

THE FOR LOOP

In the for loop, you must define where to start and stop. Basically, give a vector in
the "for" statement and MATLAB will loop through for each value in the
vector. In the below example, the j variable will have three values in the loop.

>> for j=1:3

j
end

This code creates the following output.

j =
1
j =
2
j =
3

SOME USEFUL FUNCTIONS

size: Returns the two-element row vector containing the number of rows and columns.
length: Returns the number of elements along the largest dimension of an array.
max: Returns the largest element of an array.
min: Returns the smallest element of an array.
sum: Returns sums along different dimensions of an array.
mean: Returns the mean values of the elements along different dimensions of an array.
abs: Returns absolute value and complex magnitude.
exp: Returns the exponential, e x
sqrt: Returns the square-root.
zeros (m,n): Returns an MxN matrix, whose elements are filled with 0.

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 CHAPTER 2:
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
OPERATIONS WITH MATLAB APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION:

In electromagnetics, there are some quantities that depend on both time and
position. To work with these quantities, there are some differential operations that will be
frequently encountered in the journey of electromagnetic theory.

In this experiment, three differential operations which are Gradient, Divergence

and Curl will be introduced in Cartesian coordinates. These operators are still valid in any
other orthogonal coordinate system such as cylindrical or spherical coordinate systems. But
for simplicity of understanding the basic idea of these operators, Cartesian coordinate
system will be used.

GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD

Gradient of a scalar field is defined as the vector that represents both the magnitude
and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase. To show mathematically;

dF
grad F an (1)
dn

To define the operator grad in a more brief way, a new symbol called del ( ) is
introduced. After rearranging, equation (1) turns into:

dF
F an (2)
dn

If the equation (2) is shown in Cartesian coordinates, the result is the following:
F F F
F a x a y a z (3)
x y z

In order to explain the physical meaning of gradient, temperature-in-a-room-

example can be given. Suppose that you have proper equipment to measure the
temperature at various locations in a room. From this data, it is possible to connect the
points which have the same temperature values. These connected-points may give
necessary information about the magnitude and direction where the most rapid changes
occur. To visualize that phenomenon, such an example, built in MATLAB can be given:

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>> v = -3:0.2:3;
[x,y] = meshgrid(v);
z = 3.*x-x.^3-3.*x.*y.^2;
[px,py] = gradient(z,0.2,0.2);
subplot(1,2,1)
contour(v,v,z,20,'Linewidth',3);
hold on;
quiver(v,v,px,py,'Linewidth',2,'color','black');
hold off
xlabel('x');
ylabel('y');
title('contour plots of 3x-x^3-3xy^2');
subplot(1,2,2)
surf(z)
xlabel('x');
ylabel('y');
title('Surface plot of of 3x-x^3-3xy^2');

When you execute the script above, gradient vectors of z 3x x3 3xy 2 can be seen in
figure 6a. Considering the arrows that show the direction of increase, the characteristics of
the function is shown in figure 6b.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. a) Contour and gradient plot b) Surface plot of the function z 3x x 3xy
3 2

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DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD

In vector field analysis, a proper way of representing the variations of the field is
using directed field lines. These lines are called flux lines. As shown in figure 7, these lines
are directed lines which show the direction and magnitude of the vector field. The vector
field strength is measured by the number of flux lines passing through a unit surface, normal
to the vector. When an arbitrarily chosen volume with a closed surface is concerned, net
flux through may be positive, negative or zero. If the net flux is positive, then the volume
contains a source. If the net flux is negative, then there is a sink inside the volume. If the
inward flow of the vector field is equal to outward flow, that is, the net flux through the
surface is zero; the volume does not contain neither sink nor source. If there is an enclosed
source in a volume, the net outward flow of the fluid per unit volume is a measure of the
strength of the enclosed volume. In summary, divergence of a vector field A at a point is
the net outward flux of A per unit volume, as the volume about the point tends to zero. To
show mathematically;

A lim

A ds
S
(4)
v 0 v

After a straightforward analysis, divergence of a vector in Cartesian coordinate

system is defined as:

Ax Ay Az
A (5)
x y z

To calculate the divergence of a vector field, MATLAB can be used. Here is an

example showing how to evaluate the divergence of a
vector field A x.e x .a y.e x .a z.e x .a
2 2 2
2
y2 z2 2
y2 z2 2
y2 z2
x y z :

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>> v=-2:0.2:2;
[x,y,z]=meshgrid(v);
fx=x.*(exp(-x.^2-y.^2-z.^2)).^2;
fy=y.*(exp(-x.^2-y.^2-z.^2)).^2;
fz=z.*(exp(-x.^2-y.^2-z.^2)).^2;
div=divergence(x,y,z,fx,fy,fz);
subplot(1,2,1)
quiver3(x,y,z,fx,fy,fz,'color','blue');
title('Arrow representation of vector field A')
xlabel('x')
ylabel('y')
zlabel('z')
subplot(1,2,2);
quiver3(x,y,z,fx,fy,fz,'color','red');
hold on
for i=1:round(length(x)/5):length(x)
surf(x(:,:,i),y(:,:,i),z(:,:,i),div(:,:,i))
end

Figure7. Vector Field A (shown in arrows) and its scalar divergence.

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DIVERGENCE THEOREM (GAUSSS THEOREM)

By using the definition of divergence, a very useful relation called divergence

theorem can be obtained. Since the divergence of a vector field defined as the net flux per
unit volume, if we integrate the divergence of the field over a volume, what we obtain is
the total flux through the surface that bounds the volume. To show mathematically;

A dv A.ds
V S
(6)

To describe this theorem in physical world, we can divide a closed-surfaced-volume

into small cubes. Since the whole geometry is under the effect of a vector field, all sub-
geometry parts (cubes) are also under the effect of the same vector field. If we apply the
scalar multiplication (dot-product) of vector field into the surface normal of each cube,
some quantities will cancel each other as shown in figure 7.(green-red and pink-blue). The
remaining terms are the sum of scalar multiplication of vector fields into the outer surface
normal of each cube.

Figure7. Surface normal of each sub-geometry parts (cube).

CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

When analysing divergence of a vector field, we showed that if the divergence of a

field is positive, than there is a source causing a vector field in the enclosing volume. This
source can be identified as a flow source and the divergence of the vector field is a measure
of how strong the source is. There is another type of source which is called as vortex source.
This source causes a circulation of a vector field around it as shown in figure 8.

Figure8. A vortex source and circulation of vector field around the source.

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 If a vortex source is stronger than the other, net circulation around the stronger
source, will be much greater than the weaker source. So we need a quantity that defines the
strength of a vortex source. So the curl of a vector field is defined as the net circulation per
unit area as the area tends to zero. To show mathematically;

curl A A lim
A dl
C
(7)

s 0 s

After a straightforward analysis, curl of a vector field A is defined in Cartesian

coordinate system as:

ax ay az

A
x y z
Ax Ay Az
A Ay A A A A
ax z a y x z az y x (8)
y z z x x y

To calculate the curl of a vector field, MATLAB can be used. Here is an example,

showing how to evaluate the curl of vector field A y ax x a y 0 a z :

v=-2:0.8:2;
[x,y,z]=meshgrid(v);
fx=-y; fy=x; fz=0.*z;
[curlx,curly,curlz]=curl(x,y,z,fx,fy,fz);
subplot(1,2,1)
quiver3(x,y,z,fx,fy,fz,'color','blue');
title('Arrow representation of vector field A')
xlabel('x')
ylabel('y')
zlabel('z')
subplot(1,2,2)
quiver3(x,y,z,fx,fy,fz,'color','blue');
hold on;
quiver3(x,y,z,curlx,curly,curlz,'color','green')
title('Arrow rep. of vector field A (blue) and its curl(green)')
xlabel('x')
ylabel('y')
zlabel('z')

When you execute the following command, what you see is the vector field in x-y-z
coordinates (blue lines) and evaluation of curl operation at different points (green lines)

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 Figure8. Vector field A and its curl

STOKES THEOREM

By using the definition of curl, another very useful theorem can be obtained. Since
the curl of vector field is defined as the net circulation per unit area, if we integrate the curl
of a vector field over an open surface, the result is the line integral of the vector along the
contour, bounding the surface. To show mathematically;

A ds A dl
S C
(9)
To describe this problem in physical world, we can divide a pot (testi in Turkish)
into sub-areas, each one having an area of s . If we sum all the vectors (red ones), some of
will cancel each other and the result is the sum of the vectors that covers the open edge of
the pot as shown in figure 9.

Figure9. Subdivided area for proof of Stokes Theorem.

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HOMEWORK:

1. Using the examples given above, evaluate the functions and their gradient, divergence
and curl operations respectively.

GRADIENT
z e( x y2 )
2
o
z x.e ( x y2 )
2
o
o z x .y
2 2

DIVERGENCE
o A x.z.ax y 2 .a y 2 x 2 y.az
o A x3 .ax y.a y z.az
o A x 2 . y.ax y 2 z.a y z 2 x.az
CURL
o
A y 2 .ax 2 xy z 2 .a y 2 yz.az
o A x. y.ax yz.a y zx.az
o A x. y 2 .ax yz 2 .a y zx2 .az
2. Using the definitions of vector operators in Cartesian system above, prove the following
2 null-identities (analytically) for any vector field A :

A 0 curl of the gradient of any scalar field is zero.

A 0 divergence of the curl of any vector field is zero.

3. Prove the 2 null identities using MATLAB. You can select the field functions used in the
examples.

4. The characteristic impedance of a medium is defined as the ratio of Electric field and
Magnetic Field propagating in that media as shown in the equation below.

E0 z
. Now suppose that you have the data of measured values of Electric Field
H 0 z
and Magnetic field in 15 different measurement setups. The resulting values are in the
following table:

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 Find the average value of impedance.

5. You are given three vectors;

A i 2 j k

B 2i j 2k

C i 3 j 4k
Please find the volume of the parallelepiped, formed by three vectors A, B and C by
using MATLAB. Write the corresponding code.

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