1. There must be a link between evidence and the theoretical constructs.
In order for a theory to be accepted,
what criteria must be considered. (5)
State Dalton's theories.
Which of Dalton's theories were
incorrect and why?
In terms of relative mass, relative charge and
location, describe the structure of the atom.
Describe the behavior of sub-atomic particles in an
electric field and a magnetic field if the particles are
travelling with the same speed.
Define mass number.
Define isotopes.
Define relative atomic mass.
Define relative isotopic mass.
If a particle is of a light mass, how
would this affect it's deflection.
2. Data must be reliable and accurate.
3. Experiments must be replicable.
4. Experiments must be consensus within the scientific community.
5. Society may not accept it as there might not be tangible or visible proof
1. M- Atoms of different elements have different masses.
2. I- Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and
properties.
3. C- Atoms can combine to form compounds.
4. I- Atoms are indestructible.
1. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties. This is
incorrect because isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same
atomic number but different mass number, thus they are not identical in mass.
2. Atoms are indestructible. Atoms can be destroyed in nuclear reactions.
Particle Relative mass Relative charge Location
Proton 1 +1 inside the nucleus
Neutron 1 0 inside the nucleus
Electron 1/1840 -1 outside the nucleus in
fixed energy levels.
Electrons are deflected more than protons, while neutrons are not
affected by the magnetic or electric field. In an electric/magnetic field,
electrons are deflected on a curved path towards the positive
plate/north pole respectively, while protons are deflected on a curved
path towards the negative plate/south pole respectively.
This is the sum of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the
same atomic number but different mass number.
This is the mass of a single atom compared to one
twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
This is the mass of a single isotope compared to
one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
The particle with the lightest mass is deflected
most, like electrons are lighter than protons.

What is radioactivity?
Write equations involving alpha, beta and
gamma decay and electron capture.
Why does beta decay occur?
Why does electron capture occur?
When does alpha decay, beta decay and
electron capture occur in terms of Z?
How do you calculate the relative atomic mass of
an element given isotopic masses and
abundances?
Cite uses of radioisotopes.
Explain how data from emission spectra
provide evidence for discrete energy
levels.
Describe and draw the Bohr model of
the atom.
Where is the Lyman series seen and what is the
farthest energy level excited electrons can go to
and what energy level do they fall back to?
This is the process by which the nucleus of an
unstable atom disintegrates or decay.
Alpha decay- The atomic number would decrease be 2, while the mass number would
decrease by 4.
Beta decay- The mass number stays the same but the atomic number increases by one.
Gamma decay- Neither mass number or atomic number is altered.
Electron capture- The mass number remains the same and the atomic number decreases by
one.
This is because a neutron is spontaneously
changed into a proton and electron because there
are more neutrons than protons.
n p + e
This occurs because there are more protons than
neutrons so a proton is captured by an electron
and is spontaneously changed into a neutron.
p+en
Alpha decay occurs when Z>83 and it is quite near to the
band of stability, beta decay occurs when Z is less than or
equal to 83 and the nuclei is above the band of stability.
Electron capture occurs when Z is less than or equal to 83
and the nuclei is below the band of stability.
R.A.M.= ISOTOPIC MASS* REAL ABUNDANCE
R.A.M. ISOTOPIC MASS* RELATIVE ABUNDANCE/100
P- Power generation
A- To determine the age of dead organisms.
L- To locate leaks in pipes and cancerous tumors.
S- Sterilization of surgical equipment and food to increase
shelf-life.
When energy is added to atoms, an electron in the ground state absorbs a quantum of energy
and moves to an orbit of a higher energy level. However, it cannot maintain this position for
long so it falls back to a lower energy level. As it falls, it emits a quantum of energy
equivalent to the difference in energy levels. The greater the difference in energy levels, the
higher the frequency of light emitted. Thus each line in the emission spectra corresponds to
a definite wavelength, which corresponds to a definite frequency and hence a definite
quantum of energy, thus providing evidence for discrete energy levels within the atom.
The energy levels get closer together towards the
outside of the atom. This is mirrored by the
spectral lines getting closer together.
It is seen in the ultraviolet region. The farthest the
electrons can go is n=5 and they fall back to n=1.
Where is the Balmer series seen and what is the It is seen in the visible region. The farthest energy
farthest energy level excited electrons can go to level the electrons can go is n=6 and they fall back
and what energy level do they fall back to? to n=2.

State the formulas to calculate the speed of delta E= hv, delta E=hc/lamda and
light and a quantum of energy. c= lambdav

What does the principal quantum It describes the energy level of the
number do? electron.

This is the volume of space around the nucleus in

What is an atomic orbital? which there is a high probability of finding an
electron of a given energy.

They hold a maximum of two

Describe the s orbital in general.
electrons and is spherically shaped.

A node is a region where the probability of finding

What is a node? an electron falls to zero.

The 1s orbital has a node at the center of the nucleus. The electron density
increases as the distance from the nucleus increases until it reaches a
Describe the 1s orbital. maximum, then it steadily falls but does not reach zero. Thus, the probability of
finding an electron at a radius, r, is the same in all directions.

The 2s orbital's electron density is high closer to

Describe the 2s orbital. the nucleus then falls to a node and then increases
to a maximum further from the nucleus.

The three p orbitals are degenerate. Each orbital is

dumbbell-shaped and is at right angles to each
Describe the p orbitals other. A node exists between each lobe of the
orbital.

What are the names of the three p

2px, 2py and 2pz orbitals.
orbitals?
 What are the relative energies of the
s<p<d<f
orbitals?

Why is there an irregularity in the This is because the 3d orbital has slightly more
position of the 3d and 4s orbital? energy than the 4s orbital.

Using the axes, draw the s and p

...
orbitals.

There are five d orbitals for each principal quantum

Describe the d orbitals. number from 3 on wards. A full d orbital has 10
electrons.

Write the electronic figuration for all the atoms of

elements 1 to 30 and write the electronic ...
configuration for Mg 2+ and O 2-

This is the energy needed to remove one mole of

Define first ionization energy. electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form
one mole of gaseous ions.

State the factors which influence the Atomic radii, nuclear charge and
first ionization energy of elements, shielding effect.

This is a measure of how many protons there are in

What is nuclear charge? the nucleus. The greater the number of protons,
the higher the nuclear charge.

The higher the nuclear charge, the higher the ionization

How and why does nuclear charge energy. This is because the attractive forces between
the nucleus and the valence electrons increase as the
influence the first ionization energy?
number of protons increase.

The further the electrons are from the nucleus, the

How and why does atomic radii influence the first smaller the attractive forces between the valence
ionization energy of an element? electrons and the nucleus and the lower the value
of the ionization energy.

How and why does shielding effect influence the
first ionization energy of an element?
Explain generally how data from emission spectra
provides evidence for sub-shells.
Why is the first ionization energy of Aluminium
smaller than that of Magnesium, thus providing
evidence for sub-shells?
Why is the first ionization energy of Sulfur smaller
than that of Phosphorus thus providing evidence
for sub-shells?
How do you interpret large increases
in successive ionization energy?
State Avogadro's law.
What is molar volume?
How do you calculate the number of moles using
r.t.p./s.t.p. and molar volume?
How do you calculate n using molar
mass and mass?
What is the general formula to determine the
molecular formula of an unknown hydrocarbon?
The greater the number of full inner shells, the greater the
shielding effect and the lower the value of the ionization
energy. This is because the valence electrons are shielded
from the attraction of the nucleus by the repelling effect of
inner electrons.
If no sub-shells existed then there would be a
relatively uniform increase in the first ionization
energy across a period.
The valence electron of aluminium is located in the 3p orbital and it experiences
the screening effect . It is far from the nucleus and unpaired so it is not held
effectively thus it can be lost easily. Therefore, it requires less energy to
remove the valence electron from the 3p orbital in aluminium than it is to
remove one from the filled 3s orbital in Magnesium.
In phosphorus, the 3p electrons all have the same spin, but
in sulfur, the fourth electron is paired in one of the 3p
orbitals. The electron-electron repulsion in the paired P
orbital makes it easier to remove the paired electron with
the opposite spin.
This suggests a different energy level
closer to the nucleus.
He stated that equal volumes of different gases at
the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules, thus equal number of
moles.
It is the volume occupied by one mole
of a gas in dm cube.
n=vol./r.t.p. or s.t.p.
n= mass/molar mass
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 ---> xCO2 +
(y/2)H2O
 This is the amount of substance having the same
Define the mole. number of specified particles as there are atoms in
one twelfth the mass of carbon-12.

The molar mass is the mass of one

Define molar mass.
mole of a substance.

Draw up the SNACK BIAS thing. ...

Hesung live, sometimes ambient pop.

What is the mnemonic for the
All hydroxides and sulfur are insoluble except
solubility of hydroxides? those of lithium, sodium, ammonia and potassium.

Oxes, sometimes,ponies (are) caged.All oxides are

What is the mnemonic for the
insoluble except those of sodium, potassium and
solubility of oxides? calcium.

Can police (and) soldiers ambush?

What is the mnemonic for the
All carbonates are insoluble except those of
solubility of carbonates? potassium, sodium and ammonia.

How do you find the number of moles using

Avogadro's number and the number of particles? n= # of articles/Avogadro's constant

What is Avogadro's constant? 6.023*10^23

Fill a burette with acid/oxidizing agent of known conc. and record the initial reading.
Pipette a known volume of alkali/reducing agent into the flask.
Describe the method for acid-base Add acid-base indicator/indicator or not at all to the alkali/reducing agent in the flask.
Add the acid/oxidizing agent from the burette to the alkali/reducing agent in the conical

and redox titrations. flask until the indicator changes colour.

Record the final burette reading.
Repeat until there is a 0.1 cm cube difference and average these results.

1. Read from the lower meniscus of the burette.

State three precautions when doing a 2. Avoid parallax when taking the measurement of the acid in the
burette.
titration lab. 3. Swirl the mixture gently, while the acid is being added to the base to
ensure complete mixing of reagents.
In dichromate titrations, when this oxidizing agent
is reduced, what colour change is expected?
When manganate is reduced, what
colour change is expected?
In iodine-thiosulphate titration, what
colour change is expected
When is hydrogen peroxide an
oxidizing agent?
When is hydrogen peroxide a
reducing agent?
State the various forces of attraction
between particles.
State the relationships between forces of
attraction and states of matter.
Relate physical properties (b.p./m.p./solubility) of
matter(Solid, liquid and gases) to differences in
strength of forces of attraction.
In ionic bonding, what is the expected physical
state, melting/boiling point, electrical conductivity,
and solubility of polar and non-polar substances?
In covalent bonding, what is the expected physical
state, melting/boiling point, electrical conductivity,
and solubility of polar and non-polar substances?
orange to green(use a redox
indicator)
purple to pale pink(use a redox
indicator)
brown to colourless
When it reacts with potassium iodide.
When it reacts with acidified Potassium manganate
or potassium permanagante.
V- van der Waals' forces
I- Ionic bonds
M- Metallic bonds
C- Covalent bonds
H- Hydrogen bonds
The physical state of matter depends on the
strength of the forces of attraction in and between
the particles.
Solids have strong forces of attraction in and between particles, while gases
have weak forces of attraction in and between their particles. However, liquids
have moderate forces of attraction in the molecules and weak forces of
attraction between molecules. So solids are less soluble and have a high boiling
and melting point than gases and liquids.
Physical state- Solid
Melting/ boiling point- high
Electrical conductivity-only conducts electricity in molten state or when the
ionic compound is dissolved
Solubility in polar substances- Soluble
Solubility in non-polar substances- insoluble
Physical state- Solid, liquid or gas
Melting/ boiling point- low
Electrical conductivity- Does not conduct electricity in any state
Solubility in polar substances- insoluble
Solubility in non-polar substances- soluble

Explain the formation of ionic bonds.
Explain the formation of covalent
bonds in terms of orbital overlap.
What are the three ways in which a
sigma bond can be formed?
What is the only way in which pi
bonds can be formed?
What is bond polarity?
What is a polar covalent bond?
What is a non-polar covalent bond?
Based on electronegetavity values, how do you
know if a covalent compound is polar or non-
polar?
What is the mnemonic to remember
the electronegativity values?
Define electronegativity.
In ionic bonding, the metal loses electrons and forms a cation while the
non-metal accepts the lost electrons and form an anion. The
oppositely charged cation and anion are attracted to each other by a
strong electrostatic force of attraction called the ionic bond that holds
the ionic compound together.
In covalent bonding, atomic orbitals combine and overlap
to form a bond and molecular orbitals. Molecular orbitals
may be sigma molecular which produce sigma bonds or pi
molecular which produces pi bonds.
1. Overlapping of two s orbitals
2. Overlapping of an s and p orbital
3. End-on overlap of two p orbitals
Sideways overlap of two parallel p
orbitals.
Bond polarity is the description of the
sharing of electrons between atoms.
A polar covalent bond is when an atom has a
greater attraction for the shared electrons than the
other atom.
A non-polar covalent bond is when electrons are
shared equally between two atoms.
If the electronegativities are equal (i.e. if the electronegativity difference is 0),
the bond is non-polar covalent
If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is greater than 0,
but less than 2.0, the bond is polar covalent
If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is 2.0, or greater,
the bond is ionic
Find Fluorine 4.0
Out Oxygen 3.5
(the)
#Clues Chlorine 3.0
#Nigel Nitrogen 3.0
Buried Bromine 2.8
in Iodine 2.5
(the)
Cafe's Carbon 2.5
Halls Hydrogen 2.1
Upstairs
The ability of an atom to attract an
electron in a covalent bond.

How does electron density contribute to
electronegativity and furthermore bond polarity?
The bonding electron density is greater in the region of the more electronegative
atom. This uneven sharing of the electron density results in a slightly positive
bond at the less electronegative end and a slightly negative bond at the more
electronegativity end.(polar covalent bond)
If there is symmetrical distribution of electron density then there is a non-polar
covalent bond.

The metal atoms come together and donate their valence electrons to
Explain the formation of metallic form a sea of mobile electrons which is communally shared among the
resulting cations. There is an overall attraction between the mobile
bonding. electrons and the cations which creates a large electrostatic attraction
called the metallic bond.

When a covalent bond is formed by the donation of

What is dative covalent bonding/ co-
both electrons from one atom, a dative covalent
ordinate bonding? bond is formed.

What are the conditions for dative 1. One atom with a lone pair of electrons
covalent bonding? 2. A second atom with an unfilled orbital.

Show the dative covalent bonding of NH3 and H+,

BF3 and NH3 and AlCl3 and AlCl3. ...

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

The electron pairs around an atom repel each other
State the VSEPR theory. and arrange themselves in space so as to minimize
the repulsive forces.

Sate in order of greatest to least, the repulsion

caused by lone pairs and bond pairs. lp-lp>lp-bp>bp-bp

1. Examples- CH,NH
State examples of tetrahedral systems, the number 2. # of bond pairs-4
of bond pairs, angle and the number of lone pairs. 3. angle- b.a.s. 109.5
4. # of lone pairs- none

1. Examples- BF
State examples of trigonal planar systems, the
2. # of bond pairs-3
number of bond pairs, angle and the number of
3. angle-120 b.a.s.
lone pairs.
4. # of lone pairs- none

1. Examples- BeCl
State examples of linear systems, the number of 2. # of bond pairs-2
bond pairs, angle and the number of lone pairs. 3. angle-180 a.b.a
4. # of lone pairs-none

State examples of octahedral systems, the number
of bond pairs, angle and the number of lone pairs.
State examples of pyramidal systems, the number
of bond pairs, angle and the number of lone pairs.
State examples of non-linear/V-shaped systems,
the number of bond pairs, angle and the number of
lone pairs.
Using dots and lines, draw the shapes of
tetrahedral, trigonal planar, linear, octahedral,
pyramidal and non-linear/v-shape.
What are inter-molecular forces and state them in
order of strength from highest to lowest and state
the origin of inter-molecular forces ? Finally, are
inter-molecular forces weak or strong?
Describe the origin of van der Waals' forces/
induced dipole-induced dipole.
Describe the origin of Permanent
dipole/ Permanent dipole-permanent.
Describe the origin of hydrogen
bonding.
What is dimerization and state the
types of it?
Draw the dimerization of ethanoic
acid.
1. Examples- SF
2. # of bond pairs-6
3. angle-90
4. # of lone pairs-none
1. Examples- NH, HO+, CH
2. # of bond pairs-three
3. angle-107
4. # of lone pairs-one
1. Examples- HO
2. # of bond pairs-2
3. angle-104.5
4. # of lone pairs-two
...
These are the forces of attraction between molecules.
1. Hydrogen bonds
2. Permanent dipole-permanent
3. van der Waals'
They are formed because of the attraction between the dipoles in neighboring molecules.
They are weak forces of attraction.
1. Electrons in atoms are always in constant motion causing a variation in
electron density and an instantaneous dipole.
2. This dipole can induce the formation of a dipole in a neighboring molecule.
3. The two neighboring molecules attract each other because of their dipoles.
These forces of attraction are van der Waals' forces.
This inter-molecular force only exists between non-polar atoms/molecules.
These exist between polar molecules. The bonding electron
density is greater in the atom of the more electronegative
atom. This uneven sharing of the electron density results in
charge dispersion in the molecule which gives rise to a
permanent dipole.
It is formed by the permanent dipole-permanent dipole attraction between a
hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom (F, O
or N) and an unshared electron pair on another highly electronegative atom. The
hydrogen atom has no inner electrons to set up forces of repulsion with the non-
bonding electrons of the other atom which gives rise to strong inter-molecular
forces called hydrogen bonds.
A process where a molecule is bonding to itself.
1. Dimerization by hydrogen bonding
2. Dimerization by dative covalent bonding
...
 What is hybridization?
What are resonance structures?
Explain the shape and bond angle of
ethane.
Explain the bond angle of the ethene
molecule.
Explain the bond angle in benzene.
Explain the shape of ethene.
Explain the shape of benzene.
Draw the resonance hybrid of
benzene.
What is a resonance hybrid?
Describe the lattice structure of simple molecular
lattices and relate this arrangement to their
physical properties.
The mixing of orbitals.
These are different Lewis structures where the valence
electrons are distributed differently.
When sp3 orbitals are formed, they arrange
themselves so that they are as far apart as
possible. That is a tetrahedral arrangement, with an
angle of 109.5.
The bond angles are 120 because the sp2 orbitals
got as far apart as possible from each other -which
is in a plane at 120 to each other.
The three sp2 hybrid orbitals formed arrange
themselves as far apart as possible - which is at
120 to each other in a plane.
The molecule is planar because of the need to have
the p orbitals parallel to each other in order to
overlap sideways.
It is planar because that is the only way that the p
orbitals can overlap sideways to give the
delocalised pi system.
...
This is when the bonds between the carbon atoms
are neither double nor single bonds, they are
somewhere in between.
The separate molecules in the crystal lattice are held together by weak van der
Waals' forces of attraction. These weak inter-molecular forces of attraction
causes the entire molecule to have a low melting and boiling point. Simple
molecular substances do not have any charged particles or delocalized
electrons, thus they do not conduct electricity. Soluble in water.
 Give examples of substances with
N2, H2O, I2, P4.
simple molecular lattices.

The molecules are arranged in an open lattice structure

How does the hydrogen bond in hydrogen bonded stabilized by hydrogen bonds making the substance
lattices relate to the physical properties of significantly less dense. The large number of hydrogen
substances with hydrogen bonds? bonds create a very strong bond in the entire lattice giving
it a high melting and boiling point.

Give an example of a substance with

Ice
a hydrogen bonded lattice.

Giant molecular substances have a giant lattice of molecules

Describe the lattice structure of giant molecular linked together with strong covalent bonds throughout the
substances and give an example. lattice. Doesn't conduct electricity, high mp and bp.,
insoluble in water. (eg. SiO2)

State examples of giant atomic

Diamond and graphite
lattices

Very high - All the atoms are joined together by

Are the melting points and boiling points of giant
strong covalent bonds so it takes a lot of energy to
atomic lattices high or low? If low or high, why?
break all these bonds.

No electrical conductivity - electrons are fixed in

Do giant atomic lattices conduct
the covalent bonds, so cannot move to carry
electricity? If not or so, why? current.

Redox reactions are reactions where oxidation and

Explain redox reactions in terms of reduction are taking place simultaneously. Oxidation is loss
of electrons while reduction is gain of electrons. Oxidation
electron transfer and oxidation state. is increase in oxidation state, while reduction is a decrease
in oxidation state.

What is the oxidation number of each

0 eg. Mg and H
atom in an element?

What is the oxidation of an ion It is the charge of the ion. eg. Mg

arising from a single atom? 2+=2+
 What is the oxidation number of
It is always -1.
fluorine in compounds?

What is the oxidation number of

It is -1.
oxygen in peroxide?

What is the oxidation number of a

-1, eg. NaH
hydrogen atom in a metal hybride?

What is the sum of all the oxidation numbers of

atoms or ions in a compound equal to? 0

What is the sum of the oxidation It is equal to the charge of the ion.
numbers in a compound ion equal to? eg. In NO +5+2(-3)=-3

In a compound, which atom or ion is

The most eletro-negative one
given the negative oxidation number?

POOR- POTASSIUM(K)
SOULS-SODIUM(NA)

What is the mmenomic to remember the reactivity CAN-CALCIUM(CA)

MAKE-

series and thus the strength of reducing and A-ALUMINIUM(AL)

CARD-CARBON(C)

oxidizing agents? ZILLION-ZINC(ZN)

IF-IRON(FE)
THEY-TIN(SN)
LEARN-LEAD(PB)
HOW -HYDROGEN(H)
CHEMISTS-COPPER(CU)
MAKE-MAGNESIUM(MG)

Ideal gases are gases which obey

SOLID-SILVER(AG)
GOLD -GOLD(AU)

What are ideal gases? PENNIES-PLATINUM(PT)

Boyle's and Charle's law.

RUP-Reduction agent and reactivity up)

V- The gas molecules themselves occupy negligible volume when compared to the volume occupied by the
gas.

State the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory F- The molecules exert no force on one another.
R- The gas molecules are in a constant random motion.
E- The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
with reference to an ideal gas. C-Collisions are perfectly elastic

VFREC

Hit lop
What are the conditions necessary for High temperature and low pressure
a gas to approach ideal behaviour? Santa Claus - Hit a Lop (Original 45 Belgian Fuzz
Psych Beat)-Youtube

Why is high temperature necessary
for a gas to approach ideal behaviour?
Why is low pressure necessary for a
gas to approach ideal behaviour?
When is there a limitation of ideality?
Why do real gases deviate from
ideality at very high pressure?
Why do real gases deviate from
ideality at low temperature?
Draw the deviations of hydrogen, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide from Boyle's law, using a graph.
State Boyle's law and what is the
formula?
State Charle's law and what is the
formula?
Draw graphs to show Boyle's and
Charle's law.
What is the ideal gas equation?
Increasing the temperature of a gas increase the average kinetic energy
of the gas molecules and cause them to speed up in their motion to
one another. The increase in speed overcomes the inter-molecular
forces of attraction between the molecules and the gas behaves more
like an ideal gas.
Decreasing the pressure allows the gas molecules to spread
far apart from one another. As the molecules move further
apart, the inter-molecular forces of attraction approach zero
and the gas behaves as an ideal gas.
At very high pressure and low
temperature. LOTS OF HIPS.
The molecules are pushed so close together that they repel
each other. The repulsive force between the molecules
increase the momentum of the molecules as they bombard
the walls of the container so that the pressure exerted by
the gas is greater than that for an ideal gas.
At low temperatures, the kinetic energy of the molecules decrease. This
results in the collisions becoming less elastic and no longer being able
to overcome the inter-molecular forces of attraction between the
molecules. Also, the attractive forces of the molecules bring them close
enough so that the volume of the gas becomes smaller.
...
For a fixed mass of gas, the pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume if the temperature is
constant.
PV=PV
For a fixed mass of gas volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature if the
pressure is constant.
V/T=V/T
...
PV=nRT
 In PV=nRT, what is R? The gas constant (8.31 JKmol)

M=mRT/PV
How do you find R.M.M.?
M=density x RT/P

One centimeter cube equal how many 1 centimeter cube= 1 x 10-6 meter
meter cubes? cube

One thousand centimeter cube equal

1000 cm3=1 dm3
how many decimeter cubes?

One litre is equal to how many

1L=1dm3
decimeter cubes?

One meter cube is equal to how many

1m3=1000dm3
dm3?

no no

Melting starts when the energy the solid takes in is

used to overcome the forces holding the particles
Explain melting. together. The melting point is when the
temperature remains constant.

When a liquid is heated:

The forces of attraction between the particles
Explain vaporization. weaken until they escape from the liquid and
become a vapour.

Chemical reactions take place through energy

What does a chemical reaction take place through changes principally in the form of heat energy and
and what is it associated with? is associated with the braking and making of
bonds.
 Is bond making and bond breaking Bond making-exo
exo or endo? Bond breaking-endo

What is the sign for the enthalpy Exo-negative

change for exo and endo? Endo-positive

The enthalpy of reactants is greater than the

Based on enthalpy, when is a reaction
enthalpy of the products, so change in enthalpy is
exothermic? negative.

Draw the energy profile diagrams for

...
endo and exo reactions.

Whenever the energy released in product formation

is greater than the energy absorbed in bond
When is a reaction exothermic? formation and there is an increase in the temp of
the surroundings.

Whenever the energy absorbed in bond formation is

greater than the energy released in product formation
When is a rxn endothermic? and there is a decrease in the temperature of the
surroundings, the reaction is said to be endothermic.

This is when the enthalpy of the products is greater

Based on enthalpy, when is a reaction
than the enthalpy of the reactants and the change
endothermic? in enthalpy is positive.

Explain the term bond energy/ bond dissociation It is the energy required to break one mole of a
energy/molar bond energy/molar bond enthalpy. bond in one mole of gaseous molecules.

1. Bond length
What are the factors affecting bond 2. Number of bonds(single, triple, double)
energy? 3. Types of bonds
4. Bond polarity

It is the distance between the nuclei of two atoms

What is bond length? that are bonded to each other.
 The shorter the bond length , the stronger the
How does bond length affect the strength bond and the larger the bond energy.
and reactivity of covalent bonds? eg. the bond energy of H-H is +436 kJmol, while
that of F-F is +158 kJmol.

How does the number of bonds affect the strength Double bonds and triple bonds have a higher bond energy
than single bonds.The inertness of nitrogen results from
and reactivity of covalent bonds? Explain why the shortness and strength of the triple covalent bond.
nitrogen is inert. Thus a lot of energy is required to break the bonds.

How does the type of bond affect the strength and Sigma bonds are stronger than pi bonds therefore
reactivity of covalent bonds? the bond energy is higher for a sigma bond.

The higher the polarity, the stronger the bond and

How does bond polarity affect the strength the larger the bond energy.
and reactivity of covalent bonds eg. bond energy of HF IS +586 kJmol, while the
bond energy of H-Cl is +432 kJmol.

How do you calculate enthalpy delta H= Total bond breaking-Total

change using bond energies? bond making

The enthalpy change when one mole of a

What is enthalpy change of
compound is formed from it's standard elements
formation? under standard conditions. FLAN

The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance

What is enthalpy change of
is completely burnt in oxygen under standard
combustion? conditions.

The enthalpy change when amounts of reactants

What is enthalpy change of reaction? react together to give products under standard
conditions.

The enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous

What is enthalpy change of hydration? ions is completely hydrated in water to infinite
dilution under standard conditions.

The enthalpy change when one mole of a solute

What is enthalpy change of solution? dissolves in a solvent to form an infinitely dilute
solution under standard conditions.
 The enthalpy change when one mole of water is
What is enthalpy change of
formed when an acid reacts with a base under
neutralization? standard conditions.

The enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous

What is enthalpy change of
atoms is formed from an element in it's standard
atomization? state under standard conditions.

The enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous

What is enthalpy change of ionization
atoms is converted to gaseous ions with a single
energy? positive charge.

The enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous

What is enthalpy change of electron
atoms is converted to gaseous ions with a single
affinity? negative charge.

The enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic

What is enthalpy change of lattice
solid is formed from it's gaseous ions under
energy? standard conditions.

When an ionic solid dissolves in water, two processes

What is the relationship between occur. Firstly, the ions in the solid become separated from
each other, that is the reverse of lattice energy. Secondly,
lattice energy and hydration. the separated ions become surrounded by water molecules.
This process is called hydration.

Second electron affinity

Which of the enthalpies are always Ionization

Atomization
Seia-Chandelier
positive? Seia sang Titanium and wrote diamonds and she's helping Maddie career wise so
she is positive.

Which of the enthalpies are always First electron affinity is generally negative, while
negative or generally negative? lattice energy is always negative. FEAL

no mo

It is a measure of the strength of the

What is lattice energy?
inter-ionic attraction.
 Ions with a high charge are attracted more strongly
Explain the effect of ionic charge on the
to ions of the opposite charge than large ions.The
magnitude of the lattice energy? higher the charge, the higher the lattice energy.

Explain the effect of radius on the Small ions (small radius) are attracted more strongly to ions of the opposite charge than large ions (large
radius. This is because the charge density is higher on smaller ions (small radius) than larger ions (large

magnitude of the lattice energy? radius. Thus as the radius of an ion increases, the lattice energy decreases.

It states that the total enthalpy change for a

State Hess' law of constant heat chemical reaction is independent of the route by
summation. which the reaction proceeds under standard
conditions.

Calculate enthalpy changes and

...
construct Born-Haber cycles.

The reactants and products in a

Define system.
chemical reaction.

Don't study until you get it right.

END OF MODULE 1 :)
Study until you can't get it wrong.