Review of Everything in Physiology

Lecture Slide: Neurophysiology 5 : Neural Integration

What:
1. Electrical Synapses
2. Chemical Synapses
3. Neural Integration
4. Presynaptic Modulation
5. Neurotransmitters: Structure, Synthesis and Degradation
For 1/2/3:
Divergence is when one neuron communicates with several others
Convergence is when one neuron receives signals from many others
The axon hillock summates all graded potentials to determine if an action potential
will fire
Graded potentials spread by electrotonic conduction
Graded potentials are decremental. Their magnitude decays as it spreads
Inhibitory post synaptic potentials and excitatory post synaptic potentials are
graded potentials, and they can be summed.
Types of summation, are temporal (one synapse repeated over and over again in
time so that they start to coincide with each other), or Spatial (several synapses at
the same time)
Thus the frequency of action potentials in the presynaptic neuron affects whether or
not the post synaptic neuron has an action potential
For 4:
There is also something called presynaptic modulation, it is an axoaxonic synapse. It
can either facilitate or inhibit a synapse.
In presynaptic facilitation firing of the modulating neuron increases the
neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron
In presynaptic inhibition firing of the modulating neuron decreases the
neutrotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron
Thus axoaxonic can only excite or inhibt one synapse.
The normal axodendritic or axosomatic affects the entire postsynaptic neuron, it is
nonselective.
For 5:
There are a lot of neurotransmitters:
- Acetylcholine
 o Found in both the peripheral nervous system and the CNS
o Most abundant in peripheral nervous system
o Acetylcholine is synthesized in the cytosol of axon terminal
Enzyme for synthesis is choline acetyl transferase
o Acetylcholine is quickly broken down in synaptic cleft
By acetylcholinesterase

o
o Two types of recetprs for acetylcholine
Nicotinic
Ionotropic
Ion-channel linked
Muscarinic
Metabotropic
G-protein linked
Effect is determined by receptors not ligand
- Biogenic amines
o Derived from amino acids
o Catecholamines
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Serotonin
CNS neurotransmitter
o Main location: Brainstem
Regulates sleep and emotions
Histamine
CNS in hypothalamus
Paracrine actions
- Amino acid neurotransmitters
o At excitatory snyapses
Aspartate
Glutatamte
o At inhibitory
Gylcine
GABA
- Neuropeptides
 o Endogenous opiods (not morphine morphine is not a peptide it just has
a similar effect to these)
Enkephalins
Endorphins
Morphine binds to mu-receptors mimicking natural opioids)
o Thyroid releasing hormone
o Vasopressin
o Oxytocin (milk contraction)
o Substance P
- Other
o Purines
ATP
o Nitric oxide
Gas

Lecture Slide: Neurophysiology 6 : General Anatomy of CNS

Chapter Outline:
1. General anatomy of CNS
2. The Spinal Cord
For 1.
- CNS consists of Brain and the spinal cord
- It is necessary for maintenance of homeostasis
- Cerebrospinal fluid samples are taken from Lumbar spine
- General anatomy for this course consists of
o Glial cells
90% of CNS is composed of Glial cells
5 types of glial cells
Astrocytes
o Numerous functions
Remove neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft
Maintain electrolyte composition of
interstitial fluid in CNS
Protecct neurons against toxic substances
and oxidative stress
Help in development of neural connections
(synapses)
Ependymal cells
o Line cavities
Microglia
o Phagocytes
Bacteria/dead or injured cells
o Protect CNS from oxidative stres
Oligodendrocytes
o Form myelin
 Schwann cells
o Form myelin (in PNS)
o Physical support of the CNS
Bone
Cranium
Vertebrae
Meninges
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
Cerebrospinal fluid
o Flows in the subarachnoid mater (not under the pia
mater)
o Also four cavities in the brain
o Called the ventricles which are continuous with
each each other (and the central canal a long thin
cylindrical cavity that runs the length of the spinal
cord)
o Lining of ventricles is composed of ependymal cells
o Lining of the ventricles form the Cerebrospinal fluid
o Reabsorbed by arachnoid villi into venuous blood
supply
o Acts as shock absorber (provides nutrients to
neuron and maintains ionic composition around
neurons)
o Buoyancy
o Recycled thrice daily
Meningitis
o Causes swelling of brain and enlargement of
ventricles
o High fever, stiff neck, drowsiness
o Blood supply to CNS
CNS receives 15% of blood supply despite being 2% of body
weight
High metabolic rate
Brain uses 20% of oxygen at rest
50% of glucose at rest
o Blood-brain barrier
Tight junctions (No pores for bulk flow)
Astrocytes stimulate this
Small molecules can go through
Big molecules are stopped
o Grey matter and white matter
Grey matter = ccell bodies and dendrites and axon terminals
White matter= axons
- Spinal cord
o Cylinder of nerve tissue
 o Continuous with brain
o Surrounded by vertebral column
o Origin of spinal nerves
o Dermatome lets you see what spinal nerve is wrong
o Dorsal horn and ventral horn
Ventral horn=exit of efferent nerves
Dorsal horn = enter of afferent nerves
Lateral horn is the efferent neurons of the autonomic nervous
system
o Ascending tracts cross over in the spinal cord
Contralateral
o Descending tracts cross over in the medullar pyramids (medulla
oblongata in brain stem)
Both are contralateral
o Referred pain is when brain refers pain from the organs to the skin
because both have same second order neuron and it assumes it is
less likely cfro the organ to be messed up.
Lecture Slide: Neurophysiology 7: General Anatomy of CNS
Chapter Outline:
1. The brain
2. Integrated CNS function: sleep
3. Integrated CNs function: sleep
4. Integrated CNS function emotions and motions
5. Integrated CNS function learning and memory

- Subdivision of the brain:

o Forebrain
Cerebrum
Cerebral cortex
o Outermost portion of cerebrum
o Consists of grooves called sulci (pits) and ridges
called gyri
o Although it is thin it is arranged in six distinct layers
(one on top of each other)
o Each half of cerebral cortex is divided into four
regions known as lobes
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
Each lobe can be subdivided into areas
specialized for different lobes
Premotor cortex
o Frontal lobe
Primary motor cortex
 o Frontal lobe
Primary somatosensory cortex
o Parietal lobe
o proprioception
Central sulcus
Prefrontal association area
Brocas area
Olfactory cortex
Sensory areas (integration of sensory
information
Visual association area
Primary visual cortex
Wernickes area
Auditory association areas
Primary auditory cortex
Limbic associations cortex
Basal nuclei
Diencephalon
Thalamus
o Integrates sensory and motor info
o Part of a sensory relay point (i.e. primary or second
order neurons attach to form third order etc.)
Filtered and refined
Hypothalamus
o Food intake
Satiety and hunger
o Thermoregulation
o Circadian rhythm
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (Responds to light
to to vary clock protein concentration on a
daily basis)
Pineal gland (Releases melatonin)
o Cerebellum
Bilaterally symmetrical
50% of neurons
Cortex (is continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded
Has deeper nuclei
Involved in motor coordination and balance (doesnt initiate
movement and only smoothens it out (Responsible for
feedback))
o Brainstem
Midbrain (most up (closer to cerebrum)
Connects to forebrain
Pons (in the middle)
Connects to cerebellum
Medulla oblongata (most down (closer to neck))
 Connects to spinal cord
Processing centers for 10 of the 12 cranial nerves (peripheral
nerves that emanate from the brain rather the spinal cord)
(involved mostly in special senses
- More on cerebral cortex
o Some areas of the cerebral cortex are topographically organized
Areas can be mapped according to their function
Motor humunculous
Hand requires more fine movement
o Takes up more brain real estate
Sensory homunculus
Thumbs finges, face are more sensitive so they take up
more of the primkarysomatosensory cortex
o Cortex has association areas
More complex processing
They require input primary cortical areas which they integrate
o Brain lateralization
Sensory pathways cros
Right hemispheres perceives left input and vice versa
same with motor control (it is all flipped)
o Right brain specialization
Creativity
Spatial perception
o Left brain specialization
Logic
Analytical abilities
Language
- Limbic system
o Involved in basic drives
o Olfactory (smell provides important input to the limbic system
o Amgydala
Aggression and fear
o Hippocampus
Learning and memory
o Fornix
o Cingulate gyrus
o Parts of thalamus and hypothalamus
o Parahippocampal gyri

Integrated CNS function:sleep

- Circadian rhyhms
o Coordinates body activity over a 24 hrs period
o Trained to exact day night cycle by retinal input
o Reticular formation of the brainstem
Critical in maintaining wakefulness
Use acetyl choline a lot which nicotine mimmicks
 o Photoreceptors that link light-dark cycles use a photopigment called
melanopsin
Ganglion cells project to suprachiasmatic nucleus which
synapses with pineal body
- Sleep wake cycle
o SCN is the master clock
o Located on top of the optic chiasm in hypothalamus
o Paired structure structure on either side of the third ventricle
o SCn is the master clock
o 24 hour oscillator governs homrones levels
o Pineal body
Activated by SCN ins the dark
Secretes melatonin
Involved in sleep induction
Blocked by small amounts of light
o Alternating periods of wakefulness and sleep
Varies by individuals and age
o Involves certain areas of the brain
Ascending reticular activating system
Awakens cortex
Part of reticular formation in brain stme
Projections to thalamus hypothalamus and forebrain
Forebrain
Induces slow wave sleep
- Stages of sleep
o To kinds of sleep
Slow wave sleep
Light sleep (stages 1&2)
Deep sleep (Stages 3&4, slow wave)
Rapid eye movement
REM sleep important for learning and memory
Same brain rhythms as waking state
o Neutrotransmitters
Awake state
Acetylchlonie
o Ascending reticular activating system
Mimicked by nicotine
Norepinephrine and dopamine
o Aras
o Mimicked by amphetamines and cocaine
Sleep state
Adenosine
o Slow wave sleep is induced by the forebrain
Blocked by caffeine
Acetylcholine
o REM sleep
 o Associated with activity in pons (middle of
brainstem)
Integrated CNS function: Emotions/ Motivation-
- Many diverse araeas
o Cerebral cortex
Left hemisphere
Positive emotions
Right hemisphere
Negative emotions
o Libic system
Amygdala
Critical in fear and anxiety
Hypothalamus
Anger and aggression
o Rest of limbic system
o Midbrain
- Motivation = drive
o Can by physiological e.g. hunger motivates us to hunt
o Can be driven by emotion e.g. some people eat icecream when they
feel sade
Pleasure a highly motivating emotion
Active dopamine related systems in the basal ganglia
which project to the limbic system
o Motivation for pleasure is so strong some people
become addicted to them
Integrated CNS function learning /memor
- Learning
o Hippocampus is important
o Two types of learning
Associative learning
Requires making connections between two stimuli e.g. ice
cream and ice cream truck are associated (or hot stove
and pain)
Non-associative learning
Repetition of a single stimulus
o Habituation is a decrease in response to a repeated
stimulus
E.g. you adapt to background noise
o Sensitization
E.g. when hunting crackles of tree branches
- Memory: consolidate learning into memory so you can recall it
o Procedural memory is the memory of learned motor skills and
behaviours
E.g. playing a musical instrument or learning a sport
o Decalaraitve memory
 Memory of learned experiences such as facts and events
o Short-term memory
Tempeorary storage for a few seconds or minutes
Limited space in short term memory lost unless
consolidated into long-term memory
o Long-term memory
Last years or a lifetime
Repetition and impact matter
- Plasticity in the nervous system
o Ability to alter anatomy
Alter function of existing synapses
Create new synaspes
Recent studies show that our brains can make new neurons in
areas involved in memory
o Long term potentiation
Repetive stimulation of a certain synapse increases strength of
psp of that synaspse
Presynaptic cell releases glutamate.
Post synaptic cell has two types of glutamate receptors
ampa and mda receptors
Nmda and ampa are glutamate agonists that bind to
glutamate eceptors when glutamate binds to NMDA
receptors calcium channels open when glutamate binds
ampa receptors sodium channels opens
When glutamate is secreted some ampa receptor-
dependent sodium channels open and sodium diffuses
into the cell causing a depolarization
Some nmda receptor calclium channels also open but
calcium cannot move through because these channels are
blocked by magnesium ions when there is greater
frequency of activation of synapse strong depolarization
of the postsynaptic cell dendrite or body pushes out the
magnesium allowing calcium to enter triggering activation
of secondary messenger system these protein kinases
make ampa receptors (sodium linked) more sensitive, and
the postsynaptic cell produces a paracrine that causes the
presynaptic cell to release more glutatmete.. resulting in
longer and more prolonged epsps
Lecture Slide: Neurophysiology 8: Sensory Physiology
Chapter Outline:
1. General principles of sensory physiology
2. The somatosensory system
 - receptor physiology
o detect specific forms of energy in the external environment
o either specialized nerve endings or separate cells
sepearte cells secrete neurotransmitter because ions come into
the cell
o e.g. light, sound pressure, temperature,chemicals
o receptor potential is achange in membrane potential in resposnes to a
stimulus
graded potential
stimulus casues opening and closing of ion channels
If grater than threshold can generate action potentials
Adapation : decrease in amplitude of receptor potential overtime
in the presence of a constant stimulus
Corresponding decrease in frequency of action potentials
Decreases perception of stimulus
Different from habituation which is your perception of the
stimulus
There are fast adapting and slow adapting
- sensory pathways
o Specific neural pathways that transmit information about a particular
modality are referred to as labeled line
Each sensory modality follows its own labeled line
Sensory unit comprises an afferent neuron and all its receptors
Pathways for different modalities terminate in different sensory
areas of the cerebral cortex
- sensory coding
o sensory coding
o based on stimulus type and its intensity
Coding for stimulus type
Coded by the receptor and pathway activated when
stimulus is applied e.g. activation of photoreceptors goes
through a specific pathway to the visual cortex
Often brain has to integrate information from different
sensory systems
Coding for stimulus intensity
Coded by the frequency of action potentials and the
number of receptors activated (Recruitment
o Multiple receptors activated for one neuron result in
a greater frequency of action potentials in that
sensory neuron
o Are it can activate different afferent neurons as
well.
Somatosensory system (Body sensations)
- Somatosensory receptors
o Mechanoreceptors
Some are close to the suter layer of the skins
 Others are deep or around hair follicles
o Thermoreceptors
Two types
Warm receptors (30 to 45c)
Cold receptors (35 to 20 c and greater than 45 c)
o Nociceptors (tissue-damaging stimuli)
Classes
Mechanical
o Stubbing toe
Thermal
o Intense heat
Polymodal
o Cemicals that are released from dmaged tissue can
activate these
Histamine bradykinin and prostaglandins
- Somatosensory cortex
o Perception of somatic senations
o Columnar organization
E.g. for thumb one column with vibration, one with cold and so
on
- Somatosensory pathways
o Dorsal colmn-medial lemniscal pathway
To the thalamus (it is contralateral in the medulla onblongata)
o Spinothalamic tract
Crosses over in the spinal cord (contralateral)
To the thalamus as well
- Pain perception
o The pain response
Perception of pain
Depends on circumstances and past experiences e.g.
toothache becomes unbearable at night
Autonomic responses
E.g. increases in blood pressure and heart rate
Emotional responses
Fear and anxiety
Reflexive withdrawal
o Visceral pain
Originating in internal organs
Sometimes referred to body surface
o Two types of pain
Fast pain
Sharp pricking senation that can be easily localized
o Conducted by AA-delta fibres that have fast
conduction velocities
Slow pian is a poorly localized dull aching pain
Transmitted by much slower c fibres
o Modulation of pain