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12 August 2008
12 August 2008
and
Olaru, M. and Davies, A. and Sturgess, J. and Sitzia, A. (2008)
Embedded finite-element solver for computation of brushless permanent-
magnet motors. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
44(4):pp. 1124-1133.
http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/4546/
The i loop has a remarkably regular shape, such that the area
W can be estimated as twice the area of parallelogram ABCD
[2], and
W = 2ipk (C B ). (2)
2
mp i
T = d (3)
2
0
sense in engineering terms because it somehow separates the can use the phasor diagram to write the following equations for
effect of Ld and id from the effect of iq . It also avoids the the instantaneous currents, with = t:
need to account for cross-saturation by introducing an artificial
mutual inductance Ldq with an additional term in (4a) and ia = ipk cos(/2 + + ) = ipk sin( + )
(4b). This term would itself be saturable. There is, in fact, an ib = ipk sin( + 2/3)
infinite number of possible values of M d1 and Ld that will
satisfy (4a). The reason is that the superposition implied by the ib = ipk sin( + + 2/3). (6)
addition in this equation is not valid under saturated conditions.
If M d1 is evaluated with id = 0 and iq = 0, there is a Note that ipk is the abscissa at point M. If these equations are
possibility for the numerator (d M d1 ) to become nonzero substituted in the forward dq transformation, we get
when iq is restored to the normal load-point value, even when Id = ipk sin Iq = +ipk cos (7)
id = 0. Equation (5a) would then produce an indefinite result
for Ld if it was used at (or near) such a load point where id = 0 in which Id and Iq are constant. The corresponding equations
and where iq was nonzero, which is quite a normal condition. for the instantaneous flux linkages are
This problem is avoided if, as suggested, M d1 is calculated
with id = 0 and the load-point value of iq . a = pk cos(/2 + + ) = pk sin( + )
b = pk sin( + 2/3)
D. Properties of the Elliptical Energy-Conversion b = pk sin( + + 2/3). (8)
Loop (i Diagram)
Note that pk is the ordinate at point N. Again, from the dq
Two elliptical i loops are shown in Fig. 3 for two operat- transformation, we get
ing conditions: one at high current and one at low current. The
general form of the phasor diagram is also shown, together with d = pk sin( ) = pk cos
the space phasor diagram of flux linkages, in which M d1 is
the notional open-circuit flux linkage due to the magnet. Ld Id q = +pk cos( ) = pk sin . (9)
and Lq Iq are the flux linkages of armature reaction in the d- and Like Id and Iq , these are constant values; they do not appear
q-axes, respectively. The rotating fluxes associated with these in Fig. 3.
flux linkages generate the respective induced voltages in the
When
ia = 0, we have ib = ( 3/2)ipk and ic =
phasor diagram; thus, M d1 generates jq1 , Ld Id generates +( 3/2)ipk , and this represents a negative-going zero of ia
jLd Id , Lq Iq generates jLq Iq , and the resultant generates at the instant Q defined by + 2 = 0, or t = . The value
the air-gap voltage V. Resistance is omitted. of a at this point (Q) is given by
For the high-current loop, the current reaches its maximum
positive value at M and passes through a negative-going zero a = pk sin = Q . (10)
at Q. The flux linkage a reaches its maximum value at N.
Because the loop is traversed counterclockwise, M precedes N. Thus, when ia = 0, the flux linkage a in phase a at point
This is consistent with the fact that I leads . Q is not simply the open-circuit value but depends on the
The phasor diagram tells us that the angle of rotation between inductances Ld and Lq and the phase angle . In fact, the true
M and N is , which is the phase angle in electrical degrees open-circuit flux linkage is not observable in Fig. 3, unless the
between the current phasor I and the flux-linkage phasor . If i loop is drawn for zero current. When this is done, the loop
we take the open-circuit flux linkage M d1 as reference, we degenerates into a vertical straight line, and the maximum value
1128 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 44, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2008
of a is equal to the peak open-circuit flux linkage 2M d1 . TABLE II
FINITE-ELEMENT SOLUTIONS REQUIRED FOR SINEWAVE DRIVE
The low-current loop in Fig. 3 shows this point very nearly at
Z. There is no simple relationship between Z and Q. However,
note that the values at Q and N are in the ratio sin .
When = 0, the current is in the q-axis, and Q is then
equal to the peak value of magnet flux linkage in phase a
because = /2 and cos = sin M d1 . If the mag-
netic circuit is linear, this is equal to the open-circuit value
of the magnet flux linkage in phase a because, although ib TABLE III
and ic are not zero at point Q, they produce a transverse flux FINITE-ELEMENT SOLUTIONS REQUIRED WHEN
THE i L OOP I S I RREGULAR
which does not link phase a. In that case, points Q and Z are
coincident. However, if Iq is sufficient to cause appreciable
saturation of the magnetic circuit, then sin and Q can both
be affected. In that case, point Q deviates from point Z.
However, from Fig. 3, = /2 , so
Another point of interest on the ellipse diagram is M, where
ia = ipk . At this point, sin ( + ) = 1, so = + /2, and pk ipk pk ipk
if this is substituted in (8), we get T = mp cos = mp sin . (17)
2 2 2
a = pk cos = M . (11) If pk sin is now substituted from (10), we get
Fig. 4. Cross section with flux lines under load for the tested IPM motor.
TABLE IV
TORQUE VALUES FOR SQUAREWAVE DRIVE
Fig. 10. Experimental i loops for sinewave drive ( varies and constant
peak current).
Fig. 11. Calculated i loops for sinewave drive ( varies and constant peak
current).
TABLE V
TORQUE VALUES FOR SINEWAVE-DRIVE , CONSTANT = 0
VARIABLE CURRENT
Fig. 9. Calculated i loops for sinewave drive (peak current varies and
= 0).
B. Sinewave Drive
Test and computed data are shown for the sinewave drive in
Figs. 811. All the results for this configuration are obtained
at 400 r/min. Tables V and VI show the comparison between
measured and calculated torque values for different methods. netic torque in accordance with (18) (see Figs. 10 and 11). The
As the analyzed motor saturates at a low current level, the location of the points M and Q on the i loops is further used
intersection point Q of each i loop with the flux-linkage to estimate Ld and Lq using (5).
axis does not change its position when the control angle is Fig. 12 shows the computed results for Ld and Lq as com-
kept constant (see Figs. 8 and 9). pared to the static measurement obtained with Jones bridge [6],
When varies, and the current is constant, point Q changes [8]. Fig. 13 shows the estimated back EMF under load from the
its position and reflects the variation of the average electromag- flux linkage Q as a function of Iq .
MILLER et al.: EMBEDDED FINITE-ELEMENT SOLVER FOR COMPUTATION OF BRUSHLESS PM MOTORS 1131
TABLE VII
TORQUE VALUES FOR SIX-STEP DRIVE
IV. C ONCLUSION
The fluxMMF diagram or i loop is used to interpret
several key features of the performance of brushless PM ma-
Fig. 14. Experimental and calculated current waveforms for six-step drive. chines operating with both squarewave and sinewave drives. It
is shown that important economies can be made in the applica-
tion of the finite-element method to the accurate calculation of
the average electromagnetic torque. This paper develops an im-
C. Six-Step Drive
proved understanding of the extent to which classical analysis
The case of the six-step drive provides a good example of an and phasors can be used legitimately in extreme operating con-
irregular current waveform. Tests are performed at a speed of ditions such as six-stepping. In view of the deductions which
540 r/min and 80-V dc-link voltage. Figs. 1416 show the ex- can be made from the i loop, it is surprising that it is not
perimental and computed waveforms. Table VII gives the more widely used. By means of simple geometric deductions,
torque values for different methods, including the usage of the it bypasses (or at least illustrates) the complex mathematics
current fundamental harmonic (amplitude and phase angle). of the dq transformation. It also provides a means of testing
Because this motor has approximately sine-distributed wind- the rigor of various common assumptions about the motorfor
ings, the torque calculated by (14) agrees closely with the test example, whether the synchronous inductances vary with rotor
value, provided that saturated values are used for Ld , Lq , and position or whether the phasor diagram can be used when the
M d1 . current waveform is not sinusoidal. The graphical presentation
1132 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 44, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2008
of the i loop complements and illustrates a number of the Mircea Popescu (S98M98SM04) was born in
recent works on saturated brushless machines (particularly the Bucharest, Romania. He received the M.Eng. and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
IPM motor) by several different authors and for several different University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest,
applications. Romania, in 1984 and 1999, respectively, and the
D.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Helsinki
University of Technology, Espoo, Finland, in 2004.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT He has over 20 years of experience in industrial
research and development as a Project Manager
The authors would like to thank P. Scavenius, N. C. with the Research Institute for Electrical Machines
Weihrauch, and P. E. Hansen of Danfoss Compressors, (ICPE-ME), Bucharest, and as a Research Scientist
with the Electromechanics Laboratory, Helsinki University of Technology.
Flensburg, Germany, who supplied the special test motor used Since 2000, he has been with the SPEED Laboratory, Department of Elec-
in this paper. The authors would also like to thank the support tronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, U.K., as a
of the member companies of the SPEED Consortium and the Research Associate Fellow. His main research interests include modeling and
optimization of ac machines and drives.
assistance of P. Miller and I. Young of the SPEED Laboratory.
Jonathan Sturgess was born in Knutsford, U.K., Alessandra Sitzia (M91) was born in Cagliari,
in 1959. He received the M.S. degree in engineer- Sardinia, in 1961. She received the B.S. degree in
ing science, economics, and management from the electrical and electronic engineering in 1982 and the
University of Oxford, Oxford, U.K., in 1981, and Ph.D. degree in 1985 from the University of Leeds,
the Ph.D. degree from Imperial College, London, Leeds, U.K., with a dissertation entitled Torque in
U.K., in 1987, with a dissertation entitled Finite Elementary Variable Reluctance Machines.
Element Electromagnetic Analysis of Generator She spent eight years at the University of
Transient Performance. Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
He was with British Rail Engineering Ltd. (BREL) (currently the University of Manchester),
before he pursued his Ph.D. studies. Since complet- Manchester, U.K., as a Postdoctoral Researcher
ing the Ph.D. degree, he has been with the AREVA and then a Lecturer, specializing in electromagnetic
T&D Technology Centre, Stafford, U.K. His principal occupation is the mod- analysis of electrical machines. Since 1993, she has been with the AREVA
eling of electromagnetic fields in power engineering apparatus and developing T&D Technology Centre, Stafford, U.K. She is particularly involved in the
the tools and techniques contained in the SLIM Electromagnetic Engineering electromagnetic analysis of power transformers and in developing the SLIM
package. His particular interest includes time-varying field simulation using the Electromagnetic Engineering software.
finite-element method. Dr. Sitzia is a member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology.
Dr. Sturgess is a Chartered Engineer in the U.K. and a member of the
Institution of Engineering and Technology.